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“Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu-Mureş 1

MANAGEMENT

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Ioan ABRUDAN (Cluj-Napoca – Romania)

Vasile BOLOŞ (Tg.-Mureş – Romania)

GÖRÖG Mihály (Budapest – Hungary)

Liviu MASALAR (Liège – Belgium)

Ioan MIHUŢ (Cluj-Napoca – Romania)

Davis NERIDA (Brisbane – Australia)

Costache RUSU (Iaşi – Romania)

ZOLTAY PAPRIKA Zita (Budapest–Hungary)

Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences ICELM - 1 June 3 - 5, 2004 2

MANAGEMENT

ORGANIZING HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN CASE OF FIRE BRIGADE Costache RUSU, Nerida DAVIS CONSIDÉRATIONS SUR L’EVOLUTION DU CONTENU DES CONCEPTS DE LA QUALITE Liviu MASALAR CONSIDÉRATIONS SUR LA MODELISATION DE LA VOIE VERS LÈXCELLENCE A LÀIDE DES OUTILS ET METHODES SPECIFIQUES DE LA QUALITE Liviu MASALAR NOTES ON THE ROLE OF PUBLIC MANAGEMENT REFORMS IN THE EU ACCESSION JENEI György QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT (QFD) FOR ELECTRIC POWER Gheorghe CONDURACHE, Anca IUGA SOCIAL BALANCE – AN INSTRUMENT FOR THE HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Sînziana GHINET, Rodica CÂNDEA, Gheorghe CONDURACHE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF THE DIRECT MARKETING DEVELOPMENT: THE ROMANIAN MARKET IN THE CONTEXT Călin VEGHEŞ THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIRECT MARKETING SERVICES IN THE ROMANIAN MARKET Călin VEGHEŞ COMUNICATION AND CHANGE AS MANAGERIAL ABILITIES Arcadie HINESCU, Ionela PAVEN THE COMPETITIVENESS OF THE HUNGARIAN MANAGERS ZOLTAY PAPRIKA Zita AN EARNED VALUE - BASED MODEL FOR PLANNING AND CONTROLLING CONTRACTOR CASH - FLOW GÖRÖG Mihály REAL VALUES EVALUATION UNDER IAS 39 AND THE HUNGARIAN ACCOUNTING LAW Janos LUKACS ORGANISING A TOURISM DESTINATION AS A NETWORK, FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE HOST END OF THE CLIENT: CASE STUDIES ON AGROTOURISM AND A TOUROPERATOR Ilie ROTARIU


PERSONNEL MARKETING AND CORPORATE IDENTITY CSORDÁS Tamás, UGLYAI György MARKETING OF THE BANKING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES Ionela PAVEN LE MANAGEMENT DES STRUCTURES DE COMMUNICATION ABORDÉES DU POINT DE VUE DE LA PROGRAMMATION NEURO-LINGUISTIQUE Rosemarie OLĂNESCU AUDITING THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN A PRIVATE HOTEL Liviu ROŞCA ORGANIC MANAGEMENT Rosemarie OLĂNESCU, Dan ARDELEA MANAGEMENT SOCIAL AND ETHIC RESPONSIBILITY CONSIDERATIONS Carmen Sorina BARB HUMAN RESOURCES MOTIVATION Constantin DUMITRU BUILDING A GLOBAL LEARNING COMMUNITY: THE PROMISE OF DIGITAL LIBRARIES Mircea Radu GEORGESCU THE PREFERENCES OF THE ROMANIAN TOURISTS FOR THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURAL TOURISM Mirela MAZILU, Anica IANCU LES STRATEGIES POUR UN TOURISME DURABLE ET SES EFFETS Mirela MAZILU, Anica IANCU NEW PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT PARADIGMS INSPIRED FROM INTELLIGENT MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS BAKOS Levente MANAGERIAL DECISION Larisa COCOI MANAGEMENT CONTROLLING Larisa COCOI ECOMARKETING IN ROMANIAN COMPANIES Valentin HAPENCIUC, Mihaela SENIUC E-GOVERNMENT APPLICATIONS TOWARDS AN INFORMATION SOCIETY Carmen RĂDUŢ


PARTICULARITÉS DU MARCHÉ NATIONAL DE TÉLÉPHONES PORTABLES Valentin HAPENCIUC, Mihaela SENIUC FIRMS’ EFFORT FOR A GOOD RELATIONSHIP WITH THE CLIENT Eugenia CÂMPEANU-SONEA, Adrian SONEA RÉFLECTIONS SUR LES DÉFIS DE LA DISTRIBUTION URBAINE DES MARCHANDISES Mihaela ŞTEŢ THE IMPORTANCE OF MARKETING TESTS IN MAKING UP MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES Cristina JINGA CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE INFORMATION FLOW ANALYSIS IN S.C. ICOS S.A. Carmen Sorina BARB, Liviu ROŞCA IL MERCATO ROMENO D’ELL IT Rozalia NISTOR LE STRATEGIE DI GUADAGNO DELLA LA FEDELTA’ DEI CLIENTI TRAMITE L’INTERNET Rozalia NISTOR THE NECESSITY OF MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY Luminiţa POPESCU CONTRIBUTIONS OF MARKETING AND MANAGEMENT APPROACH ON COMMUNICATION WITH APPLICATIONS IN THE FIELD OF IMAGE AND PUBLIC RELATIONS Aurel Mircea NIŢĂ IMAGE NEGOTIATION – SPECIFIC TYPE OF MANAGEMENT COMMUNICATION Aurel Mircea NIŢĂ LA POLITIQUE DU PRODUIT TOURISTIQUE DE TYPE ECO-RELIGIEUX Silvia MUHCINA, Veronica POPOVICI LA POLITIQUE PROMOTIONELLE POUR LE TOURISME DE TYPE ÉCO-RELIGIEUX Silvia MUHCINA THE MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS OF INCREASING PERFOMANCE IN CLOTHING COMPANIES Iuliana DIMOFTE EUROMANAGERS EURO-ENTREPRISES AND EURO-MANAGEMENT Mălina CORDOŞ PARTICULAR ASPECTS CONCERNING ETHICS IN THE FIELD OF TOURISM Claudia PĂTRUŢ


LEADERSHIP DIMENSIONS IN QUALITY ASSURANCE Ioan MIHUŢ, Angela ON, Adrian PETELEAN GROUP INTERVIEWING Adrian ŞIMON INNOVATIVE ASPECTS OF THE ACTIVITIES IN A TRAINING AND IMPROVEMENT CENTER Avram TRIPON THE ADVANTAGES OF USING JOHNSON’S RULES IN JOB SHOP SCHEDULLING Liviu Onoriu MARIAN, HERMANOVSKI László SALES TEST – A MODERN TECHNIQUE OF MARKETING RESEARCH Adrian ŞIMON MANAGING CHANGE – THE PEOPLE DIMENSION OF CHANGE Lia Codrina CONŢIU THE EFICIENT SUPPLY OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL UNITTIES Flavia ARDELEAN INCREASING QUALITY OF DECISION USING INFORMATICAL PRODUCTS Ioan RUS INCREASING EFFECTIVENESS THROUGH ELECTRONIC BRAINSTORMING HERMANOVSKI László SERVICE MANAGEMENT – A GENDER APROACH Angela ON, Adrian PETELEAN JOBS SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION Gh. Gh. IONESCU, Elisabeta IONESCU CHANGE AND DYNAMISM IN ORGANIZATIONS Gh.Gh. IONESCU, Adina Letiţia NEGRUŞA THE RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT BETWEEN A BANK AND HIS CUSTOMERS Felicia SABOU MARKETING DECISIONS AND THE BUDGETING PROCESS Felicia SABOU LE SOUTIEN FINANCIER DU MANAGER DANS LÀCTIVITÉ D`ÉDUCATION PHISIQUE ET SPORT Gabriel-Ioan MANGRA, Mădălina-Georgiana MANGRA DE L`ÉMPIRISME BIENVOLONTÉ VERS LE MANAGEMENT DE LA SCIENCE DANS LE SPORT ROUMAIN Gabriel-Ioan MANGRA, Mădălina-Georgiana MANGRA


THE COMPETITIVENESS OF THE HUNGARIAN MANAGERS

ZOLTAY PAPRIKA Zita, Budapest University of

Economic Sciences and Public Administration, HUNGARY

For the first time we have studied the competitiveness of the Hungarian managers in 1996

using an international research method. Throughout this research 1300 top company managers were

asked by questionnaires and 50 further managers through in-depth interviews. That research was

connected to the research programme called: In Global Competition – The microeconomic factors

of the Hungarian economy in the international competitiveness.

