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Old Testament
An Introduction to the Canon
What is the Old Testament? The book of the people of God
How and why we (the people of God) came to be Family album Formation through God’s free action
Blueprint Insight into God and what He expects How to be God’s people
History (of a special sort) Insight into the action of God in history, not photorealism Span of action is about 2000 years
Key for understanding ourselves and our situation
Large, old and diverse Span of writing is over 1000 years Different writers, various kinds of writing, changing circumstances
Salvation history Patriarchal period (2000? – 1500?)
Looked back on from later perspective; no contemporary writings
Creation, fall, beginning of redemption God appears as a character, interacting with a few key figures
Egyptian period Hebrews increase, but are enslaved
Exodus & Wilderness Wanderings (c.1250-1200) God intervenes dramatically Leadership of Moses Hebrews brought out of Egypt Sinai covenant
Allotments of the Twelve Tribes
Salvation History (2) Conquest of Canaan & Period of Judges
Loose confederation of tribes Holy war (incomplete) Cycles of drift into idolatry, repentance, rescue by a charismatic
leader (“judge”)
Monarchy (1030–586) David secures borders, establishes capital at Jerusalem Solomon constructs temple Nation splits into north and south kingdoms (Israel & Judah) Prophets protest idolatry & other abuses
Exile (586–529) Temple destroyed, monarchy ended Thousands of leading Israelites deported to Babylon Economic infrastructure devastated
Near East in Sixth Century
Salvation History (3) Persian period (529-331)
Jews allowed to return Second temple built Early Judaism (local worship in synagogue; centrality of Torah)
Greek period (331–167) Many Jews settle outside Palestine Scriptures translated into Greek (Septuagint, LXX) Persecution under Antiochus
Independence & Roman rule War of liberation by the Maccabees (167) Further OT writings in Hebrew and Greek Annexation by Rome (63) Temple overhauled by Herod
Important OT themes Revelation of God
A God who speaks to humans God is One God as Creator, and providence
The human person (greatness & wretchedness) Created in the image of God Marred by sin
God as liberator and savior Saves the people from outside threats, in the exodus and later Saves the people from its faults Saves individuals from death or oppression Salvation after death (hinted at)
Important OT themes (2) Election of Israel
Initiative is God’s (not earned) Called to know & love God, and be a light to other nations Brings responsibility, not entitlement
The Covenant You shall be treasured You shall be holy, as God is holy
The Law A gift (!) A blueprint for how to respond to God’s love (how to become
holy)
Important OT themes (3) Prayer and Cult
Privileged moments of communion with God Special times and places
Divine Reproaches & Condemnations Idolatry Injustice
Promises Descent from Abraham Promised land Salvation of Israel Reign of God Son and successor of David
Canon
From the Greek word kanon
Hebrew qaneh
Measuring stick or line
Groupings of the OT Books
Nevi’im – The Prophets
Latter Prophets Torah –The Law Former
Prophets The Twelve
Kethuvim – The Writings
Gen
esis
E
xodu
s L
evit
icus
N
umbe
rs
Deu
tero
nom
y
Josh
ua
Judg
es
Sam
uel
Kin
gs
Isai
ah
Jere
mia
h E
zeki
el
Hos
ea
Joel
A
mos
O
badi
ah
Jona
h M
icah
N
ahum
H
abak
kuk
Zep
hani
ah
Hag
gai
Zec
hari
ah
Mal
achi
Psa
lms
Pro
verb
s Jo
b S
ong
of S
ongs
R
uth
Lam
enta
tion
s E
ccle
sias
tes
Est
her
Dan
iel
Ezr
a/N
ehem
iah
Chr
onic
les
Pentateuch Historical Books Poetical Books Prophetical Books
Gen
esis
Exo
dus
Lev
itic
us
Num
bers
D
eute
rono
my
Josh
ua
Judg
es
Rut
h 1,
2 K
ingd
oms
3,4
Kin
gdom
s 1,
2 C
hron
icle
s **
1 E
sdra
s 2
Esd
ras
(Ezr
a/N
ehem
iah)
Est
her (
&)
Judi
th
Tob
it
1,2
Mac
cabe
es
**3,
4 M
acca
bees
Psa
lms
Pro
verb
s E
ccle
sias
tes
Son
g of
Son
gs
Job
Wis
dom
of
Solo
mon
Si
rach
**
Psa
lms
of S
olom
on
Hos
ea
Am
os
Mic
ah
Joel
O
badi
