Tribal Attribution of the Pcctol Shields

Capitol Rccf National Park, Utah

By Benson L. Lanford

2001h

*3**

RM A-»V

NNO2877O

TRIBAL ATTRIBUTION OF THE PECTOL SHIELDS

Submitted to The National Park Service, August 20, 2001

by

Benson L. Lanford

Regarding the efforts to assign North American Indian tribal attribution to the three buifalo hide shields found by Ephraim Pectol in 1925, throughout the extended process of conducting research and comparative analysis toward this end, the suggestion that the

shields are of Apachean origin has repeatedly surfaced. (Fig. l) Firm evidence has

coalesced to support this deductive conclusion. Since about 1980, when the author tirst learned of and began to study the Pectol Shields, as well as a number of other painted leather objects discovered in Utah (see Lanford and Miller 2000), numerous colleagues

intimately with historic American Indian material culture have independently

suggested that the connection of the objects with Apachean peoples be explored. Early on, the author independently realized that a probable connection existed with Athabascan

` peoples who in later times devolved into various historic Apache groups, but determined to follow a course of deductive examination. Over the years, close attention has been paid

to the material culture of the adjacent regions, as well as intimate scrutiny of the material

components, and techniques of decorative and symbolic elaboration. The investigative trail has always lead back to an Apachean designation.

Along with the other painted leather artifacts, the Pectol Shields have undergone

extended scrutiny, and have been the subject of protracted discussion among numbers of scholars. The shields have been compared with shield imagery depicted in rock art, and

have been the subject of careful artistic as well as technological analysis.

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NN028772

CONSTRUCTION AND FORM OF THE PECTOL SHIELDS

From personal observation on several occasions the author has determined that each of the Pectol Shields was made of a single thickness of hide, not of two laminated pieces, as has been erroneously reported elsewhere. Each shield is essentially circular, rather than oval-- which is also suggested in a number of reports. It is possible that the perception of them being oval derives Hom the angular perspective of shields illustrated in historic drawings and paintings. It is doubtful that any prehistoric or proto-historic shields in

North America (north of Mexico) were actually ovoid in shape. Perhaps our eyes perceive what optical illusion suggests as elliptical form set up by the missing areas of the Pectol Shields (resulting from rodents eating away portions ofthe margin of each). (Figs.l, 2) The fact that prehistoric, proto-historic and historic North American Indian shields were universally circular rather than oval in form is bome out by abundant depictions in rock art and historic examples in collections.

The author determined the true original circular outline ofthe Pectol Shields by laying each on a large sheet of (acid-tree) paper, determining the center point, and from that locus-- and following the intact margins, scribing a full circle onto the paper. The

projected outline conforms to a circular rather than oval shape. Diameters: Shield I

(CARE 12) 34 % ", Shield II (CARE 191) 37 % ", and Shield III (CARE ll) 3l",

respectively. .

PROPER PHYSICAL ORIENTATION OF THE PECTOL SHIELDS

Regarding the Pectol Shields, determining the vertical / horizontal orientation of each

plays an absolutely crucial role in understanding how the ancient maker / artist intended them to be viewed and utilized-- and how the designs displayed on the fronts can be considered. (Fig. 1) This critically affects the possible interpretations of the designs. In

fact, no discussion of any potential symbolism is possible unless the correct orientation of

the shields is understood.

Since their discovery, the Pectol Shields have been photographed and published

repeatedly without apparent knowledge of or regard for their correct visual orientation.

Even in various photographs taken of Ephraim Pectol with the shields, they are oriented

haphazardly. In at least one tome, a sketch of Shield I (CARE 12) is pictured with the rows of dots horizontally, side to side, rather than vertically. Shield No. I is mistakenly

illustrated upside down in Lanford and Miller, 2002, p. 44; however, Shields II (CARE 191) and HI (CARE 1 1) are aligned essentially in the correct manner on the following

I

page in that text.)

Ephraim Pectol recorded in his notes the arrangement in which he found the shields as

placed one on top of the other bythe American Indian person or persons who cached them. Prior to reviewing Pectol’s notes, and confirmed independently by aligning the now

3

N N 028773

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The back of_each_§lu;e_lrj_fj_.1 ,r;r3i§l3,e$.the.prima_ry_9lucs.indQ.em1iui¤gjt$_Lop.aud.h0t1¤m, particularly if the carrying straps are extant. In the instances where straps are missing the arrangement of the holes provided for their attachment supplies the same information. (Fig. 2) The top edge of each shield can be determined primarily by the placement of the handgrips (or the holes for handgrips), in addition to the long strap that the bearer might

choose to loop around his neck. (Figs. 2 a, b) Note that the neck strap of Shield I

(CARE 12) is knotted, possibly for the user to slip through his left ann. (Fig. 2a) In the

absence of an original neck strap on Shield III (CARE ll) the holes for handgrips are present.

The neck straps of Shields I and H (CARE 12 and CARE 191) are attached at two points on the back of each, side by side on a horizontal plane, spaced some 5" or 6" apart. Tanned leather thongs passing through holes in the shields secure the neck straps in place.

By envisioning the strap looped around the neck of a right—handed bearer, it can be seen that the grip for his leit hand is located to the upper right, about halfway to the edge of the shield iiom the mid point. The handgrip is extant on Shield I (CARE 12). (Fig. 2a) A rectangular piece of folded, tanned buifalo hide, the hair intact and the flesh side painted with red ochre, serves as a pad strung on a narrow leather strap. Only one of what was undoubtedly a pair of holes is extant at the upper right of Shield II (CAREl9l) the second hole having been located in the now missing portion. An additional hole between and slightly above the neck strap holes on Shield II (CAREl9l), as well as a second pair of

- holes at the upper left of Shield III (CARE l 1) perhaps were for an additional loop for the user’s upper forearm. (Fig.2 b, c) Considering these arrangements for the straps, the top

edges of the shields are apparent.

Various other holes and thongs appearing on the shield were undoubtedly for ZY attachmems on the iiront side, such as feathers, animal parts and pers_oi_1al_ rnedicing,_ charms

(a practice 1EtE6iiiirToiilyEeEii'6n~I$éEl6'aH`§ln'ElH§)Y””Amsiiigl~ethong is visible at the

lower leit on the back of Shield II (CARE 191). (Fig.2b) Holes can be located randomly, or can occur in a row, such as the rows extending lrom the center directly toward the bottom of Shields II and III (CARE 191 and CARE ll). (Fig. 2 b, c)

An additional clue to the intended vertical - horizontal orientation of the Pectol Shields is the rawhide from which they are made. Visible on Shields I and II (CARE 12 and

I

CARE 191) especially is a lighter-colored strip with irregular margins that sometimes I

results in the epidermis of _th_e_hide along the top of the hump of the animal. In these two examples the strip is apparentlyllorientedveftically sdthatfthe head areaiofthe anima1’s

hide is toward the top of the shield (highly unlikely for it to point downward).

5

N N 028775

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tliiiiiis liiiiiiliur to iis. Strriiplit nun). llltllly olist·i·xers limi- tlS>§Cl`lCtI that the series ot

liI])Cl`lllI1 green bgirs ttiili red tips tlririiip to the right. along with tlie airttliiiigi. iieclvliltc

tlcxiec t·\tt·iiiliiii1 to tlic upper lull on Shield II ((`AI<l* l*)l I teiltirii togtrtlicr suggest im

zixinii toriii. (lip. I) (` ci‘tz1iiiIyilpuxlisiizilly isoltitrr tlii~. iiiotil. Ilic possibility otil

i‘t·pi‘t·>.r·iitiiip :1 birtl is upprirciit. ziltlioiigli it is not iii the scope oltliis paper to spccilitxill; tlisiriir-as im ilietl srmbolisiii. Pers wtttivc is. IlU\»\`t2\r‘I`. the im rortaiitlv siuriiticniit. (ln the I . l I .