This research program was supported by the Research Center for Competitiveness that operates

beside the Department of Business Economics at the Budapest University of Economic Sciences and

Public Administration, continued in 1999 with the repetition of the empirical research. This is how we

got the chance to carry out an analysis again and to compare the results received to those gained earlier

and could examine that, whether there were changes between the preparedness, the ability level and in

between the applied decision-making methods of the managers in the targeted three years.

The comparison’s special spice was that the first group of samples was mostly export-

orientated enterprises, but the second group of samples had moved toward small and medium sized

Hungarian companies. Taking this under consideration we had to examine not only the time

difference between the two researches, but the possibility of deviation because of the size of the

economic units. Both samples included more than 300 companies from which we asked 4 managers

each, not only the top managers but also the managers in charge for the trade and marketing,

production and finance. This repeated research also relied on more than 1200 answers.

Methodologically we should mention that the results were mostly gained from self-

evaluations, which probably distorted the whole image. However we do think that the importance of

studying that what the managers think of their own capabilities is not lesser of value than if we

could actually measure their capabilities.


This research is repeated for the third time this year. We are in the empirical phase of the

research now and hope to get a clear picture about the Hungarian managers’ preparedness and

decision making approaches just in the moment of the EU accession.

The virtues of a good MANAGER

The specialists do not share the same views on how to evaluate the managerial performance.

A possible way is to examine the economic values and achievements of the company managed by

them. It shows clearly from the privatization-related and buying-up decisions that the preparedness,

knowledge and the relations of a manager could influence the value of the company. In a

knowledge-based economy the personal elements receive positive revaluation.

As we know the managerial performance is based on not only the applied approach of the decision-

making method, but on the style of the leader. It also depends on what professional skills, qualifications,

experience do they have and what is their own expectancy. This is why it is important to examine the

managerial performance by their characteristics and capabilities. The examined capabilities are linked to the

human resource management of a company and more likely to the corporate management.

What are the special capabilities, characteristics a manager should have to be successful?

What are the weaknesses and strengths of a manager? Do these top managers have the same opinion

of their own capabilities that are not in the same position? Is there a connection between the applied

strategy, business performance and managerial capability? To get answers for these questions we

have followed the earlier use of the international research scheme (HICKSON et al. 1986) and have

compared the international results received to the replies we gained from the Hungarian managers.

We observed that, do the Hungarian managers meet all requirements, analyzing the strengths and

weaknesses according to the following characteristics and skills listed below:

• communication skills, • expertise, • executive skills, • problem-solving skills, • ability to represent the ideas, • organizing skills, • sense for business, • IT knowledge (use of PC), • analytic skills, • practice-minded behavior • risk-taking nature


The survey embraced the general abilities of management and those essential conditions and

characteristics that are needed for a dynamical economy and business. The level of the decision

making activity and the company’s competitiveness is considerably influenced by the fact, who

makes the decisions, what skills and capabilities they have, what their managerial style is, and also

what techniques and methods they use in the course of decision making. Authors Andrew Gross,

Robert Hartley, József Berács and Péter Gáspár (GROSS et al. 1995) had sought for and compared

some socio-cultural samples, and on this basis characterized 300 Hungarian and 700 American

managers. From their description the image of capable, slightly circumstantial and analytically

thinking managers emerged having serious drawbacks in the field of using hi-tech equipment,

compared with their American counterparts.

The results in connection with the abilities and preparedness of company management

totally reinforced the above-mentioned and my research done earlier. The respondents now and then

had to evaluate the strength of identical management skills and capabilities on a five-point scale.

The similarity between the results is very interesting because of the quite different samples

we took. Only 1/3 of the companies was present at both evaluations. The dominant companies of

the first evaluation (1996) were export-oriented enterprises, but the second sample we took

contained small and medium sized Hungarian market oriented businesses. The improvement that is

detected at the skills listed can be attributed to the natural development, but we should stop and

think about the similarity of results received.

Conclusion is that the size of a business does not have significant influence on managers’

abilities and skills.

Table 1 Ranks of managerial abilities from the surveys done in 1996 and 1999*

Evaluation of management in 1996

N=325

Evaluation of management in 1999

N=321

practice-minded behavior 4.15expertise 3.99 problem-solving skills 3.78sense for business 3.71communication skills 3.61organizing skills 3.61 ability to represent the ideas 3.60executive skills 3.54risk-taking nature 3.47analytic skills 3.46IT knowledge 2.93

practice-minded behavior 4.16expertise 4.06 problem-solving skills 3.91sense for business 3.83organizing skills 3.76 executive skills 3.74 communication skills 3.73ability to represent the ideas 3.69analytic skills 3.57risk-taking nature 3.53IT knowledge 3.04

*1-less likely, 5-more likely


A striking similarity between the two rankings is an extremely important issue from the

perspective of the reliability of results. Both lists are headed by the same skills: practice-minded

behavior, expertise, problem-solving skills and sense for business. These strengths outlined a highly

able and pragmatic management that adopted the new conditions, but still lacked the risk taking

nature and the ability to represent ideas, whereas both were necessary for an offensive management.

Although there is an improvement in IT knowledge, it is still in the last space of the ranking, which

shows that this is the weakest point of management. Last but not least the difference that can be

seen from the evaluations taken in ’96 and ’99 is that there are no points given under 3 – this could

mean that the managers feel as they have accomplished above the average in every skill.

THE FOUR MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

In the management literature, several organizational decision making models can be

identified. These differ from each other in a sense that they use other prerequisites of decision

makers and also refer to the organizational connections of decision makers. Researching the

competitiveness in both cases we have identified four different models and decision-making

mechanisms that reflected different approaches of decision theory.

When describing decision-making approaches we used Allison’s (ALLISON 1971) widely

known typology. According to this the following models can be identified:

1. Optimizing approach

The optimizing or rational unified acting approach assumes one-man decision-making,

where the decision-maker proceeds in the sense of the classical economic approach to reach the

optimal solution. This is a normative model that places analysis in the focus. All possible

alternatives can be revealed along with reasonable costs and its consequences can be precisely

measured. With the use of appropriate quantitative methods usually the optimal, profit-maximizing

decision can be made, so this perception is usually called as the optimizing approach.

2. Political (Authoritarian) model

The political model deviates from the organizational model in a sense that it does not admit

the existence of a superordinated goal within an organization, but assumes that each and every

individual follows his/her own goals and interests in the decision making process. Words of power,

under these circumstances, are decisive, as they represent the most efficient way of conflict

resolution. Managers of important base-units of the organization strive to improve the situation of

the directed unit with their full prestige. (That is why this model is usually called as an authoritarian


model.) Strategic decision- making bears the stamp of the interest-vindicating struggle of members

of management.

3. Satisfying approach

In the organizational model several decision makers play a role in strategic decision-making,

who though acting for a common superordinated goal, have their own goals too and mainly are in

the possession of such cognitive barriers that they appear as bounded rational decision makers. This

model assumes that in the course of decision preparation it is impossible to obtain all the

information required, and as a consequence it is necessary to omit the use of quantitative methods

necessary from an optimal decision-making perspective. Problems are usually far too complex,

while level of uncertainty is high. Decision-makers do not even make efforts to find an optimal

solution, because a satisfactory solution still corresponds to the organizational goals. With a

satisfying approach, along with reasonable expenses, usually a good result can be reached.

