Odlicno Daphne Wiersema Article 1

8/19/2019 Odlicno Daphne Wiersema Article 1

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Daphne V. Wiersema

University of Amsterdam

Individual differencesin aesthetic preferences


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Although the existence of bestseller books, blockbuster movies, successful television

series such as “Sex and the City” or “24” and artworks which are worth astronomical

amounts of money all suggest that there is much agreement in our aesthec prefer-

ences, daily experience shows that this is oen not the case. As an example, I once

recommended the movie “Gran Torino,” one of my favorites, to a friend. Much to my

surprise my friend did not like it at all and ever since I have been wondering how this is possible.

Such individual dierences also come into play when we look at painngs, talk about books and lis-

ten to music. Psychologists have long sought to understand such individual dierences in aesthec

preferences. This arcle aims to give an introducon to their ndings and some potenal praccal

applicaons of this knowledge. The main focus will be on liking of painngs, although some research

focussing on other domains of art is discussed. But before going into the link between personality

and aesthec preferences, I will rst briey discuss some predictors of aesthec acvies to answer

the queson of what individual characteriscs predict if people seek out aesthec acvies, such as

going to a museum, or not.

Nature versus nurture

Irrespecve of their preference for specic forms

of art and art styles, people dier in the amount

of art they consume. Some people oen go to

museums and theatres, read lots of books or play

musical instruments while others do not or do so

to a lesser degree. In part, these dierences are

not related to personality, but rely on factors such

as educaon and social class. For instance, par-

ents of art consumers tend be of a higher social

class compared to those who consume less art

[1]. Also, having an educaon in art or music is

associated with more art consumpon while

people with a scienc educaon demonstrate

lower levels of art consumpon. This nding

seems to indicate that having prior experiencewith art and music (in this case through one’s

educaon) inuences the appreciaon of art in

general. But what about personality?

Five categories of personality traits

With respect to personality, the strongest pre-

dictor of art consumpon seems to be openness

to experience. Openness to experience is one of

the “big ve” dimensions that psychologists use

to describe personality [2]. Openness to experi-

ence relates to having a general appreciaon for

1 e.g., McManus & Furnham, 2006

2 Costa & McCrae, 1985, 1989, 1992

art and beauty, to intellectual curiosity, being im-

aginave, having unusual ideas or appreciang

the unconvenonal. Furthermore, people who

score high in openness to experience are more

adventurous than those who score lower on this

trait. Also, people high in openness tend to be

more creave compared to people low in open-

ness [3]. More relevant to present purposes,

individuals high in openness to experiences are

more acve consumers of art compared to low

scoring individuals [4]. Hence, being open to new

and unconvenonal ideas relates to the appre-

ciaon of art. This seems logical, because art is

oen new and unconvenonal itself.

Another big ve dimension of personality,

conscienousness, also relates to art consump-on. Conscienous people are those who are

relavely convenonal, orderly and self-disci-

plined. They also have the tendency to behave

in a planned manner instead of a more impulsive

manner and are oriented towards achievement

[5]. Although conscienous people would do a

perfect job in planning and organising a visit to

the theatre, the chances that one would actu-

ally nd them at the theatre are relavely low.

Indeed, conscienousness shows a negave re-

3 George & Zhou, 2001

4 e.g., McManus & Furnham, 2006

5 Costa & McCrae, 1985, 1989, 1992


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laonship with art consumpon [6]. According

to researchers [7], these lower levels of art con-

sumpon found in conscienous people might

be explained by the link between conscienous-

ness and conservasm. People who are highly

conscienous also tend to have more narrow

and restricted atudes towards art. Yet again,

it appears that the appreciaon and consump-on of art requires an open mind. However, this

might well depend on the specic type of art or

art style. For instance, watching an obscure cult-

movie requires a dierent mind-set compared

to watching a Hollywood blockbuster movie.

Art consumpon is a broad term that refers to

a variety of acvies such as going to modern

art exhibions or an archaeological museum,

watching a science con movie or a roman-

c comedy, reading thrillers or poetry, seeing

a classical ballet performance versus a modern

dance performance et cetera. Therefore, be-

sides knowledge about the amount of art people

consume, it is interesng to know the content of

their aesthec acvies and how this relates to

consumer personality. This relaonship is the fo-

cus of the next part of this arcle.

