OCSD - BIOLOGY I EOC REVIEW - OKALOOSA SCHOOLS...4 HOMEOSTASIS - ability of a cell or an organism to maintain stable internal conditions no matter the changes in its environment; the

OCSD - BIOLOGY I EOC REVIEW NOTE: Biology is a very broad subject. To provide you with the most information related to Biology, it would require hundreds of pages. This study guide provides you with some specific, summarized information that you will need to know for the Biology EOC exam and it will help to facilitate your study efforts. It also includes embedded links for extra practice or reinforcement of certain standards.

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_scientific_method.shtml

1. Scientific Investigations

2. Hypotheses, Variables, Controls, Measurement / Tools, Data, Charts / Graphs, Communication of Findings

3. Inquiry Activities, Research, Laboratory Reports, Sources of Error,

4. Safety Procedures, Laboratory / Field Studies, Potential Hazards, Manipulate Materials / Equipment

5. Analyze Reports, Adequacy of Experimental Controls, Replication, Interpretations

HYPOTHESIS: tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation VARIABLE: changeable factor INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: a manipulated variable in an experiment or study whose presence or degree determines the change in the dependent variable DEPENDENT VARIABLE: the observed variable in an experiment or study whose changes are determined by the presence or degree of one or more independent variables CONTROL: a standard against which other conditions can be compared in a scientific experiment; remains

unchanged throughout the experiment.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN EXPERIMENTS: - Instrumental error (lack of calibration) - Personal error (inaccurate observations) - Sampling error (sample size too small or not random) - Replication error (lack of consistency and accuracy) - Experimental design

- Measurement error (lack of accuracy and precision)

BASIC STEPS FOR AN EXPERIMENT: 1. plan the research including determining information sources, research subject selection, and ethical considerations for the proposed research and method 2. design the experiment concentrating on the system model and the interaction of independent and dependent variables 3. summarize a collection of observations to feature their common details 4. reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe 5. document and report the results of the study

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS: Qualitative – described by words or terms rather than numbers and including subjective descriptions in terms of variables such as color, shape, and smell; often recorded using terms, photographs, or drawings Quantitative – numerical values derived from counts or measurements of a variable; frequently require some kind of

instrument use in recording

IMPORTANCE OF REPLICATING EXPERIMENTS: - limited resources may affect results; need to determine a compromise between resources and methods -reliability of results - consistency of methods and procedures and equipment - analysis of data and interpretation of data to form

conclusions

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Theory - well tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations and hypotheses, and enables scientists to make accurate predictions about new situations Law – based on repeated experimental observations that describe some aspects of the universe Observation – act of noticing and describing events or processes in a careful, orderly way Inference – a conclusion or opinion that is formed because of known facts or evidence

Structure and function of organic molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids) Structure and function of cells, cellular organelles, cell specialization Cells as a living system, homeostasis, cellular transport, energy in biochemical reactions Structure and function of enzymes and importance in biological systems Photosynthesis, cellular respiration-aerobic and anaerobic

ORGANIC MOLECULES: Organic compounds contain carbon and are found in all living things.

- Carbohydrates major source of energy and include sugars and starches made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio plants and animals use carbohydrates for maintaining structure within the cells

- Proteins contain nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; made up of chains of amino acids 20 amino acids can combine to form a great variety of protein molecules compose enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural components (ie. plasma membranes)

- Lipids water-insoluble (fats and oils) made up mostly of carbon and hydrogen; composed of glycerol and fatty acid provide insulation, store energy, cushion internal organs, found in biological membranes saturated (with hydrogen, single bonds, see example ) and unsaturated (double bonds)

- Nucleic Acids contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus made from individual nucleotides (5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogen base) direct the instruction of proteins genetic information an organism receives from its parents two types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Scientific Discoveries that led to the Cell Theory: ~Van Leeuwenhoek: observed living cells in pond water ~Hooke: observed cork under a microscope and named the structures “cells” ~Schleiden: studied plants and proposed the idea that cells are the basic unit of life in plants ~Schwann: studied animals and proposed the idea that cells are the basic unit of life in animals ~Virchow: proposed the idea that every cell came from another living cell CELL THEORY:

The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are composed of cells.

All cells come from pre-existing cells.