4. Intuitive solutions

The model of behavioral decision theory investigates decision-makers who are not in the

possession of the ability of rationality, and bring decisions that enable them to win time with and

somehow “muddling through” from one situation to another. This approach requires sound

preparedness in the phase of problem identification. Usually, an environment that is changeable and

highly uncertain is dominating the strategic decisions of the organization. Decision-makers do not

have enough time and resources for a comprehensive problem analysis. Solutions mostly rely on

managerial experience accumulated before and the detailed analysis is frequently replaced by

intuitive solutions.

We did not indicate professional denominations of individual approaches in the

questionnaire in order to avoid any accidental negative connotations attached to them, which might

influence the answers. The executives interviewed gave their answers on a 1-5 scale, where 1

indicated that the approach described had not been characteristic to their company at all, while 5

indicated that they had proceeded entirely in the sense of the principles outlined above.

It is evident from the short introduction of the major characteristics of models that an

organization, which can create its decision-making mechanism according to the optimizing model

of the normative decision theory, can gain a competitive edge compared with other organizations.

However, descriptive decision theory tendencies point out that in real decision situation, especially

in case of complex company decisions that go along with a high level of uncertainty, several factors

can hinder the surfacing of the normative model in its clear form. Important causes of differences

between the ideal of the rational model and the other three models eliminate decisions in reality.


Along with the optimizing model we evaluate positively the decision-making mechanism that seeks

to reach satisfying decisions, which, although resigns from the hope to find an optimal solution, still

it strives to reach the appropriate solution, through the accomplishment of a high level of procedural

rationality. In a decision making process, which can be characterized with a political or an intuitive

model, such mistakes of troubles can surface in the course of the decision making that have a

negative impact on the final outcome and the performance of the company.

Figure 1

Validity of different decision approaches in Validity of different decision approaches in 1996 and 19991996 and 1999

2,97

3,23,66

3,9

3,213,283,09

3,25

Optimising

Intuitive

Satisfying

Poltical

If we co e received result it i l that, ther the

optim more rational approach. At the same time a withdrawal of the three other decision

appr n be detected. It is assumed he decision-making process, in the sample we

took idered and rational. These companies tried to stay away fr aking decisions

by intuitive approach.

es the consciousness

nteresting to investigate tha do the managers in different positions judge

the d g approaches used within their organizations.

mpare th s evidentia e is a slight tendency toward

izing,

oach models ca that t

, is more cons om m

Position influenc

It was very i t, how

ecision-makin


Table 2. The role of decision approaches according to managers in different positions*

(N=321)

STANDARModel Average D DEVIATION

CEO

optimizing 3.90 -0.3

satisfying 3.08 0.4

3.02 2.4

political 3.19 1.8

intuitive 2.93 1.2

Financial director

optimizing 3.91 -0.5

satisfying

political 3.25 -0.2

intuitive 2.95 0.6

Production director

optimizing 3.86 0.8

satisfying 3.12 -1.1

political 3.17 2.3

intuitive 3.00 -0.9

Marketing director

optimizing 3.89 0.0

satisfying 3.14 -1.7

political 3.38 -3.9

intuitive 2.99 -0.8

*1- less likely, 5 – more likely

It turns out from the data of the table that managers with different positions do not judge

characteristics of company decision-making mechanisms in a significantly different way. All

company managers feel that the decision making process of their organization is rather similar to

the optimizing decision model. At the same time it can be stated that at the companies of our

ple, along with the optimizing model the other three satisfying, political and intuitive models

also play a role in strategic decision-making. Th izing decision approach is not

anagers in financial fields, the production directors and the marketing directors.

The political or authoritarian approach is typical of executive directors and production directors.

The mentioned model can efficiently handle conflicts. Executives and financial leaders mostly

sam

e rational or optim

characterized of m


recognize intuitive solution, which is natural because they have the chance to practice it. We can

assume that, managers in different fields feel stronger to the decision-making approaches conform

to their own, than the average. In conclusion we should investigate the opinions of the executives

concerning different approach models. Favoring the optimizing of rational approach is interesting

because it states the opposite of Ron Schultz’s (SCHULTZ 1996) observations. Schultz has

examined the decision-making behavior of American top managers, and came to the conclusion that

executives are characterized by the intuitive approach, but their substitutes apply the rational

approaching methods.

Figure 2

Decision approaches according to different top Decision approaches according to different top managers in 1999managers in 1999

2,52,72,93,13,33,53,73,94,1

Optimising

Satisfying

Political

Intuitive

CEOFinancialProductionMarketing

To demonstrate the difference between managerial opinions we have defined an analytical

frame stating the dimension of deviation of managerial abilities and the preferred approaches of

decision-making. We were still differentiating the four approaches: the optimizing, the political, the

satisfying and the intuitive, further more we had respect for the 11 managerial abilities analyzed

earlier.

eting and

financial directors were more critical. Financial directors gave the lowest marks to all capabilities,

Studying the evaluation and deviation of the four managerial fields it could be assumed that

the most different opinions were of the sense for business, IT knowledge and of the analytical skills.

This is interesting because these abilities received the lowest ranks. Production directors and the

executives gave better ranks to their own management in these fields, while the mark


while e

minded

underevaluation of the ability to represent the ideas, the problem-solving skills

and org

ing and the intuitive decision-making approaches – which are professionally

close to

fied with

their an

s weak, which means that they are not pleased with the rationality of decisions.

Production directors: They recognize the managerial preparedness, but require the problem-

solving f representing the ideas and the organizing ability from their selves and

from th

tage for them if the political approach is not

xecutives found problems only in practice-minded behavior. According to the judgment of

marketing directors the strongest skills their own management had were the communication skills,

the ability to represent the ideas and the organizing skills. They were unsatisfied with the practice-

behavior and with the risk-taking nature. Opinions of the production managers were

represented by the

anizing skills.

From the opinion comparison it can be seen clearly that the most agreed approach was the

optimizing. This result also confirms that this is the most dominant approach. The most extremely

evaluated approach was the political. Production directors and executives thought it the most likely

approach, while the marketing and financial directors judged it the least likely approach.

The satisfy

each other – have received a similar judgment. These approaches are more likely from the

executive’s and financial director’s point of view, than from the production and marketing directors.

If we compare the deviated opinions of abilities and approaches the following can be stated

for the managers:

Executives: The preparedness of management is ranked positively, especially satis

alytical abilities and sense for business. Although we can sense the prejudice from their

answers, they only request pragmatism from their selves and from their colleagues. The excellent

preparedness gives an extra munition for practicing the decision-making approaches. They accept

the validity of the political and intuitive approaches, which demand an abundant of concentrating

and creativeness.

Financial directors: They are the most critical, underevaluated their selves and their

colleagues. Recognition of the insufficient IT knowledge and communication skill can be observed,

but the demand for the organizing skills and for the analytical abilities is present. They are also not

satisfied with the risk-taking nature. From their point of view the validity of the optimizing

approach i

skills, the ability o

eir colleagues. From their criticism we can easily assume the demand for practical methods.

They definitely refuse the bounded rationality and the intuitive approaches, which couldn’t

successfully be used in their fields.

Marketing directors: They were almost as critical as the financial directors are, but they are

satisfied with dynamic leading abilities. They think highly of the communication skills and

recognize the risk-taking nature. It is not an advan


workin

n be, since the strong

ffects of the optimizing approach can be detected.

ment that was detected at the skills and abilities can be attributed to the natural

evelopment, but we should think about the similarity of results received. Conclusion is that the

s’ abilities and skills.

prag e new conditions, but still lacked the risk taking nature and

List

1.

2. ) KJK., Budapest (1996);

ius

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RÁCS, J., CHIKÁN, A.:

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g properly in problem-solving methods at the company, because they represent it directly

outward.

CONCLUSIONS

It is assumed that a successfully led business does not depend only on the managerial skills

and abilities but on practicing the right decision-making approach, which can be a determinant in

the marketing and financial efficiency.