Art and familiarityThe bulk of research on aesthec preferences

and personality has focussed on preferences

for specic styles of painng, such as abstract

versus representaonal painngs or represen-

taonal versus surrealisc painngs. Remark-

ably, representaonal or gurave painngs,

i.e. painngs that portray objects that are easily

recognisable, are generally liked best [8]. Most

likely, this is caused by the greater familiarity in-

dividuals experience with respect to represen-

taonal painngs [9]. This “greater familiarity-

enhanced liking” eect is a well-known eect in

psychology [10].

The liking of representaonal painngs is

largely unaected by individual dierences.[11].

6 McManus & Furnham, 2006; Chamorro-Premuzic,

Reimers, Hsu, & Ahmegotlu, 2009

7 McManus & Furnham, 2006

8 e.g., Feist & Brady, 2004; Furnham & Walker, 20019 Furnham & Walker, 2001

10 see for instance the literature on the mere exposure

effect, e.g., Zajonc, 1968, 198011 e.g., Mastandrea, Bartoli, & Bove, 2009; Rawlings,

Vidal, & Furnham, 2000; Wiersema, Van der Schalk, &

Conservave individuals seem to be an excep-

on to this, because they expressed enhanced

liking for representaonal painngs relave to

abstract painngs, Japanese painngs and pop-

art painngs [12]. The category of representa-

onal painngs is oen used in research as a de-

fault against which liking for another category of

painng such as abstract painng is contrasted[13].

When we take a look at other styles of painngs,

openness to experience is again an important

predictor of aesthec preferences. For instance,

openness to experience is associated with li-

ing for representave, abstract and pop-art

painngs,[14] but also with liking for Japanese

art, Renaissance art and cubism [15]. Besides

openness to experience, another important pre-

dictor of aesthec preferences can be found in

the personality dimension of sensaon seeking

Van Kleef, 2010

12 Furnham & Walker, 2001

13 e.g., Wiersema, Van der Schalk, & Van Kleef, 2010

14 Furnham & Walker, 2001

15 Chamorro-Premuzic, Reimers, Hsu, & Ahmetoglu,

2009


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[16]. Sensaon seekers are individuals who seek

out novel, complex and intense experiences. Fur-

thermore, sensaon seekers tend to rely more

on their feelings than on their thoughts. Just like

individuals scoring high on openness to experi-

ence, sensaon seekers like abstract painngs

beer than more tradional, representaonal

painngs [17]. Furthermore sensaon seekersexpressed relavely more liking for surreal paint-

ings, while expressing somewhat less liking for

representaonal painngs [18].

Personality traits are also linked to dier-

ent moves for vising specic museums and to

dierent experiences during their visit. Mastan-

drea, Bartoli and Bove (2009) provided evidence

for these relaons by having visitors of two dif -

ferent museums in Rome ll out a personality

quesonnaire and list their reasons for vising

this parcular museum. One museum, The Na-

onal Gallery of Modern and Contemporary Ar,t

16 Zuckerman, 1979

17 Furnham & Bunyan, 1988; Rawlings, Barrantes-

Vidal, & Furnham, 200018 Furnham & Avison, 1997

was concerned with modern and contemporary

art and the other, The Braschi Museum, exhib-

ited painngs connected with the ancient history

and Middle Ages in Rome. As expected, the two

groups of visitors diered in a number of ways.

First of all, not surprisingly, visitors of the mod-

ern art museum had more of a liking for modern

and contemporary art compared to the visitorsof the ancient art museum, although both groups

equally liked representaonal art. When we look

at their moves for vising the museums, it be-

comes more interesng. Visitors of the modern

art museum listed as their two most important

moves the desire to see the original artwork and

the pleasure felt during their visit. Visitors of the

ancient art museum listed their interest for the

arst(s) and their desire for cultural enrichmentas their most important reasons. Although both

groups expressed an interest in the artwork and

arsts, visitors of the modern art museum also

sought the posive experience of pleasure re-

lated to feeling and sensing. This move ts with

the personality of the sensaon seeker. In fact,

modern art visitors scored higher on the sensa-

on seeking quesonnaire compared to the an-

cient art visitors. Thus, preference for dierent

styles of art is also associated with the seeking ofdierent experiences during the aesthec acv-

ity.