Plains ;iiiiI Moiitziiie regions. the i‘r.·pi‘ir>.ciit1itioiioliiiiiiitizils iii protilc rzztlier tliiiii iii profile.

as iii tliu Soiitlimrst. mis iibiqiiitoiis. Iii SoiitIiwcstt·ri‘i arte. protilc iiiuigery mis rare, (|·`i;1.

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ln contrast. in the Soutliwestern arts lrontal Lltfplkflltllbtlll ll`CCUglll/£1l`)l)) avian lorms

are common. (lig. 3) lltlie motif in question on Pectol Shield ll (CARE 191) was indeed intended to represent a hird. it does not eonlorm to the typical Southwestern norm. lt

does. however have parallels in Plains iconography. both in its prolile perception. and vtell

as artistic execution. (l~`ig. 4) Note the similarity ofexecution-dashed black lines

parallcling the separate "rays," ()n southwestern objects, whenever flaring motils

composed ot` ray—lil<e elements are present. the orientation is commonly arranged vertically downward. not horizontally. Such designs commonly cover the lower hall`ol`l’ueblo

shields. Horizontal bisectiont rather than vertical, is particularly prevalent on shields lrom

the Southwestern tribes. (Fig. l0)

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FIGURE, 4. Shield, Mandan, Conner (1985)

lt is essential to state that in North American Indian arts things were not always strictly

realistic in graphic depictions. For example, an abbreviated motif or a total abstraction

might represent a specific animal whose identity is veiled to the uninitiated. As well. other interpretations for motifs such as the avian—like design on Pectol Shield ll (CARE 191) are possible. As a matter ol` pure speculation. it is plausible that any given design resembling a

speeilie entity seen in nature could actually portray a dream sequence or vision. or other

ethereal phenomenon. Unfortunately, we are resigned to conjectural discussion regarding the array ofpossihilities.

7

NNO28777

lhe reiuaining symbols on Pectol Shield ll t(`Al{l{ l‘)l l. and patterns emblazoned on the other tuo Pectol Shields remain veiled and speculative. l he iconography does not relate specifically to any known to this author or the many colleagues consulted. While

similarities exist in some regards to shields depicted in rock art. as yyell as historic shields, the meanings are enigmatic.

l\1A'l`l{RlAl.S ANI) l)l€(i`()RATl()N

A cenain concrete and generally agreed upon tenet is ever present in the evaluation of material culture. This principle holds that the overall characteristics ofthe components comprising an object, coupled with the details ofconstruction. are crucial to the overall

process o f its assessment. The techniques employed in securing any attachments or other decorative features- in this case the painted designs in particular ~ are likewise

fundamental to exacting research. lt is indispensable to conduct hands—on examination of

any objects under inspection. lest the resulting conclusions be based on deficient data. The examiner must be accomplished in recognizing the inherent qualities of all components

themselves (such as the nature of animal hides and earthen pigments), as well as the

attributes of decorative techniques—again in this case. the painted motifs.

As stated above. each ofthe three Pectol Shields was Eibricated ofone piece of bulialo hide. The relative thickness ofthe hide, in some areas as much as '/2

" or more, is one

indicator ofthe hide being from a buffalo. although this is not entirely conclusive. l·`irst

S and foremost, the color ol} and the characteristic crazing or crackling ofthe epidermis of ‘

bufralo rawhide are unmistakable. (Figs. 2, 5) Additionally, the compacted lclt—like, and

fibrous nature ofthe frayed and worn edges ofthe shields helps to confirm the source of

the rawhide as being buffalo. The fine, felty grain of abraded or tanned buffalo hide is

usually recognizable when compared to that of other quadrupeds. lt is significant to note

that each ofthe Pectol Shields has the epidermal side ofthe hide as the back- the painted

motifs being applied on the front, the flesh side.

X

N NO28778

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PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PIGMENTS AND PAINTING

The Pectol Shields share a commonality of painting technique with the other late pre-

contact, painted objects from Utah-- three buffalo robes, two burden straps, and a partleche. Their artistically executed imagery attests to the high degree of mastery of painting on leather by the accomplished hand ofthe maker(s). (F igs.20 through 23 respectively, and Lanford and Miller, 2000:38 - 47.) The specific procedure of applying the fmely ground mineral pigments mixed with a binder to the surface of these leather objects, and the Pectol Shields per se, is of paramotmt import in assigning them cultural and / or tribal attribution. Like other historic artifacts, the Pectol Shields are documents in

and of themselves. In a manner, they speak for themselves, each tendering an assortment of clues to the cultural identify of their maker(s). The nature of pigmentsthat are present is one of the most impoEantfeaW§s‘tUTaKé"nHtigYacch{i1' nt.

The overall nature of the painted areas-- the way the pigments initially adhered to the hide and the original surface texture of painted areas, along with the affects ensuing from

abrasion, flexing and general use, are telling for any painted objects. Painting techniques

differedggreatly between cultural and geographic regions, and serve as evidencetoi ifW

determine the originsiofobjectsf is p§tiEula’rly`true between the Southwest and the

Great Basin, Plains and Plateau artistic regions—the first standing apart.

Let us first consider the methods of applying paint to leather objects in the Great Basin,

Plains, and Plateau, and the resulting characteristicsof painted areas of animal hide. The

E painted leather objects from Utah discussed throughout this essay, and especially the

t Pectol Shields, are prime examples of the prevalentpainting technique involving the use of

E glueililéisizggf (Sizing) that ‘li§¢1fS,S0 |kfsdly from hoétkpachentechniques employed in

§ Arizona and New Mexico. The painted areas ofthe objects from Utah discussed in this essay"al1"€xIiibit`like characteristics ofpowderg;d,pigments_|rwith,glue or sizing prior

to their application to leather.

Mable Morrow relates that a piece of rawhide given a coat of size or varnish resisted the action ofthe sun, air, and moisture (Morrow, 1975:31-32). In addition, it also

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protects the painted surface from abrasion. Indians procured and prepared sizing hom a

Q number of sources: liquid from the eyes of large animals, hide scrapings, cartilag§""‘it‘“ sc|and”niost|of Morrowi

r continues, "Rawhide workers probably used more prickly pear cactus than any other

material for sizing.”

In the l970’s, on a ntunber of occasions, Milford Chandler communicated to the author

that he had observed Indians tlay a cactus leaf in half as to form a pallet and pour a

quantity of powdered pigment onto the cut side. By stirring the powder into the cactus

sap, a glutinous pigment resulted. The benefits of mixing the paint in such a manner were

several. The viscosity of the paints permitted their application with precision——the paint

remaining static exactly where it was laid down. Likewise, two colors could be applied

side by side without them running together. Pigments mixed with glue did not run outside

I0

N N 028780

their borders. Rather, the glue permitted the paints to bind with the hide base to form a

smooth iield with lustrous finish. ~

An initial step inprepqrngrm snrraeenirhc reward; toraprzhins r¤¤i¤t¢<l designs, was to give it an overall, thin coating of clear (colorless) sizing. Likewise, an even more important step was to,ggat_`ff[rei]eirtHe*siIritface of theiraw1ridg,,object5_yiQ1 __clear sizing aiter

the_c_lesigns, painted subsequently had thorryghly dried. This extra overlayihHped to

protect the designs tirom wearldnfnigdusei This lends a handsome sheen to the overall

surface of the rawhide.