Summing up the results of the cluster analysis it can be stated the hypothesis was confirmed

by that, successful businesses are characterized of being as rational as they ca

e

The improve

d

size of a business does not have significant influence on manager

Both lists of capabilities were headed by the same skills: practice-minded behavior,

expertise, problem-solving skills and sense for business. These strengths outlined a highly able and

matic management that adopted th

the ability to represent ideas, whereas both were necessary for an offensive management.

The analysis supported that, rational decisions and optimizing techniques, especially if

highly skilled managers practice them, enable the company to be successful.

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AN EARNED VALUE BASED COMPREHENSIVE MODEL FOR PLANNING

AND CONTROLLING CONTRACTOR CASH-FLOW

Mihály GÖRÖG, Budapest University of Economic Sciences and Public Administration Faculty of

Management and Business Administration, HUNGARY

1. INTRODUCTION

Planning and controlling are twin brothers in the project implementation process. Regarding

implementing a project, planning itself encompasses scheduling, resource allocation and cost

estimation in the first place. Techniques available for these purposes are equally applicable for both

project clients and external contractors. Unlike planning, controlling adopts mainly a client-view of

the problem. Especially the so-called systematic control methods, such as ‘Committed Cost

Management’ [5] and ‘Earned Value Reporting System’ [1, 2, 3] are cases in point. Most of the

project management software packages can provide the earned value-based report (also referred to

as ‘Earned Value Performance Measurement’).

Experience shows, at the same time, that sometimes contractors prepare cash-flow plans but

these are rather monitored than being controlled. Neither the previously mentioned Committed Cost

Management nor the Earned Value Reporting System can provide the possibility for contractors to

plan and control the contract cash-flow. Though planning and controlling this cash-flow and the

associated likely margin are vital of importance from the point of view of the long-term success of

the contractor organisations.

Recently an idea was developed by the author of this paper that encompasses both planning

and controlling contractor cash-flow in a robust model in order to satisfy the need of external

contributors, especially contractors, in the course of the project implementation process. The

copyrighted model allows planning and controlling contractor cash-flow in activity/time unit


manner, and also in summarised forms considering the entire project implementation process from

the outset of the project work till a specified reporting date. Since this new model utilises a few of

the earned value measurements and indicators, first the Earned Value Reporting System is recalled

briefly. Then the measurements and the indicators of the comprehensive new model will be

introduced. The associated exhibits and graphs that could visualise the status of the project

implementation – because of the limitations – are not introduced extensively, attention is given to

illustrating the use of them.

Though, the next issue of SENET Project Management Review provides these tools in

detail. Finally, the potential advantages gained by contractors in the course of using this model will

be highlighted.

The recently developed new model is copyrighted, and the associated software program is

also planned to be introduced during the 18th IPMA World Congress in Budapest.

2. MEASUREMENTS AND INDICATORS IN THE EARNED VALUE REPORTING

SYSTEM

These measurements and indicators are well known from literature [1, 2, 3], nevertheless,

since the new model utilises a few of these measurements, a brief summary of them looks wise.

• BCWS (Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled) means the estimated cost of a single activity in

the project time schedule that could be understood proportionally regarding a certain

reporting period.

• BCWP (Budgeted Cost of Work Performed) means the estimated cost of a single completed

project activity or the proportional part of the estimated cost in accordance with the

completion rate of the given activity in case of a certain reporting period. BCWP is referred

to as earned value.

• ACWP (Actual Cost of Work Performed) means the cost occurred in the course of

completing a single activity or a certain part of this activity that was completed during a

given reporting period.

• OD (Original Duration) indicates the planned or scheduled duration time of the project

implementation, i.e. the length of the critical path.

• ATE (Actual Time Expended) indicates the time period elapsed from commencing the

project implementation till a given reporting date.

• BAC (Budgeted Cost at Completion) indicates the estimated cost of project implementation,

i.e. the total sum of BCWS assigned to each project activity.


Turner [6] argues against the use of the word ‘scheduled’, and suggests instead of that the word

‘planned’. At the same time, the American Project Management Institute supports the attempt to

introduce more simple acronyms in order to make the use of the reporting system easier. In this

way, instead of BCWS the acronym PV (Planned Value) is suggested, while BCWP should be

replaced with EV (Earned Value), and ACWP is suggested to be AC (Actual Cost). For the sake of

avoiding any ambiguity, in this paper the original long acronyms are used.

By means of the above mentioned measurements the following indicators are calculated in the

Earned Value Reporting System:

• SV and SPI

Both indicators show accomplishment achieved on the project activities in comparison with the

planned (scheduled) accomplishment.

• CV and CPI

These indicators sign the cost occurred in the course of accomplishment achieved on the project

activities compared to the associated estimated cost.

Based on the measurements and indicators the following forecasts are available:

• ETC (Estimated Time to Completion), that signs the likely completion period of the entire

project at the time of a certain reporting date.

• EAC (Estimate at Completion) signing the likely completion cost of the project at the time

of a given reporting date.

Since ETC and EAC forecast the likely completion time and cost, calculations require cumulative

data regarding those project activities that were under completion during the time period elapsed

from commencing project implementation up to a certain reporting date. Measurements, indicators

and the forecast outcomes make possible to evaluate:

• FCSV (Forecast Schedule Variance at Completion)=OD-ETC

• FCCV (Forecast Cost Variance at Completion)=BAC-EAC

The outcomes of calculating the indicators and the likely forecast date may be visualised by means

of exhibits and graphs.

3. MEASUREMENTS IN THE COMPREHENSIVE CASH-FLOW PLANNING AND

CONTROLLING MODEL FOR CONTRACTORS

Central to this model are the contractor cash-flow balance and the associated margin that

could be earned by a contractor organisation. In order to plan and analyse the contractor cash-flow

in case of any specified time unit or reporting date and forecast the expected margin based on a


given project status, there is a need for new measurements and indicators beyond those used in the

previously mentioned earned value system. Because of the potential integration of the earned value

concept and the proposed comprehensive contractor cash-flow model, the structure of the new

measurements and indicators are in line with the structure of the earned value measurements and

indicators.

The model requires the following new measurements [4] in order to make calculating the

necessary indicators possible:

PVWS (Price Value of Work Scheduled)

This is the measurement that expresses the value, in terms of price, earned by the contractor when

BCWS=BCWP, thus SV=0 and SPI=1, i.e. this is the scheduled financial performance of the

contractor. PVWS should be calculated in case of each project activity either considering a given

reporting period or regarding the time period elapsed from the start of a project activity up to a

specified reporting date. In case of lump sum price the contact price should be broken down in

accordance with the time schedule. Summing up the individual PVWS figures results in the amount

of money to be paid to the contractor by the client.

PVWP (Price Value of Work Performed)

This measurement shows the earned financial performance of the actual achievement on a project

activity. The individual PVWP figure of an activity can be calculated based on the underlaying

PVWS figure.

IVWS (Invoiced Value of Work Scheduled)

This is the measurement that expresses the value, in terms of price, that could be invoiced by the

contractor if the actual achievement was as much as the scheduled achievement. The individual

IVWS figure of any activity may be calculated regarding a given reporting period or considering the

time period elapsed from starting a project activity till the end of a specified reporting date.

IVWP (Invoiced Value of Work Performed)

This measurement encompasses that part of the earned financial performance (PVWP) which may

be invoiced. The individual IVWP figure of an activity can be calculated based on the underlaying

PVWP figure.

AVWS (Account Value of Work Scheduled)

This measurement shows that part of IVWS (Invoiced Value of Work Scheduled) which could be

transferred to the contractor’s bank account if the contractor’s actual achievement was as much as

the scheduled achievement. The individual AVWS figure of a certain activity could be calculated

either in case if a given reporting period or considering the time period elapsed from starting the


activity up to the end of a defined reporting period.

AVWP (Account Value of Work Performed)

This measurement represents that part of the invoiced value (IVWP) which is transferred to the

contractor’s bank account, thus the AVWP figures should be calculated based on such data that are

available on the contractor’s bank account and on the contractor’s submitted invoice.