ah
Jona
h N
ahum
H
abak
kuk
Zep
hani
ah
Hag
gai
Zec
hari
ah
Mal
achi
Is
aiah
Jere
mia
h
Bar
uch/
Let
ter
of J
erem
iah
Lam
enta
tion
s
Eze
kiel
Dan
iel (
&)
Pentateuch Historical Books Wisdom Books Prophetical Books
Gen
esis
Ex
od
us
Lev
itic
us
Nu
mb
ers
Deu
tero
no
my
Josh
ua
Jud
ges
Ru
th
1,2
Sam
uel
1,2
Kin
gs
1,2
Ch
ron
icle
s
Ezr
a
Neh
emia
h
To
bit
Jud
ith
Est
her
(&)
1,2
Ma
ccab
ees
Job
Psa
lms
Pro
ver
bs
Ecc
lesi
aste
s S
on
g o
f S
on
gs
Wis
do
m
Sir
ach
Isai
ah
Jere
mia
h L
amen
tati
on
s
Ba
ruch
E
zek
iel
Dan
iel (&
) H
ose
a Jo
el
Am
os
Ob
adia
h Jo
nah
Mic
ah
Nah
um
Hab
akk
uk
Zep
han
iah
Hag
gai
Zec
har
iah
Mal
ach
i
THE OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS as Listed and Grouped in the Hebrew OT
THE OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS as Listed and Grouped in the Septuagint (LXX) Greek OT
THE OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS as Listed and Grouped in the New American Bible OT
Hebrew Scriptures
Law – Torah (Genesis through Deuteronomy) Prophets
Deuteronomistic History (Joshua – 2 Kings) Latter Prophets (Isaiah through Malachi)
Writings (everything else) Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah Wisdom Literature Apocalyptic (Daniel)
Torah
(also called Books of Moses or Pentateuch)
Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy
An Outline of the Pentateuch
Creation of World and Human Way of Life (Gen 1-11)
God’s Choice of the Patriarchs (Gen 12-50)
Liberation from Egypt (Exodus 1-18)
Formation of Israel through the Torah at Sinai (Exodus 19 –
Leviticus 26)
Formation of Israel through Wanderings (Nbrs 1-36)
Formation of Israel on the Plains of Moab (Deut 1-30)
Concluding Blessings and Transitions (Deut 31-34)
The PatriarchsGenesis 12–50
Abraham & Sarah
Isaac & Rebekah
Esau JacobIsrael
Jacob & Leah
Reuben Simeon Levi Judah Issachar Zebulon Dinah
Laban
Nahor
Terah
Haran
LotBethuelMoabites, Ammonites
Jacob & Bilhah
Dan Naphtali
Jacob & Zilpah
Gad Asher
Jacob & Rachel
Joseph Benjamin
Manasseh Ephraim
Edomites
Abraham & HagarIshmael
Ishmaelites
Abraham & KethuraMidian
Midianites
Stained glass at Temple Sinai, Glendale CA
The Torah as a Collection
First part of the canon established Earliest datable material: Song of Deborah (Judges 5),
Blessing of Jacob (Genesis 49), Song of Miriam (Exodus 15), Prophecies of Balaam (Numbers 22-24)-- 10th C. BCE
It was pulled together after the fall of Jerusalem in 587/86 BCE.
Regarded as fixed by the 4th century BCE Most authoritative
LITERARY PATTERNSGenesis 3:9-18 and 4:9-16
Where are you? The woman you
gave me What have you
done (Eve)? Cursed is the
ground Land to be
toiled without giving strength
Where is Abel? Am I my brother’s
keeper? What have you
done? Cursed are you
from the ground Land to be toiled
without giving strength
LITERARY PATTERNSGenesis 27:1–35:29Isaac
dying
Isaac dies
Jacob/Esau conflict
Jacob/Esau reconciliation
theophany
theophany
Jacob/Laban conflict
Jacob/Laban reconciliation
Leah/Rachel conflictBIRTH OF 12 SONS
and 1 daughter
LITERARY PATTERNSExodus 7:15–11:1 The Plagues of Egypt
1 Nile turned to blood“Tomorrow morning, when he sets out for the water, go and present yourself by the river bank…”
2 Frogs “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘Go to Pharoah…’”
3 Gnats This plague comes without warning
4 Flies“Again the Lord said to Moses, ‘Early tomorrow morning present yourself to Pharoah…’”
5 Plague on livestock “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘Go to Pharoah…’”
6 Boils This plague comes without warning
7 Hail“Then the Lord told Moses, ‘Early tomorrow morning present yourself to Pharoah…’”
8 Locusts “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘Go to Pharoah…’”
9 Darkness This plague comes without warning
10 Death of firstborn “Then the Lord told Moses, ‘One more plague I will bring upon Pharoah…’”
Formation of the PentateuchThe ‘Documentary Hypothesis’
Formation of the PentateuchThe ‘Documentary Hypothesis’
“Law” vs. “Torah”
What does “Law” bring to mind today?