THE SUGGESTION OF VARNISH ON THE PECTOL SHIELDS

It has been suggested in some reports that the shiny Enish evident on both sides of each

Pectol Shield might be from some kind of lacquer or varnish applied to them subsequent

to their discovery. This is definitely not the case, for not only is the surface gloss typical

of painted rawhide objects en general, it can be seen with close scrutiny that no traces of

any liquid having seeped into the cracks and crannies in the epidermis are detectable on the

Pectol Shields. The crazing or crackling of the epidermal side of bison hide occurs with

age throughout the years alter the respective objects are made. Hence, any sizing is

present only on the very surface of the hide. In addition, examination of both sides of each

Pectol Shield with black light revealed none of the greenish florescence that would be

expected from varnish of lacquer.

INCISING “

A prevalent technique with probable symbolic meaning, and consequential decorative aspects is referred to as “incising," which is the creation of patterns in the epidermis of

buffalo hide by scoring and / or excising the dark outer layer to expose the lighter inner

layer. This process creates designs of contrasting shades in the natural colors ofthe hide.

(F ig.5). Incising is most likely an ancient technique, easily hit upon almost automatically

by any groups during the processing of bufalo hide. Incising (inc. excising) became a

common form of ornamentation practiced by Plateau tribes especially-—primarily on parfleches. However, Plains Indian also employed incising on partleches and on other

object types as well, chiefly on the reverse sides of shields. Painted designs intended for

the iiont of a shield were nearly always applied to the flesh side, hence with buifalo

rawhide the epidermis on the reverse was available for incising. Men of the Crow tribe in particular practiced this custom, but it was not limited to them A possible connection exists between the Plains Indian practices of incising and excising motifs on the reverse

sides of shields with Pectol Shield III (CARE l 1). It is conceivable that the makers,

assuming them to the Apachean, picked up and retained the trait when they were still

living further north than they were in later years. Although depicted on the front of the

shield, and therefore probably relating to painted——rather than incised motifs, the in-

“

l l

N N 02 8781

pointing triangular motifs on the shield in Figure 34 call to mind the incised pattems illustrated in Fig. 5

SOUTHWESTERN PAINTING

Among the Southwestern Pueblo peoples, painting of objects has been largely restricted to ceremonial paraphemalia primarily made of wood, such as articles for altars, non- secular clothing and accessories, and kachina dolls. In addition, numbers of fabric and leather objects (and even feathers) are likewise painted-- moccasins, armbands, kilts,

O masks, and headdress and tableta parts-- again things largely specified for spiritual » purposes. The Navajo made very little use of painted objects. The principal object types

were Yeibechai masks. The liiglilyacharged symB|died in their well-known N \ (lx.

sandpaintings fall into the class of objects being discussed. This author sees little in

VY p_ ,_ common between sandpaintings and the symbols on the Pectol Shields, although a detailed

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X0| i study along these ll1'1CSh3.S__[lQl_lQ§@ll_l(lQ(!QliIQ.l(€H.

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tw As with leather objects lrom the Great Basin, Plains and Plateau, in the Southwest

precious few pre-contact __aj\‘ticles of any k;r_rd_be _ari rr_g_purpgseti1 j_ly applied pigments

, V

survive to the present. Nonétheless,Tawhide and some miniature wooden shields were made in notable quantities by Southwestem Pueblo peoples at least since early historic times. (Fig. 6) Bearing fired paints and glazes, ceramics are in a separate class not

i`

considered here. Some items, such as certain moccasins, were painted with dry paints—— the pigments simply being rubbed on. Other articles, in a more widespread practice, were colored with solution-- basically pigments wholly or partially dissolved in water, and

, without a"binder. In Southwestern painting sizing was not typically .used-to prepare wood

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or leather rigor to painting. Neither was sizing mixed with pigments for application, nor

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applied to t esurface after being painted.

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lhe resulting surlace characteristics ol` painted historic Southxx estern Pueblo objeets in

particular-- other than those ot`the Apache. are recognizably dissimilar lrom that ot`

painted objects lrom the (ireat llasic. Plains and Plateau. The unsized pigment surlace on

such objects as rawhide shields and vtood displays a characteristic matte linish. not smooth

and shiny like objects lrom the latter areas, and like the Pectol Shields. 'l`he surihces are

prone to pondering. flaking and chipping. (l·`igs. 3. (r. 7. 8) l’articulz1rly with painted

Pueblo leather objects. naturally subject to tlexing. the unsixed paints slough otlin tiny bits

to larger pieces and leave irregular spotting across the surliiee. Altliougli wooden objects

are not tlexible. their surlitces are given to flaking are xx ell. (l·`ig. (i)

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As with the practice ofincising bullalo rawhide. it is plausible that as various groups ol`

Athabascan s eakers moved in southerlv and southwesterly directions tlirou ·h the . . E

mountains and plains. those who became the various bands ot Apaches developed. borrovved and or retained a vibrant leather painting. 'l his artistic trait. that permitted the

tangible expression not only creativity. but also ot`the representation ol` non—secular

svmbols imbued vvith covert meaning. 'liherelore. when combined with other leatures.

waintin 1 technolo tv and the resultin · nature ot`the iainted areas ol`ob` ects lrom diverse E . is

cultural areas serve explicitly in dillerentiating possible areas ol origin. and possiblv even

in determining cultural or specilic tribal attribution.

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APACHE PAINTED OBJECTS

The various groups of Southern Athabascan peoples coalesced into historic groups, particular the widespread, yet quite homogeneous diverse bands of Navajo, and the several groups of Apaches, Who in later historic times came to be (and still are) identified as the Lipan, Kiowa-Apache, Jicarilla, Mescalero, Chiriicahua, and Westem (or Arizona) Apache. The Navajo and Apaches early on developed distinctive cultural traits,

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including——and in particular their respective body of material culture. TheVN_3yajq,u_r_ rlike i

the Apaches, never became proficient leather workers. Not to say that the Navajo

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processed no animal skins—but for whatever reasons, they never developed the use of

j rawhide, painting on rawhide and tanned leather, nor beadwork on tanned leather to an

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elevated degree.

lt is unlikely that the Athabascan peoples developed their many traits independent from other groups with whom they associated during their migration. In particular Plains and Plateau Indians, as well as the Apacheans, carried the practice of painting on rawhide and

tanned leather was carried to a high level. The presence of Apachean groups in South-

Central Utah in early times, certainly the time of the Pectol Shields——AD 1500, is given

evidence by the presence of recognizably Apachean painted leather objects. Figs. 9,

16

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FIGURE 10, Jicarilla Apache Parfleche (schematic drawing), Morrow (1975:85).

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As can be seen in these few illustrations, the commonality of characters of the motifs, including basic triangular, rectangular and serrated forms is characteristically Apache.

Serrations along the borders of primary motifs are prototypically Apache painting on

tanned leather and rawhide, including shields. (Figs. 1, 17)

Likewise. pattems of alternating dark and light (usually black and unpainted) rectangles

or squares are commonly seen in Apache hide painting (as well as in later beadwork).