CARBOHYDRATE (Sugar-Glucose) (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio)

PROTEIN (one amino acid) (contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen)

LIPID (made mostly of carbon and hydrogen with a few oxygen)

NUCLEIC ACID (one nucleotide) (contains a sugar, nitrogen base, and phosphate group)

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CELL TYPES: -Prokaryote – lack a distinct nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; most life processes occur in cytoplasm; all are unicellular (one cell); examples are bacteria and archaebacteria Structures found in a prokaryote: cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, plasmid, ribosome, flagella -Eukaryote – clearly defined nucleus enclosed by a membrane; membrane bound organelles that are specialized for different jobs; most are multicellular (made up of more than one cell); examples are plants, animals, protists, and fungi

CELL SPECIALIZATION: Cells tissues organs organ systems organism -each cell performs a specific function for each tissue or organ -as cells become specialized they may contain organelles that are NOT common to all cells (ie. plastids, cell wall, vacuole, centriole) -design and shape of a cell is dictated by its function and the conditions under which it works

CELL ORGANELLES: -Golgi body (golgi apparatus) – stack of flattened membranes that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other products -Lysosomes – small, spherical organelles that carry out digestion in the cell, break down old organelles; rare in plant cells -Mitochondria – transforms energy stored in food through cellular respiration (found in cells that need a lot of energy --- such as muscle cells) -Nucleus – contains DNA which controls most cellular activities; surrounded by a nuclear membrane (envelope) -Ribosome – produces proteins (not surrounded by a membrane) -Vacuole – sac like structure that stores substances -Cell (plasma) membrane – phospholipid bilayer that protects and encloses the cell; controls transport; maintains homeostasis -Cytoplasm – fluid like substance that contains various membrane-bound structures (organelles) that perform various functions -Endoplasmic reticulum – system of tubes and sacs that transport molecules throughout the cell.

*Rough ER: has ribosomes on the surface (common in cells that make large amounts of proteins

*Smooth ER: lacks ribosomes (helps regulate some cell processes) -Chromosomes – threadlike structure of DNA and protein that contains genetic information -Chromatin – the material of which chromosomes of eukaryotes are composed

TYPES OF MICROSCOPES:

∞compound light microscope – uses 2 or more lenses to form an enlarged

and focused image of an object

∞transmission electron microscope (TEM) – transmits electron beams

through a thin slice of a specimen to explore cell structures and large protein molecules

∞scanning electron microscope (SEM) – scans the surface of a specimen to

produce a 3-D image of the specimen’s surface

STRUCTURES FOUND IN PLANT CELLS BUT NOT ANIMAL CELLS: -Chloroplast – captures solar energy for photosynthesis (plant cells, some algae) -Cell wall – rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane, giving additional structure and support -Large central vacuole – stores

water and other dissolved materials




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HOMEOSTASIS - ability of a cell or an organism to maintain stable internal conditions no matter the changes in its environment; the cell membrane helps this process by regulating what enters and leaves the cell.

Examples: body temperature, respiration, nutritional balance

CELL TRANSPORT: (The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane that regulates what enters and leaves the cell and only allows certain substances to pass through) Passive Transport – movement of substances across the plasma membrane without the use of the cell’s energy (moves with the concentration gradient / from area of high concentration to area of low concentration)

1. DIFFUSION – movement of substances across the plasma membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

2. OSMOSIS – diffusion of water across the plasma membrane from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration 3. FACILITATED TRANSPORT – a carrier molecule embedded in the plasma membrane transports a substance across the plasma

membrane following the high-to-low concentration gradient Active Transport – movement of substances across the plasma membrane that requires the use of the cell’s energy and carrier molecules; substances are moving from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration (against the concentration gradient)

1. ENDOCYTOSIS – large particles are brought into the cell 2. EXOCYTOSIS – large particles leave the cell 3.

---Effect of Concentration on a Cell 1. HYPOTONIC solution – water moves in; cell bursts 2. HYPERTONIC solution – water moves out; cell shrivels 3. ISOTONIC solution – no net movement; cell maintains equilibrium


ENZYMES: Enzymes are special proteins that act as a catalyst to make chemical reactions within the cell possible or speed up the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed by the reaction. Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur. Without enzymes, many chemical reactions would not occur or would occur too slow for the organism to survive.

Factors that affect the rate of enzyme activity: pH, temperature, and concentration If conditions are not optimal, the structure of the enzyme becomes “denatured” which affects it’s ability to work properly.




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COMPARISON OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION

PHOTOSYNTHESIS CELLULAR RESPIRATION 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (from sun) C6H12O6 + 6O2

Reactants: carbon dioxide and water Products: sugar and oxygen ~food synthesized ~carbon dioxide taken in ~oxygen given off ~produces sugar (glucose) ~occurs only in the presence of chlorophyll found in Autotrophs ~requires light Ultimate source of energy for all living things is the SUN

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (36 ATP)

Reactants: sugar and oxygen Products: carbon dioxide and water ~food broken down ~carbon dioxide given off ~oxygen taken in ~produces carbon dioxide and water ~occurs in ALL living cells ~does not require light

The products of photosynthesis are the reactants of cellular respiration and the products of cellular respiration are the reactants of photosynthesis.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