“Torah” is translated “Law”, but had different connotation: Psalm 147:19-20, 119:1, 119:97
What are themes of these verses? Nobody else has Torah We’re lucky to have Torah Torah is the way to God
Prophets (Nebi’im or Nevi’im) Former Prophets
Joshua Judges Samuel Kings
Latter Prophets Major Prophets
Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel
Minor Prophets(Book of the 12) Hosea, Joel, Amos,
Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi
The Prophets as a Collection
“Prophecy” does not mean telling the future; it is about the action of God in history Prophet speaks on God’s behalf, in His name No new commandments, but the people are called to account, and
warned of the consequences of their ignoring the covenant. Increasing understanding of God’s universality, and His plan to redeem
all peoples Moral & ethical sensitivity reach levels unsurpassed in world literature
This collection is far more diverse. It was closed by the 2nd century BCE. We know that because Daniel (c. 164 BCE) was not included.
Basic Historical Data
1000 BCE United Monarchy 922 BCE Secession of North Israel 722 BCE Assyria defeats N. Israel 587 BCE Babylon defeats Judah
The United Monarchy, 1000-931
King Saul of the tribe of Benjamin emerges as warleader of United Israel c. 1030 BC?
Effective in war and seen to enjoy divine favour
How to unite diverse tribes and establish royal administration?
David, 1005-970 BC
King of Judah, then conquered Israel to establish United Monarchy
Establishes Jerusalem as royal and religious centre
Transformation from pastoral, tribal culture to hierarchical society with urban emphasis
Solomon, 970-931• Benevolent monarch or Near Eastern potentate?• Greatest project: the Temple, crafted by Phoenicians• Divided Israel into tax districts: fortified and garrisoned• Seen as favouring Judah in place of Israel
Divided Monarchy, 931-722 BC
Israel, aka Samaria: allied with Tyre, rich but geographically vulnerable: falls in 722 BC
Judah, protected by geography and fortified capital of Jerusalem, falls in 597
Themes of Prophets
Not just predictions of what will be, but also exhortations to avoid what might be
Three major themes of prophets Abuse of power by leaders (2 Samuel 12) Treatment of the poor (Amos 2:6-7) Idolatry
Babylonian Exile, 597-538 Failed rebellion against Babylonian rule King Jehoiachin and many citizens were removed
to Babylon; Temple and palace were looted & burned
Exile community refined and purified religious practices: returned to Judah under Persian rule
Themes of the Deuteronomistic History“Deuteronomistic History” is the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings
So called because style and outlook are very similar to Deuteronomy These books are also called the “Former Prophets” (i.e. earlier prophets)
God has chosen Israel to be a special people This choice leads to giving of a covenant in the Torah The Torah leads to life Sacrifice to God must occur in Jerusalem Ethics and Worship go hand-in-hand Sinful behavior of the people leads to divine punishment Repentance of the people leads to divine forgiveness God does not abandon Israel – even when they sin God raises up leaders (judges, then kings) to bring about restoration Prophets call both rulers and subjects to be faithful to the covenant
Writings (Kethub’im or Kethuv’im) Psalms Proverbs Job Song of Songs Ruth Lamentations
Ecclesiastes Esther Daniel Ezra-Nehemiah Chronicles
The Writings as a Collection Different formulations existed over time (compare Mt 7:12 to Lk 24:44) Greek-speaking Jews outside Palestine had a slightly larger collection:
Expanded versions of Esther and Daniel Judith, Tobit, Sirach, Wisdom of Solomon, 1&2 Maccabees, Baruch Also, sometimes, Esdras, 3&4 Maccabees, Psalms of Solomon This became the OT initially used by the Christian Church Esdras, 3&4 Maccabees, Psalms of Solomon were not used in the western
Church, so Catholics do not include them in the OT books
Following the destruction of the second temple in Jerusalem (70 CE), the pressure rose to close the canon
Last additions to the Palestinian canon were at Jamnia about 90 CE Ecclesiastes was probably declared officially “in” at this time. No surviving statement that the canon was now closed, but there were in
fact no additions after this.