Serrations. or "toothed borders" are immediately apparent to the eye on Pectol Shield ll

(CARE 191). and on the parfleche from Nine-Mile Canyon. (Figs.l) Such artistic

cohesion lrom late prehistoric times into the late 19m century (and indeed on to the

present) is unmistakable)

22

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SYNTHESIS OF CONVERSATION WITH GAYLORD TORRENCE, 8-3-01

Among numbers of other scholars, Gaylord Torrence, an art historian who has focused his life’s research on North American Indian material culture, professor at Drake University, and author of THE AMERICAN INDIAN PARFLECHE: A TRADITION OF ABSTRACT PAINTING, has discussed the Pectol Shields with the author in depth. We observed that the Pectol Shields are reminiscent of Plains shields on one hand, and Apache on the other-but noted the origin of Apachean peoples in the North, and that at least the more easterly Apachean groups have a connection with Plains Indians (and exhibited

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numerous traits common to Plains Indian cultures. We agreed that certain design elements rpt. yy and characteristics, especially those on painted rawhide containers, were shared between

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i·’ the Apache, and Comanche, and even the Ute. All three of` these people were originally (gi _1

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located further north than in late historic times, and at times were in close proximity to other.

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Particularly notable on Apache parfleches are the small, solid, black "teeth" arranged in i a sawtooth "&inge" in association with primary motifs. (Figs. 9 — 18, and 20) The teeth

figure prominently as outlining around the curved portion (left half) of the asymmetrical motif on Pectol Shield Il (CARE 191). (Fig. 1) Westem Plateau and the Kutenai painted teeth as borders in parfleche motifs. It is plausilje|erged as shared ideas as distinct groups interactEcY’~

Torrence cornrnented related that radical asymmetry is a predominant feature of

Apache painting, both in geometric fomis and figures, and that asymmetry is certainly present on all three Pectol Shields, and is ever present on Plains shields. He also observed, and the author agreed, that certain aspects arepchjracteristic of Apache pigments as well and painting itself The solid coloration of painted designs is striking-the density? of color, and the precision of execution. The pigments were obviously well prepared, and applied with care. The color is smooth, evenly spread-- not splotchy or caked, as it is in much Puebloan painting. (Figs. 3, 6, 7, 8) Design concepts are fully

fleshed out- evidence of a firmly rooted artistic tradition.

Quadrants of color and the orientation of motifs into quadrants, as on Pectol Shield II (CARE 191), and conceivably even Shield III (CARE l 1)-- as well as on other shields with firm Apache documentation, seem to involve directional themes, at times the semi-

cardinal directions. (Fig. lb, 17, 18) The arrangement of motifs into quadrants is observed even on Apache medicine shirts-painted buckskins. (Figs. 14, 15, 16) Also see

Bourke, 1970)

The inverted triangular form on Pectol Shield III (CARE ll) can read as a quadrant configuration. It is identical to the reverse side of some Crow Indian shields. Note the two triangles formed by excising the epidermis on the back of Pectol Shield III (CARE .

l 1). (Fig. 5) The removal of epidermis to create pattems was widely practiced by Plains Indians on the backside of shields.

25

N N 028795

Torrence observed that on Pectol Shield I (CARE 12), the overall pattem of dots, the "countless circles" is an Apache sensibility. (Figs. 1, Pueblo sensibility is large, broad forms organized horizontally. This shield (Pectol I, CARE 12) is vertical. In Pueblo painting there is a top and a bottom. The orientation relates to the landscape-the earth and sky. It is more notably organized. It has a pictorial structure. Apache sensibility is

celestial and visionary.

Torrence: "Black dashes on Pectol Shields I (CARE 12) and II (CARE 191) seem almost by the same hand- a distinct pictorial convention, a way of defining a line. (Fig. 1) If not the same hand, they are in close proximity in time and / or cultural group. These

guys were all sitting around together! The red curved dashes at the base of the each tapered bar or feather on the ‘tail’ [Pectol Shield II] make a deHnite visual distinction on each form. lt can argue that they form are tail feathers, whichever way they are oriented, but especially off to the side. This reminds me of a ‘sun skirt’ on a Pueblo shield- streamers of light when the sun goes behind a cloud. (Spinden, 1931: 12) (Fig. 19) However, the orientation of the “bird tail” on Pectol Shield II (CARE 191) is not toward the bottom [of the shield]. This is the classic radiating form of tail feathers in a sense that

they are opposite the curving form to their left. The overall sensibility of the [Pectol] shields does not seem Puebloan. No. HI (CARE ll) particularly looks P1ains."

[End conversation with Torrence.]

At first glance it might bc suggested that the triangular motif` with flaring bars of color of

Pectol Shield III (CARE 1 1) (Fig. lc) might show a relationship to the familiar Pueblo "sun skirt." (Fig. 19) However, the motif encompasses approximately only an eight of the surface——far less than the usual sun skirt motif More importantly, the orientation is in the opposite direction is in the opposite direction, and the analogous flair of bars on Pueblo

shields.

SIGNIFICANCE OF OTHER PAINTED LEATHER OBJECTS FROM UTAH

ln our article, LA TE |PAINT ED RA WHIDE and LEATHER AR T1FACTSji·6frrUTA , ame 1ller (Assistant Director, Curator of Archaeology, and

Instructor of Anthropology and Museum Studies at the College of Eastem Utah Prehistoric Museum in Price, Utah) and the author of this paper illustrated nine objects. We discussed their physical characteristics, relationship to each other, and the possibilities of their tribal attribution. (Lanford and Miller, 2000:38 —- 47) (Figs. 20, 21, 22, 23) The two buH`alo robes and a painted parfleche were found together in|e- |@_aL Price, Utah. (Figs. 20, 22, 23) show strong features of Apache hide

painting, particularly the parfleche. Compare all with Figures 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, *‘, 17, 18. The motifs painted on the parfleche are unmistakably Apache is overall character

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. and execution. As well, the distinctiveness of t| Ob

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lil) Parfleche extends to the burden strap found by Ephraim Pectol, as well as the burden strap

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26

N N 028796

lrom the Sitteruti liundlc. tl ig 20,) Note only are the colors yirtually identical. but thc

llayor olithe motils are strongly reminiscent Oli/\[7LlCl1C painting in general, and o teach

other in particular. The tact that the Pectol Burden Strap was lound in close proximity to

where liphraim Pectol discoyercd the lhree Pectol Shields supports the probable

presence. and possible occupation ol`/Xpache peoples in the Torrey. Utah vicinity. ln

addition. it is signilicant to note that among other things, this parllcche contain a quantity ofporcupine quills dyed yellow and light green. ll`indeed this bundle is ofApache origin. the presence ot`the porcupine quills gives evidence to the lact that they practiced the

ubiquitous Plains and Plateau art forms ol` utilizing quills in many techniques to elaborate the material culture. this primarily on tanned leather articles. See Promontory Moccasins. below.

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27

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(.`()l\ll’.»\RlS()N V\'llll Sllll·Ql.l)S IN R()(`ls .’\l{ll

lliseussed above is the criticrrlness otorienting the Pectol Shields correctly to y iew their

painted symbols. as well as the marrner in which they possibly relate to cultural aspects ol

the original owners. llowcver. explicit understandirrg and reliable interpretation ofthe

latter consideration will ever remain illusiye and largely speculative. ln comparison to

shields tiom more southwIesterlyI. non~.»\paclre groups t.»\rixona and New Mexico), the

nrotils on Pectol Shields l and lll ((`ARlC I2 and l l ) in particular are arranged along a

xertical axis. As rlillicult as it is to ascribe linguistic group. or cultural or tribal atliliatrorr

to shields depicted in roclr art in general (including those in the respective l·`igures in this

essay. as well as at least seven ot`the shields in l·ig 24), the prevalence ol` vertical

orIient;rtion and grid—lil(e patterning ol` designs may indicate a regional trait that extends

tlrrorrglrout the Plains. lylountain regions. and (lreat Basin, but that is lacking in the

Soutlrwest.