-requires the presence of oxygen -release of energy from the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen -energy released is used to make ATP -takes place in all living organisms

-occurs in the absence of oxygen -breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen with the production of a small amount of energy -produces less energy than aerobic respiration -often called fermentation

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) -Molecule that stores and releases the energy in its bonds when the cell needs it -removing a phosphate group (P) releases energy for chemical reactions to occur in the cell and ATP becomes ADP -when the cell has energy, the energy is stored in the bond when the phosphate group is added to the ADP

ATP ADP + P + ENERGY

Molecular Basis of Heredity, DNA Replication, Protein Synthesis (transcription/translation), Gene Regulation Characteristics of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction Patterns of Inheritance, Dominant / Recessive / Intermediate Traits, Multiple Alleles, Polygenic Inheritance, Sex-Linked Traits,

Independent Assortment, Test Cross, Pedigrees, Punnett Squares Impact of Advances in Genomics on Individuals and Society, Human Genome Project, Applications of Biotechnology Development of Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection, Origin and History of Life, Fossil Biochemical Evidence Mechanisms of Evolution, Applications (Pesticides and Antibiotic Resistance)

DNA & RNA: -Nucleic acids composed of nucleotides -Nucleotide is composed of: ~Phosphate group ~Sugar ~Nitrogen Base

http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceStudentTutorial/Preview/109219 http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceStudentTutorial/Preview/119149 http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceStudentTutorial/Preview/107103




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COMPARISON OF DNA AND RNA

DNA RNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid ~double stranded, twisted helix ~Never leaves the nucleus ~Nitrogenous Bases: (A) Adenine, (T) Thymine, (C) Cytosine, (G) Guanine A-T; C-G ~Sugar: deoxyribose

Ribonucleic acid ~single stranded ~Leaves the nucleus (to carry out processes in cytoplasm) ~Nitrogenous Bases: (A) Adenine, (U) Uracil, (C) Cytosine, (G) Guanine A-U; C-G ~Sugar: ribose

DNA Replication: Plays a role in the transmission and conservation of genetic information. 1. DNA unravels and the strands separate. 2. New nucleotides bond to their complementary bases. 3. Two identical DNA molecules are formed. (No genetic variation occurs because newly formed DNA is an exact copy of the original strand of DNA)

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: process cells use to build proteins (transcription) (translation)

DNA RNA Protein Transcription: copies the instructions in DNA into a complementary strand of RNA

mRNA (messenger RNA): carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm

o instructions are arranged as codons (sequences of three nucleotides)

Translation: genetic information is decoded and used to arrange amino acids (translated from nucleotides to amino acids)

tRNA (transfer RNA): carries amino acids to the ribosomes where they are joined to form proteins.

o Bases of tRNA pair with the bases of mRNA

rRNA (ribosomal RNA): part of the structure of ribosomes and assists in translation.

GENETIC CODE IS UNIVERSAL: Genetic material of every organism on Earth is carried in DNA. A codon codes for the same amino acid in all living organisms. Consistency of the genetic code is evidence that all living organisms share a common ancestor.

MUTATIONS: ~Changes to an organisms genetic material ~transmitted to offspring if it occurs in sex cells ~Many have no effect on the organism ~passed from one cell to new cells Gene mutation: change in the sequence of DNA that makes up a single gene

o If the nucleotide of the mutated gene codes for the same protein as the normal gene then NO phenotypic change will occur

o If the nucleotide of the mutated gene codes for a different protein than the normal gene then a phenotypic change will occur.


Biotechnology Manipulation of living organisms or their parts to produce useful products. Genetic engineering – transfer of genes or pieces of DNA from organism to another organism the new DNA that results is called recombinant DNA Has application in medicine, agriculture, selective breeding, industry Example: genetically engineered bacteria used to produce human insulin for diabetic patients. Example: oil eating bacteria used to clean up oil spills






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Asexual Reproduction: ~single parent produces one or more identical offspring by dividing into two cells; same number of chromosomes as parent ~produces large numbers of offspring / quick process ~offspring are genetically identical to parents ~Binary fission is an example --common in unicellular organisms (bacteria)

Sexual Reproduction: ~involves the production and fusion of haploid sex cells (egg from mother, sperm from father) to make a diploid zygote that develops into a multicellular organism ~produces low number of offspring / slow process ~results in genetic variation ~common in multicellular organisms

COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

Mitosis Meiosis

Cell cycle is a continuous process in which cells grow, make copies of their chromosomes, and divide to form daughter cells. Cell cycle consists of: interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis *Interphase – longest phase of the cell cycle ~growth, duplication of chromosomes and preparation to divide *Mitosis - division of nucleus of the cell ~Prophase – duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers appear ~Metaphase – duplicated chromosomes line up randomly in middle of the cell ~Anaphase – duplicated chromosomes pull away from center to opposite ends of the cell ~Telophase – spindle breaks down; nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes at each pole *Cytokinesis – cell membrane pinches in and cytoplasm divides forming two cells identical to the parent cell (in plant cells a “cell plate” forms along the center of the cell and cuts the cell in half; cell plate forms new cell walls once the plasma membrane divides) RESULTS: Two daughter cells (body cells) identical to parent cell ~NO genetic variation Same number of chromosomes as original cell (humans = 46) Cells are diploid (human diploid# =46 or 23 homologous pairs)

The process of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes by half—

Chromosomes copied once

Nucleus divides twice

Four resulting cells have half as many chromosomes as a normal body cell

*Involves two distinct divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II *Each division consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase *Occurs only in sex cells (gametes) *Prior to Meiosis I, chromosomes replicate during interphase ~Prophase I – replicated chromosome pairs with corresponding homologous chromosome forming a tetrad.

Crossing over occurs as the chromatids cross over each other then exchange places which leads to genetic variation

~Metaphase I – homologous pairs of chromosomes line up along the center of the cell in random fashion called independent assortment which leads to genetic variation RESULTS: Meiosis I – two daughter cells Meiosis II – four haploid daughter cells Sex cells (gametes) combine during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid individual.

CELL DIVISION: Process of copying and dividing the entire cell The cell grows, prepares for division, and then divides to form new daughter cells Allows unicellular organisms to duplicate in a process called asexual reproduction Allows multicellular organisms to grow, develop from a single cell into a multicellular organism, make other cells to repair

and replace worn out cells Three types: binary fission (prokaryotes), mitosis, meiosis


Some cancers are caused by mutations in the genes that regulate the cell cycle—new cells form more rapidly than normal. leads to uncontrolled cell growth.



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MENDEL’S LAWS OF HEREDITY: 1. Law of Dominance -the dominant allele will be expressed if it is present -the recessive allele will only be expressed if it is paired with another recessive allele 2. Law of Segregation - during the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary factor factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent 3. Law of Independent Assortment -genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes, giving different traits an equal opportunity of occurring together

PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE: **Sex Chromosomes: 23rd pair of chromosomes; Males = XY; Females = XX ~Sex-Linked Traits - determined by alleles located on sex chromosomes

- examples: color blindness, hemophilia

~Dominant / Recessive - many traits follow a pattern of simple dominance (if the dominant allele is present then the dominant trait is expressed; recessive trait expressed only if both alleles are recessive ~Codominance - phenotypes produced by both alleles are clearly expressed

- ex: black feathered rooster X white feather hen offspring with both black and white feathers

~Incomplete Dominance - neither allele is dominant over the other which results in a blend of the two traits - ex: red flower X white flower pink flower ~Multiple Alleles - presence of more than two alleles for a trait (ex: blood types) ~Polygenic Traits - produced by the interaction of several genes (ex: height, skin color, hair color)

KARYOTYPE: ~shows complete diploid set of chromosomes ~used to identify gender or chromosomal abnormalities

GENETICS VOCABULARY: Branch of biology that deals with heredity *Trait – characteristic an individual receives from its parents *Gene – carries instructions responsible for expression of traits; a pair of inherited genes controls a trait; one member of the pair comes from each parent—often called alleles *Homozygous – two alleles of a pair are identical (BB or bb) *Heterozygous – two alleles of a pair are different (Bb); often called “hybrid” *Dominant – controlling allele; designated with a capital letter (B) *Recessive – hidden allele; designed with lower case letter (b) *Genotype – genetic makeup of an organism (represented by letters) *Phenotype – physical appearance of an organism (brown eyes) *Monohybrid – cross involving one trait *Dihybrid – cross involving two traits *P generation – parent generation *F1 generation – first generation (offspring of P generation





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PUNNETT SQUARES: ~Used to find possible genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring of a cross ~results are expected; not actual MONOHYBRID CROSS: ~ contains 4 boxes; ~ a cross between two heterozygous individuals will reveal a 1:2:1 genotypic ratio and a 3:1 phenotypic ratio --probability that the offspring will show a dominant phenotype is ¾ or 75% DIHYBRID CROSS: ~ contains 16 boxes ~reveals two traits for both parents ~ a cross between two heterozygous individuals would reveal a 9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio in the offspring

PEDIGREE: ~ a chart that shows the presence or absence of a trait according to relationships within a family

http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/quizzes/mendqui2.htm

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR LIFE: liquid water moderate temperature change free oxygen in the atmosphere adequate sunlight atmosphere that protects from harmful radiation