EEWS (Estimated Expenditure of Work Scheduled)

This is the measurement that expresses that amount of money that would be paid out by the

contractor to finance the cost of implementing project activities if the contractor’s actual

achievement was equal to the scheduled achievement. The EEWS figure of an individual project

activity is calculated based on the estimated cost of the activity and the associated payment

conditions regarding the resource suppliers (subcontractors, suppliers, labour forces etc.)

AEWP (Actual Expenditure of Work Performed)

This measurement means the amount of money that is paid out by the contractor in order to finance

the cost of implementing the project activities. Data for calculating AEWP figures are available on

the contractor’s bank account (in case of subcontractors, suppliers etc.) and from the contractor’s

financial accounting system (in case of internal costs, such as wages etc.).

In the course of introducing the measurements, apart from PVWS, only the so-called price-based

type of payment (lump sum or unit price/rate) was in the forefront since this is the most widely used

payment type. At the same time, it was mentioned also only in case of PVWS (in order to avoid too

much monotony) that the lump sum price should be broken down in accordance with the project

time schedule. However, the same breakdown of the lump sum price is to be considered when

IVWS (Invoiced Value of Work Scheduled) and AVWS (Account Value of Work Scheduled)

figures are calculated.

Also for the sake of reducing monotony, the case of cost-based type of payment was mentioned

only when PVWS (Price Value of Work Scheduled) was discussed. Though, the solution suggested

in connection with PVWS, regarding the cost-based type of payment, is to be applied also in

connection with PVWP, IVWS, IVWP, AVWS, AVWP, EEWS and AEWP. Regarding both EEWS

and AEWS, it should be taken into account that the so-called fee in case of the cost-based payment

contains some profit element.

When the term ‘cost’ is considered regarding any measurement discussed in this section, one should

bear in mind that it have to be taken into account from the point of view of a contractor

organisation.


4. INDICATORS IN THE COMPREHENSIVE CASH-FLOW PLANNING AND

CONTROLLING MODEL FOR CONTRACTORS

Based on the previously introduced measurements the following indicators [4] are available

supporting both planning and controlling contractors’ cash-flow regarding the project

implementation process:

FV (Financial Variance) = PVWP-PVWS, and

FPI (Financial Performance Index)=PVWP/PVWS

Both indicators show how the achieved financial performance, in terms of price, progresses in

comparison with the scheduled performance during a given reporting period or during the time

period elapsed from the start of an activity up to a specified reporting date.

PIV Planned Invoice Variance) = IVWP-IVWS, and

PIPI (Planned Invoice Performance Index) = IVWP/IVWS

These indicators show how the invoicable part, in terms of price, of the achieved financial

performance progresses in comparison with the planned invoicable value of the scheduled

performance. Both of them are understood either in case of a single reporting period or during the

time period elapsed from commencing an activity till a defined reporting date.

IV (Invoice Variance =IVWP-PVWP, and

IPI (Invoice Performance Index)=IVWP/PVWP

The above two indicators show how the invoiced part of the achieved financial performance

progresses in comparison with the entire achieved financial performance during a given reporting

period or during the time period elapsed from the beginning of an activity up to a specified

reporting date.

AV (Account Variance)=AVWP-IVWP, and

API (Account Performance Index)=AVWP/IVWP

Both indicators show how the money for the invoiced performance appearing on the contractor’s

bank account progresses in comparison with the invoiced amount of money, either in case of a

given reporting period or during the time period elapsed from the start of a given activity till a

defined reporting date. Under normal conditions it may not happen that the amount of the total

receipts is higher than the total amount of the invoiced performance, though it could occur in case

of certain reporting periods.

PBV (Planned Balance Variance)=AVWS-EEWS, and

PBPI (Planned Balance Performance Index)=AVWS/EEWS

These two indicators show how the contractor’s planned cash-flow balance progresses in case of a


single reporting period or during the time period elapsed from starting an activity up to a specified

reporting date.

BV (Balance Variance)=AVWP-AEWP, and

BPI (Balance Performance Index)=AVWP/AEWP

Both indicators show how the contractor’s actual cash-flow balance progresses either in case of a

single reporting period or during the time period elapsed from the beginning a project activity till a

certain reporting date. Though forecast regarding the cash-flow balance to completion can be

interpreted, in reality this forecast should result in the same amount than the forecast regarding the

contractor’s margin to completion of the project. Thus, the question of forecast will be introduced

separately.

PV (Plan Variance)=BV-PBV, and

PPI (Plan Performance Index)=BV/PBV

Both PV and PBV could have negative values, even both of them at the same time. Thus, in order to

gain realistic results, both BV and PBV should be considered in absolute terms. In this way these

indicators shows how the contractor’s actual cash-flow balance progresses in comparison with the

planned cash-flow balance during a reporting period or during the time period elapsed from starting

an activity up to a defined reporting date.

MV (Margin Variance)=IVWP-ACWP, and

MPI (Margin Performance Index)=IVWP/ACWP

These indicators show how the contractor’s potential margin progresses in case of a given reporting

period or regarding the time period elapsed from the start of a project activity up to a specified

reporting date. In the course of calculating MV and MPI, theoretically both PVWP and AVWP

would be used instead of IVWP. While, also theoretically, AEWP would be used instead of ACWP.

The use of IVWP is justified by the fact that till the end of completing the project PVWP generally

encompasses a certain part of the achieved financial performance that may not be invoiced at a

given reporting date. At the same time, the use of AVWP restricts the opportunities regarding the

potential margin since it should be presumed that the invoiced amount of money would be

transferred to the contractor’s account. On the other hand, the use of AEWP instead of ACWP could

beautify the opportunities regarding the potential margin since the costs occurred should be, sooner

or later, paid out.

Each of the eight variances and each of the associated eight indices indicates the progress of a

certain facet of the likely contractor’s cash-flow and the likely margin. The interpretation of the

variances (in numerical terms) is self-evident, while the indices are explained similarly to the

indices used in the Earned Value Reporting System.


Thus, if the value of a certain index is below zero, it shows an unfavourable situation, while

the opposite case – when the value of a certain index is above zero – means favourable situation.

For example:

When IVWP > ACWP, thus MPI > 1, then the margin is positive.

When IVWP = ACWP, thus MPI = 1, then the margin is zero.

When IVWP < ACWP, thus MPI < 1, then the margin is negative

The other variances and indices should be interpreted in the same way.

EMC (Expected Margin at Completion)

EMC=AMWP+(PMC-PMWP)*MPI

where: AMWP (Actual Margin of Work Performed)=PVWP-ACWP

PMC (Planned Margin at Completion)=IAC-BAC

where: IAC (Invoice Value at Completion)=‡”PVWS

PMWP (Planned Margin of Work Performed)=PVWP-BCWP

In connection with forecast regarding EMC, it should be noted that the reliability of the

forecast depends to a great extent on the characteristic of the payment mechanism stipulated in the

payment conditions of the contract.

When this payment mechanism is front-loaded, the forecast will predict – especially during the

firs part of the project implementation process – an unlikely high margin. In the opposite case, if the

payment mechanism is end-loaded, the opportunities regarding EMC will be worse than the real

opportunities, especially during the first part of the project implementation, again. Thus, the reliability of

EMC calculation determined by the extent of the unbalanced characteristic of the payment mechanism.

5. EXHIBITS AND GRAPHS USED IN THE COMPREHENSIVE MODEL

A few of the possible relationships that exist amongst the measurements have been

emphasised earlier, though all the possible relationships can be visualised by means of ‘S’ curves

against time. Unlike the case of measurements used in the earned value concept, the number of

measurements used in this model is not favourable to plot them in a single figure. Plotting the

progress of all measurements against time in one figure to visualise their relationships would result

in a crammed and, at the same time, puzzling picture. In this way such a figure would rather trouble

than help professionals to evaluating the project status. Thus, graphs and the associated exhibits are

plotted individually in case of each measurement and indicators [4]. Because of the limitations, only

a few exhibits and graphs are introduced here to illustrate the use of the model.