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NN028800

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FIGURE 24, Shield-bearing figures from White Canyon in Montana, after Schaafsma (1971 :_).

ig li

The similarity of the grid| or diminutive elements on the two shields depicted in rock art in Figs 5, 26, and 2 to the grid of dots on Pectol Shield I (CARE 12) is clearly recognizable. Again, a r|1y.playsa-role.in.lhese three, as well as in other examples. The shield in Fig. 26, from a rock a1·t site at Weatherman Draw, south-central Montana, displays a broad grid of dots covering the entire surface of the shield, although the rows appear visually to be horizontal. This visual eff` ect possibly resulted from an accident of execution-the order in which the artist proceeded in pecking the individual dots into the stone surface in horizontal rows. However, the overall effect is virtually identical to the shields covered entirely with dots

31

N N 02 880 1

•••••••| •••• 4I* •••|4 l·•l

‘•II\I\II•• {ali}! if ,*5 I 'la y|II • • I = _! gqgin I,;I .p•••• nn! g·gI•** |||` •

· \ viii ·•9 '•••..···’

FIGURE $5 Painted !l"tl¢ld bearer! (425115061 Salt Creek. S0urr•.·I Charles 8. Boogher photo.

I lIl( it llfli I5. Slrield~bearIirrg ligrrres lrom rock art in the la Sal l`vlountairrs. lltah. alter

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NN028803

\rrI~tlrtIr rot l. .r·t slnelrl in \\e.rtlrr.Irnr.rrr lnprw \l·»rrt.rrr.r r—. ·.orrrewlr.rt {tllLilt*_f'Jtll‘ rrr tlrrr

,nrrplI· rr—.t ot dots (Vs tlns cxarrrplc .r row ol dots lollows tlrt perrrrrcter. tl rg `\

lrr~.torIirI .I\p.rr;lre slrreld coyer in the .~\rrrr·rie.rrr i\lll‘ »t'lllll ol \.rtur;rl llrstory. \\ drspl.ry—I in

elleet the exact satire pattern. tlI`ig. ill) lt is irnportant to consider tltat while concrete

ex idenr e otlditlrrsrorr is laclrirrg. giterr the rnyriarl exarnples oltlre shield olneet type inthe

vorrtrgrrorrs t“r‘;.¥ir>tts. it is corrrheiyzrlrlc tltat these artistic traits indeed existed in corrrrrron

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4 l

THE DOT MOTIF ON OTHER FORMS

By extension, the painting of dots over the entire surface of objects was practiced in a number of situations among historic Plains Indians: the human face and body, horses, warshirts, leggings, moccasins, pouches, and tipi covers. While any possible connection

between these and the project at hand is uncertain, the incidence is worthy of note, and underscores the prevalence of repeated dot motifs in arts on the Plains and adjacent areas outside the Southwest.

The Pectol Shields are so similar in overall features that they were undoubtedly made by

_

the same group, very likely in the general locale. The probability ofthe Pectol S11ields’

l origination inthe area where discovered is dernons|TYw.”" It is well established that

i vafivus gr<a¤p;nd;a¤&i2Ctli€l>Qi;L%` ah.i,a§a.ibiiinary..mcans..é£1ive1i1;Qpr1..i¤.i. l¤abiter1_Q_¤e_¤;ggio¤,

and they leii behind for discovery numerous examples of painted and unpaintediobjects made of buffalo hide _th_e’_region. On the whole, the Pectol Shields exhibit esthetic

l

sensibility common to the Plains and Montane regions, dissimilar &om imagery with more

Y}

southwesterly origins. In more than a htmdred examples of shields in rock art from the Southwest the author has found virtually nothing that parallels the overall character of

I

Pectol Shield I (CARE 12) in particular, and very little in Shields II (CARE 191) and III (CARE ll).

ASYMMETRY OF DESIGN

As introduced above in the discussion with Gaylord Torrence, the asymmetry of design

, is seen repeatedly in Plains Indian arts, yet is atypical of Southwestem arts. Remembering

{

that Athabascan peoples migrated from sub-arctic regions to the plains and westem

(

mountains, some continuing into New Mexico and Arizona, plausibly explains in part the {

&equency with which radical asyrmnetry occurs in Apache geometric and tigural painting on leather (Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 31, 32) Not only do the two painted buffalo robes, and the small, elaborately painted parfleche iiom the Nine-Mile Canyon bundle exhibit pronounced asymmetry of design (Figs. 22, 23, 20), but explicit asymmetry is manifest in the Pectol Shields. Asymmetry is most dramatic in Shields I and II (CARE 12 and CARE 191) (Figs.27, 31) but it is arguable that the main triangular motif on Shield III (CARE ll) displays asymmetry in its placement. (Fig. 32) Note the similar upward

orientation ofthe triangular motifs in this Pectol Shield with that in Figure 33.

The asymmetry of Shield I (CARE 12) is not immediately discernible. The middle (vertical) strip is the one furthest to the right. Like the vertical red ocher strips, it is

bordered on each side by a narrow green band. (Fig. 27)

. 35

N N 028805

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NN028808

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tl*)]’(»; l P). “N;tta_ttt—» tettttetl to paint their sltieltls ltlaek itt ttwe pttiltttewt t>t\tat‘-telgttetl

(¤l)j(‘(`l¤ `vllklll Llrs lllc ll()\t\ ;t1ltlttl`l`t>\\ (tt llttf lltttlltllitlll llttll. ()llle‘l` lll\t>l`c(l tlcxlglta \\ct‘tJ llly

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?\tttttett>tts (ll')lCL`lf» ttt`ltttt`lZtl(t ltitle. sttttte elalttttalel) paitttetl with (lL‘SlyllS_ txete ttttttttl

tltttittt; the Zlltlt eetttttty itt eettttal lftalt etttpltasixe the tact tltat their tttakers were pettples

txlttt ltatt tqlttse aststteiatitttt with histttt. ltatltet tltatt hettittz ittttttetite articles ltrttttgltt ittttt the

tetzitttt lirttttt elsexxltere. these attttitets were likely tttattttlaetttretl the itt gettetal regitttt

ttltete ltttttttl lltat this tttttttltet (lll lCCllllt)l(lgl(.Ttlll} zttttl artistically teltttetl ttltieets was.

tli>»(·tttt·tietl lt; |(t;ttrtpett>;tattee is itt atttl t>t`itseltextt‘;tt>t‘tlitt;tt‘y. l tttltttthtetlly the; teptesettt a

there ttaetttttt (lli il tteteetttztgye ttl`all like types tttttltieets pttttttteetl tlttttttttlt the eetttttttes itt

lu

NNO28809

the respective region, but that have disintegrated or yet go undiscovered. The particular objects introduced above include three buffalo robes, a parfleche (rawhide packing case),

t two burden straps, and the three shields discovered by Ephraim Pectol. Two ofthe

]

buffalo robes and the parfleche were found in association with each other. In addition to these painted examples d¤tiqg_,tQ.th<_;S3¤ _. ¤.e.gettet·@1Lime-p9;iQ<1_({@§j99af.bi2aQ.eLeS A· D-

l 155,1 gg_A,V,D. |,75 0), al

munber ofundecorated leather objects have also been found.