ORIGINS OF LIFE: Biogenesis – idea that living organisms came only from other living organisms Spontaneous Generation – mistaken idea that life can arise from non-living materials ~Francesco Redi performed controlled experiments that tested spontaneous generation of maggots from decaying meat-----disproved idea ~Louis Pasteur performed controlled experiments that tested spontaneous generation of microorganisms in nutrient broth-----disproved idea ~Miller and Urey performed controlled experiments to suggest how mixtures of organic compounds necessary for life could have arisen from simple compounds present on early Earth-----proven incorrect ~Lynn Margulis gathered evidence that supported the endosymbiotic theory that proposed that a symbiotic relationship evolved over time between primitive eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells within in-----supporting common ancestry ~Oparin proposed that molecules in the primitive environment formed simple organic substances such as amino acids --theory of chemical evolution which describes chemical changes on primitive Earth that gave rise to the first forms of life

EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION: ~Fossil record: remains or evidence of organisms that lived in the past *law of superposition: in undisturbed sedimentary rock, the older rock layers lie beneath younger rock layers so the location in a rock layer provides evidence of how long ago the organism lived on Earth ~Biogeography – study of the distribution of Earth’s organisms; provides evidence on where different species have lived at different times in Earth’s history ~Comparative Anatomy – many species have similar structures which indicate common ancestry

*homologous structures: body parts of different organisms that have a similar structure but not necessarily a similar function (bird wind / human arm) indicate shared ancestry *analogous structures: body parts that have a similar function but not a similar structure (bird wing / butterfly wing) does NOT indicate shared ancestry

~Comparative Embryology – scientists compare the development of embryos in different species; similarities in development suggest common ancestry


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TRENDS IN HOMINID EVOLUTION: ~bipedalism, the ability to walk upright on two legs ~in brain size ~in the size of the brow ridge (thick section of bone above eyes) ~ in jaw size and in the angle at which the jaw protrudes from face ~ in the size of teeth ~development of the ability to make and use tools ~development of the ability to communicate using language

NATURAL SELECTION AND THEORY OF EVOLUTION: - proposed by Charles Darwin - process by which organisms best suited to their environment

survive and reproduce Based on four main principles: ~Variation exists within populations ~Organisms compete for limited natural resources ~Organisms produce more offspring than can survive ~Individuals with variations suitable for their habitat survive and reproduce Genetic Diversity is important to the survival of a species because organisms too similar are all vulnerable to the same threats Mechanisms that can lead to an increase or decrease in the variation within a population: ~gene flow: genes from one population are introduced into the gene pool of another population ~genetic drift: random change in the frequency of different alleles in a population ~non-random mating: some individuals have more opportunity to mate

and produce offspring than others



Classification of Organisms according to Evolutionary Relationships, Changing Nature of Classification Systems, Eukaryotic Kingdoms, Dichotomous Keys, Domains

Structure and Function of Plant Organs and Tissues Structures within the Brain, Factors Affecting Blood Flow, Basic Function of the Immune System, Basic Anatomy and

Physiology of the Reproductive System

CLASSIFICATION: - Process of classifying organisms based on how they are related - History of classification systems:

Aristotle classified organisms as either plants or animals Carolus Linnaeus developed a system based on body shapes and traits Linnaeus devised a system for naming organisms -- binomial nomenclature – gives each organism two names, a genus and

species (Genus begins with a capital letter and species begins with a lower case letter)

Modern Hierarchical System of Classification: o Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Domain is the largest group and as you move from the top to the bottom of this hierarchy each classification is more specific

Domains are the largest groups in the classification system:

Bacteria – single-celled prokaryotes; made up of one Kingdom (Eubacteria) that have a cell wall that contains peptidoglycan Archaea – single-celled prokaryotes that DO NOT have peptidoglycan in their cell walls; made up of one Kingdom (Archaebacteria);

live in extreme environment Eukarya – contains four kingdoms that are all eukaryotes; Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia








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CHARACTERISTICS OF KINGDOMS Kingdom Protista

*unicellular or multicellular

*have a nucleus and cell membane

*may have cell wall

*may have chloroplasts

*includes heterotrophs and autotrophs

ex: amoeba, algae

Kingdom Fungi

*unicellular or multicellular

*have a nucleus and cell membrane

*have a cell wall that contains chitin

*no chloroplasts

*includes ONLY heterotrophs

ex: mushrooms, yeast, molds

Kingdom Plantae

*multicellular

*have a nucleus, cell membrane, cell wall and chloroplasts

*includes ONLY autotrophs

ex: mosses, trees, grasses

Kingdom Animalia

*multicellular

*have a nucleus and cell membrane

*NO cell wall or chloroplasts

*includes ONLY heterotrophs

ex: humans, birds, insects

CLADOGRAM: ~links groups of organisms by showing how evolutionary lines branches off from common ancestors


CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: ~transport system that carries nutrients and oxygen to the cells of the body and carries waste products such as carbon dioxide away from the cells Factors Affecting the Flow of Blood:

Increase in blood pressure increase in blood flow

Increase in resistance decrease in blood flow

Increase in viscosity (thickness) decrease in blood flow

Disease such as high blood pressure leads to weakening of blood vessels which may result in scarring or blood clots decrease in blood flow

Increase of blood volume pushed through blood vessels increase in blood flow

Exercise will increase the heart rate increase in blood

flow


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HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male Reproductive Female Reproductive

*testes – organs that produce and store millions of sperm (contain the male’s genetic information) *penis – organ through which sperm leave the male body *scrotum – external sac that contains the testes and epididymis *epididymis – mass of tightly coiled tubes that serve as a storage place for sperm *urethra – tube located in the penis *vas deferens – thin tube that leads into the urethra *prostate gland – secretes fluid that nourishes and protects sperm

*ovary – produce, store and release eggs (female reproductive cells) *fallopian tubes – connects an ovary to the uterus *uterus – organ with strong, thick muscular walls that holds and nourishes a growing embryo during pregnancy *cervix – opening to the top of the vagina *vagina – tube that leads from an opening outside the body to the uterus

IMMUNE SYSTEM: ~protects the body from disease; works like a defense system Non-specific Defenses – act against a wide range of pathogens; responds to all types of pathogens in the same way

First line of defense – physical and chemical barriers to infection o Skin provides a protective barrier between you and the outside environment o Tears and saliva produce lysozymes that break down the cell walls of bacteria o Mucus is sticky which can trap pathogens

Second line of defense – if pathogens get through the first line of defense then the inflammatory response kicks in o Causes infected areas to become red and painful (inflamed)

Blood flow to the area is increased White blood cells known as phagocytes move to the infected area and begin engulfing and destroying the

bacteria Fever develops which helps fight infection by making the body temperature less suitable for bacterial

growth

Specific Defenses – responds to a particular pathogen (foreign substance that can stimulate an immune response)

Third line of defense – the immune response attacks specific pathogens using specialized cells and proteins o T cells – white blood cells that attack and kill harmful cells o B cells – white blood cells that make antibodies (protein that attaches to a specific antigen causing it to clump

together and become harmless) Types of Immunity:

Active Immunity: results from exposure to a specific pathogen; stimulates the immune system to make antibodies o can occur naturally when a pathogen enters the body o can occur by vaccination (weakened or deactivated form of a disease causing agent)

Passive Immunity: created by transferring antibodies made by one organism into another organism

o Antibodies passed from a pregnant woman to the fetus (across the placenta) o Antibodies passed to an infant through breast milk

Antibiotics: drugs that either kill bacteria or prevent their reproduction

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FETUS: *placenta – connection between the mother and embryo that acts as the embryo’s organ of respiration, nourishment, and excretion *umbilical cord – connects the embryo to the placenta *amniotic sac – sac in which the fetus develops *amniotic fluid – clear liquid that surrounds the fetus during pregnancy

EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT: First Trimester

Embryo attaches to the wall of the uterus; major organs begin to develop

Second Trimester Fetus starts to move; eyes are developed and

lungs begin to develop Third Trimester

Brain develops rapidly; fetus has regular breathing motions

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PLANT TISSUES and ORGANS: ~dermal tissue: responsible for protection and prevention of water loss in the plant ~ground tissue: responsible for support, storage and photosynthesis ~vascular tissue: responsible for support and the transport of water and nutrients throughout the plant

Xylem - transports water upward from the roots to other parts of the plant

Phloem – transports food made through photosynthesis from leaves down to other parts of the plant

*roots – anchor and support the plant, absorb water and dissolved nutrients from the soil, and store food and water *stems – transports materials between the roots and the stems and flowers of plants *leaves – main organs that carry out photosynthesis *flowers – reproductive organs of plants *fruit – matured angiosperm (flowering plants) ovary that usually contains seeds *cone – adapted for sexual reproduction in conifers; male cones produce pollen and female cones produce eggs

PLANT STRUCTURES:

stomata – small opening in the epidermis of a leaf that allows carbon dioxide, water and oxygen to diffuse into and out of the leaf

guard cells – surround the stomata and control their opening and closing; found in the epidermis of each leaf

seed – reproductive structure that contains a plant embryo

petal – often brightly colored and scented to attract insects and other pollinators

sepal – modified leaves that protect the flowerbud

root hairs – thin cellular projections covering the surface of a root that penetrates the spaces between soil particles and produce a large surface area that allows water and minerals to enter

root cap – covers the tip of the root and protects it as the root forces its way through the soil

stamen – male reproductive structure --contains the following: anther- sac containing pollen found at the tip of the

filament filament – stalk that has anthers at its tip pollen – male sex cell

pistil – female reproductive structure ---contains the following: ovary – produces female sex cells and protects them

from the seeds as the develop style – long, slender stalk that connects the stigma to the

ovary stigma – sticky top portion of the style; used for

capturing pollen

Interrelationships Among Organisms / Populations / Communities / Ecosystems / Abiotic and Biotic Factors / Carrying Capacity