Closure and structure

The research discussed so far has found evidence

that parcularly openness to experience and sen-

saon seeking are related to aesthec preferenc-

es for certain styles of painngs. Other big ve

traits such as extraversion and neurocism (i.e.,

emoonal stability) appear mostly unrelated to

aesthec preferences. However, besides the big

ve personality traits other personality traits

have also been explored. Two traits that play an

important role in more recent research on aes-

thec preferences are need for closure and need

for structure. The construct of need for closure

was developed by Kruglanski, Webster and Klem

(1993) and refers to an individual’s need for an

environment that is clear, dened, structuredand unambiguous compared to an environment

that lacks these properes. The need for closure

scale consists of ve subscales: Preference for

order, preference for predictability, decisiveness,


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discomfort with ambiguity, and closed-minded-

ness [19]. The construct of need for closure is

strongly related to need for structure [20] : Both

high need for closure and high need for structure

individuals desire quick answers and are averse

to ambiguies.These properes of need for closure and

19 Webster & Kruglanski, 1994

20 hompson, Naccarato, & Parker, 1989; Neuberg &

Newsom, 1993

need for structure also inuence liking for styles

of painng. More specically, individuals with

a high need for situaons and environments

that provide clarity

and lack ambiguies

causes them to dis-

like abstract paint-

ings i.e., painngsthat avoid a clear

correspondence be-

tween reality for

which it is more dif-

cult to extract their

meaning [21]. For

instance, the famous

work “Victory Boo-

gie Woogie” by PietMondriaan (1872-

1942) consists of a

series of blue, yellow,

red, black and white

squares and upon

viewing this paint-

ing, its meaning is

not instantly clear. In

this respect abstract

art is the opposite ofrepresentaonal or

gurave art which

depicts maers that

are easily recognis-

able to the observer.

For instance, a sll-

life painng contains

objects that are eas-

ily idenable such

as food or owers.

Interesngly, these

kinds of eects of

need for closure

and need for struc-

ture also translate to

other aesthec do-

mains. For instance, visitors of the Amsterdam

marionee theatre expressed less liking for the

open ending of a play if they were high in needfor closure [22]. Also, when they had to judge dif -

21 e.g., Landau, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszcynski, &

Martens, 2006

22 Wiersema, Van der Schalk, & Van Kleef, 2010


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ferent types of gardens, individuals high

in need for structure rated wild gardens

as less beauful, and manicured gardens

as more beauful compared to low need

for structure individuals and were more

likely to possess a garden that was either

manicured or romanc instead of wild

[23]. Future research is needed to inves-gate if these needs also aect prefer-

ences for music, dance, and literature.

But what is evident so far, is that works

of art that lack meaning or structure are

disliked by individuals that have a strong

need for meaning and answers. This con-

necon between art and meaning has

proven to be an important step for un-

derstanding our evaluaon of art. In thenext part, this connecon is discussed

more thoroughly.

A need for meaning

Two dierent psychological theories

have claimed that people have an innate

need for meaning. In one of these theo-

ries, Terror Management Theory, mean-

ing is conveyed by our cultural world-

view that consists of norms and values,tradions and rituals that we deem important.

Furthermore, investments in this cultural world-

view are seen as means to cope with our fear of

dying since adherence to the cultural worldview

means that we are a part of a larger whole that

will live on aer our death and hence ensures us

of a symbolic immortality. Furthermore, we can

also contribute to this cultural worldview by the

producon of works that will literally outlive us,

such as books, painngs, movies et cetera. In-

vesng in art can thus also serve the funcon of

coping with the fear of dying.