Supporting the probability that these objects most likely pertain to local material culture, rather than being imported from elsewhere, is the fact that |h American “buifalo," or Bison bison) w| e

Pegtol Shields attd other objects (according to radio carbon

{lg! dating` tTcEiiHs)1‘"GTufn`i` eY§Pt`(l'97Z: 135) states that around 1500 herds of North American "buffalo” (Bison bison) began to peak in population, and that continually increasing bison

density on the High Plains is supported by subseqttern_.overt10w.into`|.

In conversations with the author in the l970’s, Milford G. Chandler supplied additional

supportive of the fact that buffalo were in the parklands and valleys of Utah, at least until the mid 19th century. Ute people, and Harry Burgess, an agent to the Ute, and subsequently the Pawnees (called Puks Puhut “Red Hair" by the latter), related to Mr. Chandler that a type of buffalo robe characterized by extra long and silky hair were region specific. Sioux friends told Mr. Chandler that they sought after such robes, having first

been made aware of them during the years of intertribal warfare.

PROMONTORY POINT MOCCASINS

Of incalculable significance in the study of late prehistoric people of the Great Basin, i

'il

are m¤12.L. h=;<tt_l¤¤¤;{r_esl_§Q¤t1@..m<2e¤aeix1s.dise9@e51_;mx|ury at

QJLM I

Ptgmgmmfmii a P?“i”S”l‘*‘ jutling im?.Qlfat..Sali.L§l€¢.@Q9}1i*£Q9_Y}l1_9m Sh01’€- Many are ofthe moccasins are rnadéiof buff`alo hide with the hair attached to the leather. That

the turned‘Hw'aFd`indEatesthat`ifhese were for winter wear. Coupled with numbers of other objects made of buffalo hide, some of which discussed herein, the importartce of bison in the economies ofthe late pre-contact peoples is apparent. T|w example of porcupine quillwork is on the vamp__oj_` a singlc.moc¤aSin.&Q§1_§omontory Point.

VARIOUS APACHE GROUPS

The existence of a number of Apache groups over a widespread area in the Westem Plairts and Mountains in early contact times underscores the diHiculty of determining of which modem group or groups might count among its members the present day descendents of those who made the Pectol Shields. These include the modem Apache groups (also listed elsewhere in this essay): Lipan, Kiowa-Apache, Mescalero, Jicarilla,

Chiricahua, San Carlos, and White Mountain Apaches. Throughout his book, A History of

40

N N 02881 0

\t it l/t·ttt an /‘/tttttt /itt/ttm /t't·/tt/tom. lxetttter ( l‘)(>‘tl piles tttetttiott titearlj .‘\[)Ll(.`lle'

liatttls, ltetttteittlt itlltitliity ttl the etitttplieatetlttess titltaeittg late pre—et»tttaet atttl tlte

earliest post (etitttttet ltaittls t>l}\paeltes alltttletl tit itt tlte litetatttte. l he ( Qtrlatta.

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w rittett aeetittttts. lsetttter states. "

l he l*aratitt Apaeltes. tiitttttl alttttg tlte (`attatlittatt itt

l7 l 5 hy a Spattislt expetlitititt attd tttetttitirtetl hy la llarpe itt l7l‘i as lixittg west ot`the ll atitatyas, were stttttt tttlerwartl set tiptiit hy tlte (' ttitisttteltes. .~\ltltt>tiglt there are no

L'(tlll(jlll[)(tl`tlI}'Llk`(`(1llIIlf%(ll`ll1L‘ll`(.ltJltJill.lli t.‘(!Ll(ll`()(ltJ(‘l”ttl\ statetl itt l7t<l tltat stitttetittte

earlier. a pttrtitttt tittlte l\lesealertt Apaeltes hail heett tiireetl to llee `trtittt their tiltl pttehltis

tillil Nttrte] ztlttttist eertaiitly it reterettee tti tlte l‘l tll`tl(tllUh.“ (Ketttter. l‘)(t‘);.3~l)

ltt atltlititnt tu tlte etttttplexit) t>t` lr;teittg Apaelte grtttips tit tlte present. as well as

tlitslitttrjttisltittp hetweett tlte speeilie tribes who praetieetl what might ttte ealletl "area art ttirttts." we tltttst lttttk also at tlte taet tltat lmrt·tiwtittg and rtttttttal itttlttettee itt material ettltttre was a given laet t»t` ettltttrztl elevelttpittettt atttl evtiltttioit. l lte attthtir tlisettssetl tlte

[)llCll(>l'll()ll(`>t1ttli fsllilllltf tttotits exltihitetl itt painted Apache. (`otttattelte arttl event llte

parlleeltes, althttitgh we agreed tltat tlte Apaelte were at tlte eettter ot`the art style. (l’ersott:tl etitttittttrtieatitttt with tlte ;tt.ttlttir, August l, Zlltll .) (lips lhe latter two tribes

sltaretl with tlte Apaeltes, resitletttial attd / or tttigrttttiry areas through tlte (treat Basin. at {

least (lttrittg stittte ot`the sti-existeitee.

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CONCLUSION

ln the introductory paragraph of this essay it is stated that early on a strong initial suspicion that the makers of the three Pectol Shields were Apachean. Investigation of

early groups inhabiting the area furnished evidence that the presence of Apachean peoples (among others) was certain during the era in which the Shields were manufactured. Close examination was made ofthe Pectol Shields to determine their correct orientation for viewing. Likewise, close examination was given the technique of painting employed by their maker(s). Comparative analysis was done between a number of other painted, late pre-contact rawhide and leather artifacts from Utah. In particular, the comparison ofthe

painted features of the Nine-Mile Canyon parfleche with later historic Apache parfleches

furrtished weighty evidence that a yet unidentified Apachean group manufactured not only

this particular parfleche, but also the two painted buffalo robes (and other contents) of the

Nine-Mile Canyon Bundle in which the parfleche was found. Historic Pueblo and4 Navajo

shields and painted objects were compared——symbols as well as painting techniques.

Comparative analysis with shield motifs in rock art, and with historic examples was

undertaken.’

V

The designation of "Apachean" is decided upon prompted by the difficult and

uncertainty of designating a present-day group or groups who might be the direct descendents of whomever created the Pectol Shields. It is the determination of the author

that the makers were indeed Apachean——Athabascan speakers, who by the respective

V

point in history had diverged from their Athabascan-speaking cousins, the Navajo. Given

;`\>—j yr` in part the examples of their material culture represented by the painted rawhide and

YW Vi it

leather objects considered to the Apachean, these people were recognizably distinct

enough from the Navajo to be considered a separate cultural group. Despite considerable

|,,2;* ,i comparative analysis of similar material culture objects of other groups &om the region, gitti ,¤,t*tgO ¤_ the investigative trail has lead to an Apachean designation for the Pectol Shields.

V rx

·.

FN

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CONSULTATION

Throughout the research for this essay, the author has discussed aspects with a number of colleagues, including:

- Allen Chronister, ethnologist, Helena, Montana.

- Larry Belitz, ethnologist, artist, Hot Springs, South Dakota.

- Milford G. Chandler, ethnologist (now deceased).

- Winfield Coleman, ethnologist, San Francisco, California

- Mike Cowdrey, ethnographer, San Luis Obispo, California.