Flow of Energy and Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems / Trophic Levels / Direction and Efficiency of Energy Transfer Human Population and its Impact on Ecosystems and Global Environments / Potential Changes in Ecosystems / Loss of

Biodiversity / Use of Resources / Aquatic Life / Properties of Water

PROPERTIES OF WATER: Water is a polar molecule because of the uneven distribution of electrical charges on the molecule; this causes them to attract each other like weak magnets The following properties contribute to Earth’s suitability as an environment for life: ~cohesive behavior – water molecules have strong cohesion which allows them to form weak bonds and stick together; water molecule remained joined as they move up a plant or between cells of an organism ~expansion upon freezing – water expands as it freezes making it less dense than the water in the liquid state; allows aquatic organisms to survive the winter in the liquid water beneath the ice that is frozen on the surface ~ability to moderate temperature – allows bodies of water to absorb large amounts of heat with only small changes in temperature which protects aquatic organisms from drastic temperature changes ~versatility as a solvent – because of its polarity, water has the ability to dissolve many different compounds and molecules making it the

greatest solvent on Earth


http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceStudentTutorial//Preview/109414

http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teaching-resource/707-parts-of-a-plant-and-a-flower






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STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM Organism Species Population Community Ecosystem Environment

Species – group of organisms that can interbreed Population – units of single species

Community – groups of interacting populations Ecosystem – groups of interacting communities

Habitat – where an organism lives Niche – organism’s role within its habitat

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Sun Grass Mice Hawk Sunlight is the main energy source for all living things. Energy flows through an ecosystem from the sun to the producers to the consumers in one direction. The arrows in a food chain/food web indicate the direction of the energy flow. *Producers (autotrophs) – use the energy from the Sun to make their own food through the process of photosynthesis (ex: grass) *Consumers (heterotrophs) - cannot make their own food so they obtain their energy by eating other organisms (ex: mouse) Types of Consumers: ~herbivores – eat plants (ex: deer) ~carnivores – eat other animals (ex: lion) ~omnivores – eat both plants and animals (ex: human) *Decomposers – obtain energy from organic waste, such as fallen leaves or dead organisms

FOOD CHAIN: -- path of energy flow from producer to consumer -- each level is called a trophic level (trophic = energy) -- approximately 10% of energy is transferred to the next level -- much of the energy is lost to the environment

as heat

ENERGY PYRAMID: -- a model of energy flow in an ecosystem -- approximately 10% of the energy is transferred from one level to the next

Energy Pyramid

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScizkxMlEOM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScizkxMlEOM

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FOOD WEBS: -- interconnected food chains -- shows all possible feeding relationships at each trophic level in a community

SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS: Symbiosis is the permanent, close association between one or more organisms of different species. ~mutualism – both species benefit ~parasitism – one organism benefits at the expense of the other organism ~commensalism – one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor benefited ~predation – interaction in which one animal captures and feeds on another ~competition – occurs when organisms attempt to use the same resources in the same place at the same time.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0glkXIj1DgE

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES: Cycles of matter involve biological, geological, and chemical processes. -- As matter moves through these cycles it is never created or destroyed----only changed into a different form -- Examples: water cycle and carbon cycle

WATER CYCLE: Water continuously moves between the oceans, the atmosphere, and land---sometimes outside living organisms and sometimes inside living organisms. The cycle is driven by energy from the sun! Processes involved in the Water Cycle:

Evaporation – changing from a liquid to a gas when it is heated

Cellular respiration – many animals release water vapor to the atmosphere when they exhale

Condensation – gas changes to a liquid when it loses heat Precipitation – water that falls from the atmosphere to Earth Transpiration – release of water through the stomata in the

leaves of a plant CARBON CYCLE: Carbon is a major component of all organic compounds and is a key ingredient of living tissue and ecosystems. Carbon is found in several large reservoirs in the biosphere and is continuously recycled throughout the Earth. Processes involved in the Carbon Cycle:

Photosynthesis – carbon dioxide is taken up by producers

Cellular respiration – carbon dioxide is released by producers; consumers eat producers and release carbon dioxide

Decomposition – carbon in the bodies of dead organic matter is stored in fossil fuels

Combustion – burning of fuels released carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

Dissolving – carbon dioxide dissolved in rainwater

and oceans is returned to the atmosphere

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0glkXIj1DgE

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FACTORS THAT DETERMINE POPULATION SIZE: ~births ~deaths ~immigration – movement of organisms into an area ~emigration – movement of organisms out of an area

LIMITING FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CARRYING CAPACITY: Carrying capacity is the largest population that an environment can support over a long period of time. Limiting factors control the growth of a population. Two types of limiting factors: ~density dependent: depends on the size of the population ~density independent: does not depend on the size of the population Abiotic factors – non living components of an ecosystem Biotic factors – living things in an organism’s environment Abiotic Limiting Factors Biotic Limiting Factors sunlight predators and prey soil competition water animals climate food sources shelter bacteria natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, etc.)