Time units

Activities

1 2 . . . n ∑

A PBVA1 PBVA2 . . . PBVAn ∑=

n

iAiPBV

1

∑=

n

iBiPBV

1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

∑=

n

iNiPBV

1

∑ ∑=

N

AkkPBV 1 ∑

=

N

Ak∑=

N

AkknPBV ∑∑

==

N

Akki

n

iPBV

1

B PBVB1 PBVB2 . . . PBVBn

N PBVN1 PBVN2 . . . PBVNn

k 2 . . .PBV

Exhibit 1

g the tim

beginning of an activity till a given reporting date (e.g.

PBV

TIME

VALUE

Rep

ortin

g da

te

Rep

ortin

g da

te

PBPI

TIME1

Figure 1 Figure 2

Based on Exhibit 1 one can evaluate the progress of PBV in case of a given project activity

considering a certain time unit (e.g. PBVA1) or considerin e period that elapsed from the

∑N

=

PBV ). At the same time, it is also

i 1

entire proje rom the

start of im

Akk1

possible to evaluate the progress of PBV of those activities that are under implementation during a

certain time unit (e.g.∑n

AiPBV ). While the progress of PBV regarding the ct f=

plementation up to a specified reporting date also may be evaluated (e.g. ∑∑==

N

Akki

n

i

PBV1

).

Figure 1 shows the progress of AVWS and EEWS, and consequently the progress of PBV


while Figure 2 interprets the progress of PBPI, also against the time. In case of both Figure 1 and

Figure

ting PBV on the level of the project activities in case

of a given project context, the following tabular arrangement could be helpful to summarise the

ts

P

cash-flow

1 2 . . . n

2 the progress of the previously mentioned measurements and indicators can be interpreted,

when it looks necessary and/or possible, even considering a single project activity as well.

When there is no potential for interpre

progress of PBV on project level (Exhibit 2).

Time uni

lanned ∑

∑=

n

iiAVWS

1

∑=

n

iiEEWS

1

∑n

AVWS AVWS1 AVWS2 . . . AVWSn

EEWS EEWS1 EEWS2 . . . EEWSn

PBV PBV1 PBV2 . . . PBVn=

iPBV i 1

Exhibit 2

Finally, Exhibit 3 shows the progress of MV, Figure 3 visualise the progress of IVWP and

ACWP, and Figure 4 provides the progress of MPI.

Tim nits

Activities

1 2 n

e u . . .

∑

. . . ∑=

n

iAiMV

1

∑=

n

iBiMV

1

∑=

n

iNiMV

1

∑ ∑=

N

AkkMV 1 ∑

=

N

AkkMV 2

. . . ∑=

N

AkknMV ∑∑

==

N

Akki

n

i

MV1

A MVA1 MVA2 MVAn

B MVB1 MVB2

. . . MVBn

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

N MVN1 MVN2 MVNn

. . .

Exhibit 3


TIME

of implementing project activities. In other words: contractor cash-inflow is

det

MV

VALUE

Rep

ortin

g da

te

Rep

ortin

g da

te

MPI

TIME1IVWP

ACWP

Figure 3 Figure 4

6. GAINS THAT CAN BE REALISED BY A CONTRACTOR ORGANISATION

In order to highlight those gains that could be realised by contractor organisations by means

of using the previously introduced model, it looks reasonable to summarise the applicability of the

Earned Value Reporting System. In case of internal projects (project activities are implemented by

the clients’ own resources) the earned value concept can provide an unambiguous and clear picture

regarding the timely completion and the associated cost while it can predict the likely completion

period and the associated cost to completion. In such a case the client is the only primary

organisation taking part in implementing the project. Thus, based on the time plan and the activity-

based cost estimation figures the client can elaborate a reliable cash-flow plan that could be

compared with the actual cash-outflow. At the same time, by means of the forecast figures (ETC

and EAC) the likely cash-outflow also could be interpreted. In case of external projects (project

activities are implemented by external contributors) there are – at least – two or more primary

players in the project implementation process. From the point of view of a client organisation the

use of the Earned Value Reporting System can provide the required information either in terms of

timely completion or cost occurred, and consequently the likely cash-outflow also can be predicted.

When cost-based type of payment is used in the contract, the contractor organisations also can

utilise the earned value concept since the contractors’ cash- inflow depends on the actual cost

occurred (ACWP), especially in case of the so called ‘cost plus percentage’ model. In this way,

based on the Earned Value Reporting System, contractor organisations also can predict their likely

cash-inflow. Unlike the above situation, when price-based type of payment (lump sum or unit

price/rate) is used in the contract, the contractors’ cash-inflow does not depend on the cost occurred

in the course

ermined by the fixed price(s) and payment conditions specified in the contract. In such a


situatio

contrac

of impo

also

rice involves a further question, i.e. how does the cash-

s. In order to get these answers, i.e. the information involved in

the ans

well.

end is the fact that data necessary to calculate both

me cluding EMC) are existing data in the contractor organisations, i.e.

there is no need for gathering new, previously non monitored data. It is also a user-friend

cha llows analysis (by means of the exhibits) in:

anner. In this way, the model allows a deep insight into details of the contractor’s cash-flow

the associated margin either in terms of planned or in terms of actual figures. This

ature of the proposed model enables contractor organisations at the same time, to identify the

n there is a need for a reliable cash-flow plan and the associated cash-flow control in the

tor organisations, since these organisations should face the following questions that are vital

rtance:

What is the reliable bid price? The term ‘reliable’ means, on the one hand, competitive, i.e.

attractive for the client, and, on the other hand, it means that the bid price should cover

the cost that is associated with financing the negative cash-flow balance periods in the

course of the project implementation.

The phenomenon of reliable bid p

flow balance progress either in terms of planned balance or in terms of actual balance?

The progress of the actual balance determines to a great extent the likely margin earned by

the contractor, thus, a new question emerges: what is the achievable margin at the end of

completing the contracted works?

The Comprehensive Model for Planning and Controlling Contractor Cash-Flow can provide

the answers to the above question

wers, there is a need for the 8 measurements (apart from the measurements used in the

earned value concept) and the 16 indicators introduced in this paper, and 1 forecast formula. Of

course, the integration of this model and the Earned Value Reporting System postulates the use of

the earned value concept as

The proper and reliable use of this model requires a reliable time schedule and a reliable

activity-based cost estimation that is in accordance with the time schedule, otherwise there is no

potential for a reliable cash-flow plan and cash-flow control. Consequently there is no potential for

a reliable margin forecast.

What makes the model user-fri

asurements and indicators (in

racteristic of the model that it a

an activity/time unit,

an activity/time elapsed,

all activity/time unit,

all activities/time elapsed

m

progress and

fe

most appropriate corrective actions – if necessary – in the course of implementing the project.


Re

1. oppelman, J. M., (1995) Reengineering the earned value process: From

nagement Guide. Probus

3.

. 2, Ljubljana;

. Görög, M. (2003) A projektvezetés mestersége. Aula Kiadó, Budapest;

5. Harris, P. (http://www.eh.com.au) The Practical Application of Earned Value Performance

Measurement 6. Turner, R. J. (2000) Controlling progress with planned cost or budgeted cost. In:

International Journal of Project Management. Vol. 18, pp. 153-154.

ferences:

Fleming, Q. W. – K

government into private sector. In: Proceedings of the 26th Annual Project Management Institute

1995 Seminars &Symposium. Drexel Hill;

2. Fleming Q. W. (1998) Cost/Schedule Control System Criteria: The Ma

Publishing, Chicago;

Fleming, Q. W. – Koppelman, J. M. (1998) The Earned Value Body of Knowledge. In:

Proceedings of the 14th World Congress of Project Management. Vol

4


CONSIDÉRATIONS SUR L’ÉVOLUTION DU CONTENU DES

CONCEPTS DE LA QUALITÉ

Liviu MASALAR, Université de Liège, BELGIQUE

Résumé: L’article présente les considérations de l’auteur sur l’évolution et la définition de

la qualité ainsi que des concepts y associés tells que qualité : adéquate, attendue, visée, réalisée,

perçue, optimale, totale, assurance qualité, contrôle qualité, etc. qui permettront aux lecteurs et

surtout aux entrepreneurs, jeunes et moins jeunes, de mieux comprendre la signification des notions

afin de les utiliser d’une manière efficace dans leurs taches quotidienne de managers.