- Joseph Engelhard, mammalogist, Harbor Springs, Michigan.

- Kay Fowler, Professor of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno._

- Riku Hamalainen, researcher, Dept. of Comparative Religion, U. of Helsinki, Finland.

- Larry Loendorf archaeologist

- Pamela Miller- Assistant Director and Curator of Archaeology, and Instructor of

Anthropology and Museum Studies at the College of Eastem Utah Prehistoric Museum, Price, Utah.

- Dr. Imre Nagy, ethnologist, Director of Science, Ferenc Mora Musemn, Szeged, Hungary.

2 Dr. Colin Taylor, ethnologist, author, Hastings, England.

- Gaylord Torrence, author, exhibit curator; Professor of Art, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa; August 3, 2001.

Barton Wright, ethnologist, author.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baldwin, Stuart J., APACHEAN S BEARING GIFTS: Prehispanic Influence on the Pueblo Indians, The Arizona Archeologist, No. 29, Arizona Archaeological Society, February, 1997.

Berger, Rainer, and Libby, W. F., UCLA RADIOCARBON DATES VII, UCLA-1221, The Pectol Shields, 1968.

Bourke, John Gregory, THE MEDICINE MEN OF THE APACHE, Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Etlmology, Smithsortian Institution. Reprinted by The Rio Grande Press, Inc., Glorieta, New Mexico, 1970.

Buskirk, Winfired, THE WESTERN APACHE, University of Oklahoma Press, Nomran, 1986.

Castleton, Kenneth B., M. D., PETROGLYPHS AND PICTOGRAPHS OF UTAH, Vol. One: THE EASTAND THE NORTHEAST, Utah Museum of`Nat1u·al History, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, 1984.

Conner, Stuart W., SHIELD DESIGN COMPARISONS: PECTOL ET AL, report submitted to Capitol Reef National Park, 1985.

Cordell, Linda S., PRESHISTORY OF THE SOUTHWEST, New World Archaeological Record Series, School of American Research, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 1984.

Day, Jane S., Friedman, Paul D., Tate, Marcia J., eds., ROCK ART OF THE WESTERN CANYONS, Colorado Archaeological Society Memoir No. 3, 1989.

Dutton, Bertha P., AMERICAN INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1983.

Fagan, Brian M. ANCIENT NORTH AMERICA: The Archaeology of a Continent, Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, 1991.

Ferg, Alan, editor, WESTERN APACHE MATERIAL CULTURE: The Goodwin, and Guenther Collections, The Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona Press, 1987.

V

Gebhard, David S., The Shield Mary in Plains Rock Art, AMERICAN ANTIQUITY, 31. PP 721-732, 1966.

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Grant, Campbell, ROCK ART OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN, Outbooks, Golden, Colorado, 1981

Gunnerson, Dolores A., THE JICARILLA APACHES: A Study In Survival, Northem Illinois University Press, DeKalb, 1974.

Gunnerson, James. H., ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE HIGH PLAINS, Cultural Resource Series, No. 19, Bureau of Land Management, Colorado, 1987.

Haile, Berard, HEAD AND FACE MASKS IN NAVAHO CEREMONIALISM, The St. Michaels Press, St. Michaels, Arizona, 1947.

Hotz, Gotttiied, INDIAN SKIN PAINTINGS FROM THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1970.

Houk, Rose, DWELLERS OF THE RAINBOW: A Story ofthe Fremont Culture in the Capitol Reef Country, Capitol Reef Natural History Association, Torrey, Utah, 1988.

Jennings, Jesse D., PREHISTORY OF UTAH AND THE EASTERN GREAT BASIN, Anthropological Papers, University of Utah, No. 98, Salt Lake City, 1978.

VV//L Kenner, Charles L., A HISTORY OF NEW MEXICAN - PLAINS INDIANI

V ,4 RELATIONS, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1969.

'/W Kessell, Jolm L. KIVA, CROSS, AND CROWN: The Pecos Indians and New Mexico

1540 - 1840, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1987.

Keyser, James, D., A Shoshonean Origin for the Plains Shield Bearing Warrior MoriQ

PLAINS ANTHROPOLOGIST, Plains Anthropologist, Vol. 20, pp., 207-215, 1975.

Kluckholn, Clyde, Hill, W. W., and Wales, Lucy K., NAVAJO MATERIAL CULTURE, University of Harvard Press, 1971.

Kreutzer, Lee Ann, PECTOL SI—HELDS, report ofthe Capitol Reef National Park, 1984

Kreutzer, Lee Ann, THE PECTOL / LEE COLLECTION, CAPITOL REEF NATIONAL PARK, UTAH, Utah Archaeology, 7( 1), pp. 104-116, 1994.

Lanford, Bertson L. and Miller, Pamela W., Late Prehistoric Painted Rawhide and

Leather Artyactsfom Utah, AMERICAN INDIAN ART MAGAZINE, Summer Issue 2000, Vol. 25, No. 3, Scottsdale, Arizona.

Loendorf] Lawrence L., A Dated Rock Art Panel Of Shield Bearing Warriors In South Central Montana, PLAINS ANTHROPOLOGIST, pp. 35 - 127, 1990.

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Loendorf} Lawrence L., and Conner, Stuart W., The Pectol Shields and the Shield- Bearing Warrior Rock A rt Motf Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 216-224, 1993.

Madsen, David, EXPLORING THE FREMONT, Utah Museum of Natural History, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, 1989.

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McGregor, Jolm C., AOUTHWESTERN ARCHAEOLOGY, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1982.

Morrow, Mable, INDIAN RAWHIDE: An American Folk Art, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1975.

Opler, Morris E., AN APACHE LIFE-WAY, pp. 391-92, 1941.

Patterson-Rudolph, Carol, PETROGLYPHS AND PUEBLO MYTHS OF THE RIO GRANDE, Avanyu Publishing Inc., Albuquerque, 1990.

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Schaafsma, Polly, THE ROCK ART OF UTAH, 1971.

Schaafsma, Polly, INDIAN ROCK ART OF THE SOUTHWEST, School of American Research Southwest Indian Arts Series, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1980.

Schaafsma, Polly, ROCK ART IN NEW MEXICO, Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe, 1992.

Schilz, Thomas F., LIPAN APACHES IN TEXAS, Southwestern Studies No. 83, University of Texas at El Paso, 1987.

Schlesier, Karl H., ed., PLAIN INDIANS, AD 500 - 1500: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAST OF HISTORIC GROUPS, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1994.

Smith, Anne. M., ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE NORTHERN UTES, Papers in Anthropology No. 17, Museum Of New Mexico Press, 1974.

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Smith, Watson, K1 VA MURAL DECORA T IONS A T A WA T OV] AND KA WAIKA-A, REPORTS OF THE AWATOVI EXPEDITION, Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and ethnology. Harvard University, Vol. XXXVII, Report No. 5, Cambridge, 1952.

Sonnichsen, C. L., THE MESCALEROS APACHES, University of Oklahoma Press, Normart, 1973.

Spinden, Herbert J., FINE ARTAND THE FIRST AMERICANS, INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN INDIAN ART, exposition of Indian Tribal Incorporated, c. 1931, NY.

Stewart, Julian, ANCIENT CAVES OF THE GRET SALT LAKE, Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin no. 1 16, 1937.

Sturtevant, William C., general editor, HANDBOOK OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS: GREAT BASIN, Vol. 2, Washington, D. C., 1986.