Work on Terror Management Theory [24]

has shown that when people are reminded of

their own mortality, they react with enhanced

defensiveness of their cultural worldview. For in-

stance, Chrisan parcipants reacted more posi-

vely to an in-group member (Chrisan) while

reacng more negavely to an out-group mem-ber (Jew) aer their mortality was made salient

23 Van den Berg & Van Winsum-Westra, 2010

24 Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986

[25]. Based upon this, one would also expect in-dividuals whose mortality was made salient, to

be more appreciave to works of art since, or as

long as, they are part of their cultural worldview.

In fact, parcipants that were reminded of their

mortality expressed less liking for modern, ab-

stract art [26].

In this experiment half of the parcipants

(the experimental group) were asked to briey de-

scribe the emoons they felt when they thoughtof their own death and were asked to write down

what they thought will happened to them when

they were physically dead. The other half of the

parcipants (the control group) answered the

same open-ended quesons but then pertain-

ing to an upcoming exam. Aer a brief ller task,

both groups rated abstract, modern painngs.

Parcipants in the experimental group showed

less liking for abstract painngs compared to par-

cipants in the control group. But why was thisthe case? According to the researchers, this ef -

25 Greenberg et al., 1990, Study 1

26 Landau, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszcynski, & Martens,

2006


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fect is brought about because the mortality

reminder triggered a need for meaning in

parcipants which in turn caused them to

dislike objects that apparently lack mean-

ing i.e., the abstract painngs. As a further

corroboraon of this idea, they went on to

show that this eect is restricted to those

individuals who have an intrinsic need forstructure [27]. Furthermore, when the ab-

stract painngs were accompanied with -

tles that imbued them with meaning, death

reminders did not lead to lower liking for

abstract painngs [28]. To conclude, the lack

of immediate meaning of abstract painngs

poses a challenge to those individuals who

have an intrinsic need for meaning and clar-

ity resulng in less liking for these kinds ofpainngs, especially when need for mean-

ing is temporarily enhanced by a mortality

salience inducon.

Proulx and colleagues (2010) showed

that it also works the other way around.

When individuals are confronted with paint-

ings or stories that lack immediate meaning

or that challenge their sense of meaning,

this leads to an enhanced need for meaning

and eorts to restore a sense of meaning. Inone example they had parcipants read ei-

ther a story that violated their expectaons

or a story that did not violate expectaons.

The story that violated their expectaons

and hence challenged their sense of mean-

ing, was a parable wrien by Kaa. Usually,

parables are stories that contain a lesson

via an analogy. Many folktales are parables.

However, the parable parcipants read did

not contain a lesson at all, although the au-

thor is playing with their belief that it will.

Aer parcipants read this story, they lled

in a short quesonnaire that allowed them to re-

arm their sense of meaning in a dierent do-

main. In this quesonnaire they rated the impor-

tance of their birth country, naonality, and rst

language to their identy. Parcipants, who read

the absurd parable, gave higher rangs to these

quesons compared to the group of parcipantswhose sense of meaning was not violated which

can be seen as an eort to restore their sense of

27 Study 2

28 Landau et al., 2006, Study 3

meaning.

This research is based upon the Meaning

Maintenance Model [29]. This model states that

people have an inherent need for meaning. Vio-

laons of our sense of meaning are expected to

lead to compensatory eorts to restore meaning

triggered by a temporarily heightened need for

meaning. Indeed, in a dierent experiment theresearchers showed that meaning threats lead to

a heightened need for meaning. In this experi-

ment, parcipants saw either surreal, abstract or

29 Heine, Prouxl, & Vohs, 2006


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representaonal painngs. The surreal painngs

were included because - like abstract painngs -

surreal painngs show less convergence with re-

ality compared to representaonal painngs. But

surreal painngs also contain unusual and strange

imagery and elements that violate expectaons

and challenge our sense of meaning. An example

is the famous painng “The persistence of mem-ory” (1931) by Salvador Dali (1904-1989) which

portrays a clock (familiar element) that is melng

(unfamiliar). According to the theory, parcular-

ly surreal painngs should lead to a heightened

need for mean-

ing. Accordingly,

parcipants who

looked at surreal

painngs reported

higher levels of

need for structure

compared to indi-viduals who saw

abstract or repre-

sentaonal paint-

ings. Not only do

personality and

intrinsic needs and

moves aect aes-

thec preferenc-

es, the properesof the artworks

themselves can

also temporarily

aect our personal

needs and desires.