Writings
Wrestle with application of the Law and Prophets to the post-Exilic world Who can be a member of the Community? Will God continue to take care of us?
Reveal a vital, reflective community of faith Great variety of voices – different responses to tradition But clearly the tradition is still central in the life of the community,
still speaking powerfully
Psalms
Show prayer and worship continue to be central in sustaining the faith community
Songbook and prayer book Show broad range of feelings & emotions it is proper to bring to
worship of God Lots of ‘complaint’ psalms, but they typically end in thanksgiving Longest single book in the Bible
Core component of the Church’s Liturgy of the Hours Also a key component of the Liturgy of the Word at Mass
Expresses the Church’s response to the proclaimed Word
Megillot
Read publicly at Jewish seasonal feasts Commemorate foundational events in community’s life
Song of Songs, read on Sabbath of Pesach (Passover) Commemorates God’s rescue of the people from slavery in Egypt
Ruth, read on festival of Shavuot (Weeks) Commemorates giving of Law at Sinai
Ecclesiastes, read on intermediate Sabbath of Sukkot Lamentations, read on fast day of Tisha B’Av
Commemorates God’s chastisement of the people with the fall of Jerusalem, and his continuing love
Esther, read on Purim Commemorates God’s rescue of the people from intended massacre
in Persia
Wisdom literature
Nature wisdom Observations of the natural world, that allow us to understand it
and coexist with it Lists of names (trees, animals, …)
Practical wisdom Analyzed the social order
Judicial wisdom Sought ways to settle disputes
Theological wisdom Sought answers for puzzling or troubling questions
human suffering unpunished injustice
Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah
Closely related to each other in date, style, and viewpoint Less literary merit than the other OT books Ezra, Nehemiah tell the story of the return from the Exile, and the
rebuilding of Jerusalem and the temple Chronicles overlaps with the Deuteronomistic History Different viewpoint from the Deuteronomistic History
Glass is half-full (Deut Hist is half-empty) Focus on establishing ties between repatriated Jews and earlier times
Process of Canonization
Stuff Happened People sang and spoke about the stuff that happened People wrote down what others sang and spoke about
the stuff that happened People worked earlier sources into longer documents The books reached canonical form
The Masoretic Text (MT)
The Tanakh is written primarily in Hebrew
We do not have any original manuscripts; we only have copies of copies
Codex Leningradensis is the oldest complete Hebrew manuscript we have. It dates to 1008 CE
Septuagint
Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible
Done in Alexandria, Egypt
3rd century BCE
Greek was the lingua franca of the region
Letter of Aristeas
Also known as the LXX
Included the Apocrypha 15 “hidden” books Written between 200-100
BCE Written in Greek Included in the early
Christian canon
Vulgate
Jerome’s translation of the Tanakh and NT into Latin
Commissioned by Pope Damasus in 382 or 383 CE to produce an authoritative Latin version
Word means “common” or “common translation.”
Jerome knew Greek, but learned Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, and Arabic to translate from as many different manuscripts as possible
Translation
Formal Correspondence Maintain the vocabulary,
grammar, structure of the original as closely as possible
NAB, RSV, NRSV, are all examples
Dynamic Equivalence More emphasis on creating
coherence in the receptor language
JB, NJB, NEB, TEV or Good News are all examples
Compare the NAB and TEV translations of Ruth 3:9b:
NAB: And she replied, “I am your servant Ruth. Spread the corner of your cloak over me, for you are my next of kin.”
TEV: “It’s Ruth sir,” she answered.
“Because you are a close relative, you
are responsible for taking care of me.
So please marry me.”
Background:
What is the primary sense of “man”? Older dictionaries say “human being”, but many would now disagree, especially in the United States.
Problem: Rendering ’adam or ’anthropos as ‘man’ can introduce a sexist tinge that
is foreign to the original text. “God speaks to man” – only men? Not men and women?