Tanner, Clara Lee, PREHISTORIC SOUTHWESTERN CRAFT ARTS, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1976.

Terrell, John Upton, THE PLAINS APACHE, Thomas Y. Crowell Company, NY, 1975.

Torrence, Gaylord, THE AMERICAN INDIAN PARFLECHE: A Traditional of Abstract Painting, University of Washington Press with the Des Moines Art Center,

Seattle, 1994.

Velarde Tiller, Veronica E., THE JICARILLA APACHE TRIBE, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1983.

Wedel, Waldo R., PREHISTORIC MAN OF THE GREAT PLAINS, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1961.

Winter, Joe, STONE CIRCLES, ANCIENT FORTS, AND OTHER ANTIQUITIES ,

OF THE DRY CIMARRON VALLEY, New Mexico Historic Preservation Program, Santa Fe, 1988.

Worcester, Donald, E., THE APACHES: Eagles ofthe Southwest, University of Oklahoma Press, 1979.

Wright, Barton, PUEBLO SHIELDS, Northland Press, 1976.

Wroth, William, ed., UTE INDIAN ARTS AND CULTURE: From Prehistory to the New Millennium, Taylor Museum of the Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center, 2000.

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Wyman, Leland C., editor, BEAUTYWAY: A Navajo Ceremonial, Bollingen Series LIII, Pantheon Books, NY, 1957.

Young, Jane M., SIGNS FROM THE ANCESTORS: Zuni Cultural Symbolism and Perceptions of Rock Art, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1988.

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BENSON LEE LANFORD

PROFESSIONAL RESUMEl

(September 1, 2001)

482 Lit Way Ashland, Oregon 97520

EXAMPLES OF ADVISORY EXPERIENCE

AMERICAN INDIAN ART MAGAZINE Bata Shoe Museum Foundation, Toronto, Canada Museum of Mankind, London, England Buffalo Bill Historical Center, Cody, Wyoming Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan Detroit Historical Society, Detroit, Michigan

Federal Bureau of Investigation, Los Angeles, Califomia Flint Institute of Arts, Flint, Michigan

Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma Hastings Museum, Hastings, England Museum of the Great Plains, Lawton, Oklahoma National Cowboy Hall of Fame, Oklahoma City Oklahoma State Historical Society Portland Art Museum, Portland, Oregon Prehistoric Museum, Price, Utah Southwest Museum, Los Angeles, California United States National Park Service

Yosemite Museum, Yosemite National Park, Califomia

SELECTION OF ARTICLES IN PRINT

Late Prehistoric Pointed Rawhide and Leather Arthfacts From Utah, co-authored with Pamela Miller, AMERICAN INDIAN ART MAGAZINE, Scottsdale, Summer 2000.

Three articles published in SPIRIT OF INDIAN: Trade Goods, The North American Indian T ipi. Indian Moccasins, published in Japanese by World Photo Press, Tokyo, January 2000.

Richard Alvin Pohrt: Master Collector ofthe American Indian Frontier, THE WORLD OF TRIBAL ARTS MAGAZINE, San Francisco and Paris, spring 1999.

The History of Collecting American Indian Art (parts I and II), THE WORLD OF TRIBAL ARTS MAGAZINE, issues 4 & 5, San Francisco and Paris, 1994-95.

Indian Made Conversions: Recycled Objects, published 1992 in ART IFA C T S / ARTIFAKES, papers ofthe 1984 Plains Indian Seminar, Buffalo Bill Historical Center, Cody, WY.

Total of 40 articles in print, including eleven on moccasin construction and identification.

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EXAMPLES OF PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

- History Advisor and Dialogue Coach for television movie MRHORN (U. S. Army scout). starring actors David Carradine, and Karen Black, Lorimar Productions, lnc., Los Angeles, 1978.

- Speaker and guide to prehistoric and historic sites and museums in New Mexico, Boston Museum of Science study group. Fall 1991.

- Videotaped interview discussing North American Indian art fakes and reproductions for CBS Good Morning America, aired spring, 1992.

— Videotaped interview for THE BEAD MOVEMENT, Impromptu Productions, aired on National Public Television, in fall 1997.

- Judge for Southwestem Association on Indian Affairs (“SWAIA"), Santa Fe Indian Market, 1992, 1995.

- Coordinator and translator for ten Fellows of the Kellogg Institute to Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, July 1993.

- Faculty member Southwest Institute, University of New Mexico, 1994, and 1995.‘

— Speaker, Traditional Contemporary Plains Indian Arts, European Association of

American Studies, University of Warsaw, Poland, March 1996.

- Attendee for three years Eastem Woodland Indian Conference, and presenter: The Magnyicence of Historic Miami Indian Art, 1998.

- Moderator for five years, and twelve papers presented since 1973, annual Plains Indian

Seminar, Buffalo Bill Historical Center, Cody, Wyoming.

- Attendee, research advisor at intemational conference on historic textiles, University of

Leeds, England, June 2000.

· Lectures presented on historic North American Indian material culture include: Eiteljorg

Museum, Flint Art Museum, Gilcrease Museum, New Orleans Museum of Arts, Southwest Museum; University of New Mexico, University of Tennessee, University of Westem Oregon, Intemational Embroidery Conference, Recursos de Santa Fe, the Bead Societies of Albuquerque and Portland; frequent national / intemational conferences.

- Appraiser and cataloguer of historic American Indian arts and material culture for

numerous institutions, inc.: Buffalo Bill Historical Center — Plains Indian Museum,

Cranbrook Institute of Science, Detroit Historical Society, Federal Bureau of

Investigation, Eiteljorg Museum, Museum of the Great Plains, Portland Art Museum, National Cowboy Hall of Fame, Southwest Museum.

· Advisor: TUALITY GIANTS, educational video on the giant sequoias in Oregon, current.

- Consultant for American Indian Department, Christie’s (intemational auction house),

New York / Los Angeles, current.

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CURRENT AND FUTURE PROJECTS

Manuscripts in preparation for publication:

- THE PAMPLIN LEDGER, co-author or book on historic Cheyenne ledger drawings, to be published early 2002.

- FRY BREAD GOES WITH EVERYTHING, a collection of American Indian recipes.

- Catalog of exemplary North American Indian art and material culture in international private and institutional collections

- Ribbonwork and Beadwork Patterns;

- Misconceptions About American Indian material culture.

- What to Do / What Not to Do In Museum Displays.

- Founder of a new annual conference on historic and traditional North American Indian arts and material culture; first conference Sept. 200l, Great Falls, Montana.

CURRENT PROFESSIONAL AF F LIATION

- Editorial reviewer, AMERICAN INDIAN ART MAGAZINE

- Member Native American Art Studies Association

EDUCATION AND PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

B. A. degree, University of the Americas Cholula, Mexico (formerly located in Mexico, D. F .). ~ Teaching Certificate, University of Michigan. Seventy postgraduate hours of study: Universities

of Michigan, and New Mexico.

Language Skills: Fluent in English and Spanish; conversant in Polish; familiar with French,

Russian, Italian, German, Lakota. Extensive domestic and international travel (4l countries),

including many to research collections of North American Indian material culture. Travel

experience: Four years residence in Mexico City between I960 and l965.

Social and professional relationship with various groups of American Indian people since

childhood. Extensive research, speaking and publishing experience relating to North American

Indians. Curator of personal research facility containing approximately 60,000 slides, and 5000

historic images of historic American Indian arts and material culture. Frequently sought as a

consultant by American Indian groups, institutions, collectors, publishers, and scholars.

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