La plupart de gens utilisent le mot qualité dans leur vocabulaire sans se soucier de sa

définition rigoureuse, et ils s’en sortent sans problèmes. Mais, lorsqu’on est sensé à manager/diriger

une activité ou une entreprise il est impératif, de bien connaître, maîtriser et utiliser les concepts. Le

concept de qualité regroupe un ensemble des thèmes divers dont les frontières restent assez floues et

qui ne fait pas l’unanimité.

Il est utile de s'en souvenir, à l’appui de cette situation, les mots de R. Hale qui disait:

« Comme tous les concepts importants la Qualité est d’une grande simplicité, à tel point que

les gens ont beaucoup de mal à comprendre ce qu’elle signifie »

Une des définitions claire et largement acceptée est :

La qualité représente la satisfaction des besoins du client, du point de vue de la

performance, du prix et du délais de livraison d’un produit (fig.1).


Satisfaction des besoins du client du point de vue

P,C,D

Fig. 1

Le produit peut être matériel ou immatériel (service). Il en existe d’autres définitions,

relativement rigoureuses, comme par exemple :

- « La Qualité, c’est l’ensemble des propriétés et caractéristiques d’un produit ou

service qui lui confèrent l’aptitude de satisfaire des besoins exprimés ou implicites »

(Extrait de la norme ISO 8402) ; celle-ci n’est pas tout à fait claire au départ et

nécessite donc que chacun des termes de la définition soit explicité par des notes ce

qui est fait dans la norme ; ou encore :

- « La Qualité, c’est l’aptitude à l’emploi » (J.Juran).

- « La Qualité, c’est la conformité aux spécifications » (P. Crosby).

On peut citer aussi des approches moins rigoureuses telles que:

- « La Qualité, on ne peut pas la définir, on la reconnaît quant on la voit » ;

- « La Qualité c’est une mode » ou

- « La Qualité c’est la perfection » (pour ceux qui ne comprennent pas) ; ou encore

- « la Qualité c’est le contraire de la Non-Qualité » (pour ceux qui ont compris ce

qu’est la Non Qualité), etc.

L’énumération, non-exhaustive, de ces définitions nous permet d’affirmer que la qualité est

une perception relative car chaque entité (société, individu) peut définir selon ses propres critères (y

compris subjectifs) la réponse appropriée à ses besoins et que les notions de performance, coût et

délai sont interactives et qu’elles peuvent varier d’une époque à une autre, d’une entité à l’autre en

fonctions de différents paramètres.

En associant un adjectif qualificatif au mot qualité tel que : attendue, visée, réalisée, perçue,

adéquate, optimale, finale, totale etc. on arrive à des notions plus spécifiques qui nous permettent de

voir la qualité sous d’autres angles. Leur signification sera explicitée ci dessous.


Si on tient compte de la relation client - fournisseur on peut définir: une qualité attendue,

une qualité visée, une qualité réalisée (mise en évidence par la mesure de la performance de

l’entreprise) et finalement une qualité perçue (ressortie p.ex. d’une mesure de satisfaction du

client).

Ces quatre qualités, dont la première et la dernière concernent le client et la deuxième et la

troisième le fournisseur, forment une boucle (fig.2) connue sous le nom de « cercle vertueux de la

qualité ».

.

Mesure de la satisfaction du client

Qualité perçueMesure de la performance de l’entreprise

Qualité réalisée

Boucle de la qualité

• Clients (voyageur, autorité,etc)

Qualité attendue

• fournisseurs

Qualité visée

Fig. 2

s les activités internes et externes d’une

entreprise.

Le graphique (fig.3) permet de visualiser et de définir la qualité adéquate. Ainsi, on peut

identifier différentes zones: 1) qualité conforme, 2) hasard heureux - satisfactions des besoins

implicites, 3) sur-qualité, 4) défaut, 5) travail inutile de conception, 6) exigences non satisfaites,

7) gaspillage.

Il est bien évident que l’efficacité d’une entreprise ou d’une société sera d’autant plus grande

que la zone 1 (à la limite même la zone 2) sera plus grande ou, dans d’autres mots, que les trois

cercles soient le plus juxtaposés possible. Cela peut se réaliser lorsqu’on maîtrise la qualité dans

tous les secteurs d’activité de la société ou de l’entreprise.

Les notions qualités énumérées plus haut étant forcement différentes, l’idéal serait de

réduire aux maximum l’écart entre elles. C’est ce qui se passe d’ailleurs, lorsqu’on applique avec

rigueur, le principe de l’amélioration continue dans toute


Qualité adéquate

• 1) qualité conforme• 2) hasard heureux (satisfactions

des besoins implicites)

• 3) surqualité5

spécifications

• 4) défaut) travail inutile (de conception)

) exigences non satisfaites

• 5

• 6

• 7) gaspillage

Fig. 3

Si on tient compte du, bien connu graphique de Juran (fig.4) "coûts des pannes et coûts de

prévention des pannes" on peut définir la qualité optimale comme étant la zone située

1

2

4 3

6 7

réaliséedémandée

autour du

point c

oivent opérer la plupart d’entreprises certifiées selon

la norm

orrespondant aux coûts minimums, zone comprise entre la sous qualité et la sur qualité. A

notre avis c’est justement dans cette zone que d

e ISO 9000 régissant le système de management de la qualité.

Qualité optimale (JURAN)

Fig. 4

La qualité finale d’un produit ou service se construit tout au long du cycle d’élaboration de

celui –ci. Dans chaque étape du cycle intervient les 5M : Main d’œuvre, Machine, Méthode, Milieu

(environnement, management), Matière première. Tout « M » pris individuellement, peut être le

siège de déviations ou d’écarts par rapport à ce qui sera attendu. C’est ainsi que la qualité finale

d’un produit ou service dépend de la qualité de chacun des 5M en question et qu’il faudra veiller à

ce que leur variabilité soit maîtrisée est ramenée à des valeurs aussi réduites que possible.


En fin, on arrive au concept de la « Qualité Totale » qui représente plutôt un état d’esprit

qu’une notion, d’où la difficulté de la définir.

Dans une représentation graphique de la gestion de l’entreprise sur trois axes –technique,

économique, social - de l’évolution historique des trois concepts de la qualité à savoir : le contrôle

technique CT, l’assurance qualité AQ, la qualité totale QT (fig.5), on voit clairement que le dernier

apparu – la qualité totale- prend en considération l’importance de l’homme, de l’individu, en le

situant au même niveau que les composantes technique et économique et cela par opposition au

taylorisme ou l’accent était mis, essentiellement, sur les axes technique et économique.

L’évolution du monde socio-économique actuel montre bien que la place de l’homme

devienne prépondérante par rapport aux autres aspects de sorte qu’aujourd’hui, tous s’accordent

pour dire que la plus grande richesse d’une entreprise c’est bien le facteur social, autrement dit, la

qualité des femmes et hommes qui y travaillent et la composent et non pas uniquement son

équipement ou son capital financier.

Evolution des concepts qualité(2)

e, chronologique, sur

deux a nnée et la composante technique et économique

en absc

orisme) et que ce contrôle se situe en bas de l’axe socioculturel.

service satisfasse aux exigences exprimées concernant

la qualité » qui monte un peu sur l’axe social mais pas assez.