Inclusive Language
Hebrew Greek Latin English
’adam ’anthropos homo man
’ish ’aner vir man
Human being
Adult male human being
Typical workarounds: Change singular to plural Change “any man” to “anyone”, “no man” to “no one”, etc. Change “brothers” to “brothers and sisters”, “sons” to “children”, etc.
Examples:Ps 1:1a RSV: Blessed is the man [adam] who walks not in the counsel of the wicked
RNAB: Happy those who do not follow the counsel of the wicked
Ps 8:4 RSV: what is man that thou art mindful of him, and the son of man that thou dost care for him?
RNAB: What are humans that you are mindful of them, mere mortals that you care for them?
Acts 23:21a RSV: But do not yield to them; for more than forty of their men [aner] lie in ambush for him,
RNAB: but do not believe them. More than forty of them are lying in wait for him
Inclusive Language
Many newer translations (1983 and later) strive for gender-neutrality (or gender-equity), in varying degrees.
NAB, JB, RNAB, NJB are specifically Catholic versions RSV-CE (which has a handful of alterations of the RSV, all in the NT) is also
approved for some official Catholic uses This is the English version used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church
Inclusive Language Translations
Older version Updated, gender-sensitive version
Revised Standard Version (RSV) 1952 New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) 1989
Jerusalem Bible (JB) 1966 New Jerusalem Bible (NJB) 1985
New American Bible (NAB) 1970 NAB with Revised NT & Psalms 1986, 1991
New English Bible (NEB) 1970 Revised English Bible (REB) 1989
Today’s English Version (TEV) 1976 Contemporary English Version (CEV) 1995
New International Version (NIV) 1978 Today’s New Int’l Version (TNIV) 2002
Today’s English Version (TEV) 1976 Good News Translation (GNT) 2004
Liturgiam Authenticam (Vatican, 2001) Says systematic switching from singular to plural is not a good workaround
In particular, “man” implies a type (human nature), “humans” or “men and women” implies a set of individuals.
So, there’s no good substitute for “between God and Man”.
“Particular care is to be taken to ensure that the fixed expression ‘Son of Man’ be rendered faithfully and exactly. The great Christological and typological significance of this expression requires that there should also be employed throughout the translation a rule of language that will ensure that the fixed expression remain comprehensible in the context of the whole translation.”
“Just as has occurred at other times in history, the Church herself must freely decide upon the system of language that will serve her doctrinal mission most effectively, and should not be subject to externally imposed linguistic norms that are detrimental to that mission.”
Single English translation should be used across all English-speaking countries [as was done for the Catechism of the Catholic Church]
Current Status Re-revised RNAB lectionary promulgated in US in 2002
Approved by Rome and the US Bishops Does not match any available version of the complete Bible Previously available options (RNAB, NJB, RSV-CE)
No new English Bible translation in the works Mostly negative response to Liturgiam Authenticam by US bishops
(and the Catholic Biblical Association of America).
Bishop Donald Trautman (Erie), a strong proponent of inclusive language, became Chairman of the (US) Bishops’ Committee on the Liturgy in 2004.
Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, a strong proponent of Liturgiam Authenticam, became Pope in 2005.
Stay tuned …
Old and New Testaments
Reciprocal relationship NT demands to be read in the light of the OT Church rejected Marcion’s 2nd C. attempt to discard OT Christians ‘re-read’ OT in the light of the Christ
Re-reading Discovers or develops a meaning not originally explicit Examples occur within the OT itself (e.g. Chronicles) Does not negate (or replace) the original reading
Making sense of a passage
Literal sense What passage meant to original author / editor / audience Not always obvious!
Different kinds of writing need to be read differently Language, cultural differences can get in the way
Allegorical & other senses need to be grounded in the literal sense (Aquinas, Pius XII, Vatican II)
Canonical sense Passage can take on a different color in the light of other
passages in scripture Church has sometimes declared what a passage means in the
life of the Church
Scripture and Theology
Inasmuch as it is the word of God set in writing, the Bible has a richness of meaning that no one systematic theology can ever completely capture or confine.
One of the principal functions of the Bible is to mount serious challenges to theological systems and to draw attention constantly to the existence of important aspects of divine revelation and human reality which have a times been forgotten or neglected in efforts at systematic reflection.
— Pontifical Biblical Commission,
The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church, 1994