FACTORS THAT RESULT IN CHANGES TO ECOSYSTEMS: *Seasonal Changes:

Can affect the availability of resources in an ecosystem o Cold winters often result in dormant plants which

some animals depend on for food o Wet seasons result in abundant water o Dry seasons result in streams and ponds drying

up Many animals migrate (seasonal movement of animals

from one place to another) in response to such changes o Changes the makeup of the ecosystem because

number of animals increase or decrease *Climate Changes:

Changes in climate can affect some gases in the atmosphere

Fossil evidence shows that the type of organisms and where they lived changed during ice ages

Changes in rain patterns can result in a change in plant life in the area which can affect the types of animals in the area

Dry weather can destroy aquatic ecosystems by drying up aquatic ecosystems

*Succession: natural process following a disturbance in which one community of organisms gradually replaces another

Primary succession – gradual development of a new community from nothing; occurs without soil or preexisting plant or animal life

o can be created by volcanic eruptions or floods

pioneer species – first species to move into an devastated area; can grow on bare rock; as soil is formed, succession continues and the diversity of a community will increase

Secondary succession – occurs when a disturbance changes or partially destroys an ecosystem without destroying the soil

o can result from abandoned farmland or leaving a logged forest to regrow

o happens more rapidly because soil and sometimes plants or seeds are already present

climax community – fairly stable community that marks the end of succession in an area










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LOSSES TO BIODIVERSITY: Biodiversity refers to the number of different kinds of organisms living on Earth or in an ecosystem. Factors that can lead to Biodiversity Loss:

Catastrophic Events - hurricanes , earthquakes, and floods can change the makeup of an ecosystem

Human Activity – can lead to habitat loss Cutting down trees for lumber or

construction Mining can remove resources or

cause pollution Invasive, Nonnative Species – an

introduced species that harms the environment into which it is introduced

Some introduced species have no predators so it can outcompete the native species and drive them to extinction

HUMAN IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT: ~Natural Resources: product of the environment that is used by humans

Renewable resources: can be replaced at rates similar to the rates at which they are used

Ex: forests, freshwater Nonrenewable resources: used much faster than they can be

replaced

Ex: fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) ~Air Pollution: release of harmful substances into the air, water, or soil

Major cause of air pollution burning fossil fuels Smog forms when smoke and gases from burning fuels combine

with fog can lead to acid rain ~Deforestation: removal of all trees in a forest

Destroys habitats; leaves fewer trees for removing carbon dioxide from the air and adding oxygen through photosynthesis

~Water Pollution: may come from homes, industries, farms

Pollutants can include sewage, chemical wastes, fertilizers, animal wastes…

SUSTAINABILITY EFFORTS: Conservation is the wise use of resources to protect and preserve their supply. Many try to conserve natural resources through:

Reducing

Reusing

Recycling Sustainable development involves using resources in ways that do not destroy or deplete them for future generations.

COSTS AND BENEFITS OF CONSERVING RESOSURCES: *Reducing the use of fossil fuels can make the supply last longer AND improve air quality by reducing pollution. *Other energy sources could replace the use of fossil fuels (solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectric energy) --- better for the environment but costly to install *Cars that run off of electricity instead of gasoline---do not release pollutants into the air but are costly

AQUATIC LIFE: ~Two factors that determine which organisms live in an aquatic ecosystem - dissolved oxygen levels and temperature!

Cold water holds more dissolved oxygen than warm water ~Regions of higher latitude tend to be cooler than those with lower latitude (near equator) ~Shallow bodies of water, such as ponds and lakes, have a large number of producers (plants and algae) because they receive sunlight ~water pressure increases, temperature decreases and darkness increases with increased depth which results in fewer plants and animals ~deep ocean floor is ideal habitat for worms, bacteria which feed off of dead animals and other organic matter


Good Luck and Good Testing


Documents

OCSD - BIOLOGY I EOC REVIEW - OKALOOSA SCHOOLS...4 HOMEOSTASIS - ability of a cell or an organism to maintain stable internal conditions no matter the changes in its environment; the