E v i d e n c e

for these exible

properes of per-

sonality is also

found in the workof Wiersema et

al (2010). Parci-

pants who rated

abstract painngs

under a me con-

straint – known to

enhance need for

closure [30] - ex-

pressed less liking

for these paint-

ings compared to

those who rated

the painngs at their own pace. Need for closure

is also heightened by environmental noise [31],

mental fague [32] and experiencing high (so-

cial) power [33].

30 e.g., De Grada, Kruglanski, Mannetti, & Pierro, 1999;

Van Kleef et al., 2004

31 Kruglanski & Webster, 1991

32 Webster, Richter, & Kruglanski, 1996

33 Fiske, 1993; Van Kleef, De Dreu, Pietroni, &

Manstead, 2006


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Conclusion

To summarize, our personality not only pre-

dicts the amount of art we consume, but also

the types of art we prefer. Both

openness to experience and sen-

saon seeking are important for

understanding these preferenc-

es, but more recent research hasdemonstrated that the need for

closure and need for structure

also predict our preferences. The

gist is that in order to appreciate

works of art that lack clear struc-

ture, are novel, perhaps highly

ambiguous or even absurd, one

needs to have an open mind.

The degree to which our mind

is open or closed, could also de-

pend on the situaon. When we

are red, in a hurry, or when we

are in a noisy environment, our

mind closes up and we will pre-

fer more “simple”, clear-cut and

predictable artwork. The research presented in

this arcle focused mainly on liking for dierent

styles of painngs and it is not clear if these nd-

ings are applicable to other domains of art. Someof the research discussed that did focus on other

domains of art seems to suggests that it can, but

future research is needed to conrm this.

Taken together, the ndings discussed in

this arcle point to several interesng praccal

applicaons. For instance, people that struggle

with artwork that does not immediately sasfy

their need for meaning and clarity, can be aided

by having easy access to background informaon

about the arst and the artworks that help them

understand the artworks. Many museums al-

ready use this strategy by providing audio guides

or by themacally arranging the artworks. Fur-

thermore, to enhance liking for plays and dance

performances whose story lines and plots are

not easily understood, visitors could be provided

with booklets containing an explanaon. Anoth-

er opon is to give visitors the possibility to at-

tend a short introducon.The ndings discussed in this arcle could

also suggest that people can be aided in choos-

ing things likebooks to read, music to listen to,

or movies to see based upon their scores on a

personality test. Several web stores such as the

I Tunes music store or the Dutch bol.com book-

store, already use a strategy that resembles this.

For instance, when you select a specic book,

you get to see what the other buyer’s of this

bookalso bought. However, the strategy could be

more rened when the personality of these oth-er buyers matches with the target person. Fur-

thermore, people’s preferences for specic types

of books and movies could dier depending on

the situaon. A person that is red is expected

to be relavely more appreciave of a book or

movie that is unambiguous and predictable.

This is probably not the best moment to read a

book such as “Kaa on the shore” (original tle:

Umibe no Kafuka) by Haruki Murakami (January

12th, 1949) containing talking cats and other

weird elements.

Note that the ideas suggested above are at this

point mainly speculave and need to be con-

rmed by future research. However, it is clear

that research on personality and the needs and

moves triggered by our environment could pro-

vide interesng suggesons and ideas to those

who are concerned with areas such as the mar-

keng of artworks or the programming of exhibi-ons in museums.


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Daphne V. Wiersema received her PhD in psychology from the University of

Amsterdam in 2009 with the thesis ‘Self-esteem and the protecon of self-

related atudes’. She worked as an assistant professor at the UvA on a project

which explored the inuence of self image in people’s choices and how these

choices are aected by external factors like adversements. She is currentlyself employed as a pilates instructor and founder of ‘Self Service Coaching’.

relaon between need for structure and preferences

for garden styles. Urban For Urban Gree, Published

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