Fig. 5

L’évolution des trois concepts présentés ci dessus (contrôle qualité, assurance qualité,

management par la qualité totale) peut être illustrée d’une manière différent

xes : la composante socioculturelle en ordo

isse (fig.6). On voit qu’avant les années 1960 on connaît et on applique principalement le

contrôle technique qui par une inspection à 100% de pièces permet d’identifier et de séparer les

rebuts de pièces bonnes (le tayl

Aux alentours des années ’70 se développe le concept d’assurance qualité qui peut se

définir comme « l’ensemble d’actions préétablies et systématiques nécessaires pour donner la

confiance appropriée en ce qu’un produit ou


Evolution des concepts qualité(1)

Excellence

2000

Fig. 6

Après les années ’90, l’apparition du concept de qualité totale (ou de l’excellence) a permis

d’atten

out d’abord, deux constatations :

opposition au taylorisme (management vertical)

ou le cl

ro défaut »

ui, en pratique correspond à un « produit parfait ». Le produit parfait avec zéro défaut n’existe

tel en réalité, (de ce point de vue on pourra le comparer au zéro absolu de

mpérature) sa réalisation entraînerait de dépenses faramineuses et donc, par là, il n’est pas

Si dans le cas d’une production rationnelle, on suppose que zéro défaut signifie « réalisé

conformément aux prescriptions », ce qui admet d’écarts et même un pourcentage de rebuts, le

concept s’approche de celui de «niveaux de qualité acceptable».

Entre ces deux interprétations le concept de zéro défaut peut se traduire par « faire bien du

premier coup, toujours et au coût minimum ». Cette situation exclue le droit à l’erreur donc à la

possibilité de pouvoir progresser par l’analyse des erreurs/non conformités et leur remplacement

par des solutions meilleures/amélioration continue.

dre à la fois les hautes valeurs sur les deux axes, économique et social.

Faisons, t

1° - contrairement à ce qu’on pourrait croire il ne peut pas y avoir un management efficace

d’une entité sans avoir un solide système d’assurance qualité et sans le contrôle de qualité (les trois

concepts doivent coexister) ;

2° - l’esprit qualité totale se caractérise et s’exprime par un management participatif –

autrement dit le client interne et externe est roi - en

ient était plutôt captif.

Quant à la définition, force est de constater que la qualité totale stricto senso n’existe pas ;

il n’y a que la tendance asymptotique d’améliorer continuellement l’activité vers le « zé

q

pas en tant que

te

intéressant.


En pratique on peut accepter l’idée : droit à l’erreur une fois oui, droit à la même erreur

deux fois non !

Plusieurs auteurs considèrent que la qualité totale, c’est le zéro défaut, zéro panne, zéro

stock, zéro délai, zéro papier, zéro accident, zéro mépris ; cette approche de la définition a le mérite

d’intégrer les aspects de qualité, de sécurité et d’éthique. L’auteur rejoint ce point de vue et va plus

loin pour dire que l’ensemble des zéros énumérés plus haut constitue une définition tout à fait

accep

comprendra, probablement, mieux le s phrase de Juran : « Le problème de

la qualité n’est pas ce que les gens ignorent, le problème est ce qu’ils croient savoir ».

Bibliographie:

Masalar, L., Management par la qualité totale, Cours donné à l’Université de Liège, 2004.

table pour le concept/la notion d’Excellence.

A la lumière de ces quelques considérations sur le mot et le concept de la qualité on

ens et la pertinence de la

1.


C

Liviu MASALAR, Université de Liège, BELGIQUE

Abstract: A very effective management method, based to the model “way to excellence” will

be presented and discussed with the appropriate tools and methods.

INTRODUCTION

La plupart des gens s’accordent pour dir Management de/par la Qualité Totale n’est ni

une science ni un art; c’est un ensemble de comportements et de méthodes/outils que tout bon manager

« être r

ent, à la partie concernant les méthodes/outils de la qualité

dont les

sociation de ces outils à la roue de Deming et ensuite, par

l’ on va montrer comment réaliser le management efficace d’une

en

de certains outils/méthodes de la qualité, étant

donnée

s expérimenté, s’y retrouve facilement.

ONSIDERATIONS SUR LA MODELISATION DE LA VOIE VERS

L’EXCELLENCE A L’AIDE DES OUTILS ET METHODES SPECIFIQUES

DE LA QUALITE

e que le

are », doit utiliser pour une gestion efficace de son entreprise.

Avoir ou acquérir des comportements adéquats dépend de beaucoup de facteurs, parmi ceux-ci,

l’éducation, talent, intuition, inspiration etc. aspects que nous n’allons pas traiter ici.

Cet article sera consacré, notamm

contenus peuvent s’acquérir par l’étude assidue des livres ou des traités de spécialité et/ou par

la pratique.

La démarche suivie est basée sur l’as

application de l’amélioration continue

treprise et la diriger vers l’excellence.

Nous montrerons comment faire bon usage

que très souvent la littérature spécialisé abonde en nombre et diversité d’informations à ce sujet,

sans pour autant qu’un entrepreneur débutant, ou même un plu


Toute entreprise engagée dans une démarche de la qualité totale réalise un effort permanent

d’amélioration de son activité et cela, dans tous les secteurs, d’une façon continue et par tout le

personnel à tous les niveaux hiérarchique.

MODELISATION DE LA VOIE VERS L’EXCELLENCE

La figure 1 visualise un modèle efficace de management d’une entreprise dans lequel on

retrouve la cible permanente - l’excellence (ou le « zéro défaut »), à laquelle on peut arriver en

montant la pente (KAIZEN = amélioration continue), à l’aide de la roue de Deming, PDCA - Plan

,Do, Check, Act ce qui correspond en français à Planifier, Exécuter, Vérifier, Améliorer.

La roue de Deming (en marche vers l’excellence)

AQ

KAIZEN

ISO 9000

Fig. 1

P

C

D

AExcellence = « zéro défaut »

Pour que la roue avance toujours dans le sens montant de la pente un système efficace de

management de la qualité doit être mis en place (une norme, par ex. ISO 9000, un model, par

ex.EFQM, un prix, par ex. « Deming – Japon » , « Malcolm Baldrige – USA » etc.) représenté par

un coin qui bloque la roue du côté bas.

- planif

- mesure

de veiller à stabiliser les progrès ainsi réalisés, de revenir au

point de départ et de relancer

Conduire et piloter l’amélioration continue se déroule selon la logique du PDCA, c.à.d

parcourir les quatre étapes du cycle:

ier : établir ce qui doit être fait,

- agir : réaliser ce qui a été prévu,

r : vérifier et démontrer ce qui est réalisé,

- ajuster : corriger selon l’obtention des résultats

Il est vital, après chaque cycle

un autre cycle, ainsi de suite.


Pour faire tourner la roue de Deming (dans le bon sens) il faut la « motoriser », c.à.d.

donner consistance a chacun des secteurs PDCA qui la compose pour pouvoir l’entraîner. Cela se

it à l’aide d’outils spécifiques de la qualité qui doivent être choisis et utilisés d’une manière

approp

de la description de tous ces outils (la littérature

spécial

d’entra

fa

riée à l’endroit et moment opportun.

Ainsi, sans trop entrer dans les détails

isée est abondante en ce sens) nous allons expliciter dans la suite les composants du « moteur

înement » de la roue.

Pour la partie Plan = Planifier , qui peut être à son tour décomposée en plusieurs étapes, il

est recommandé de faire appel aux différents outils spécifiques. Ainsi pour l’étape poser le

problème on utilisera le Brainstorming (remue méninges) ; pour l’étape choisir les priorités :

Loi de

Effet (

Pareto (80/20), Courbe ABC ; pour l’étape de la collection des données : Feuilles de

relevés, Histogramme ; pour rechercher toutes les causes de la non-qualité : Diagramme Cause –

Ishikawa), AMDEC (Analyse de Mode des Défaillances et de leur Etat de Criticité).

Pour la partie Do = Agir, Effectuer, Exécuter, il y a lieu tout d’abord d’utiliser l’ensemble

des qu

ute Exchange of Die) ou

Poka-Y la QFD ( Quality

Fonctio nue aussi sous le nom de

« maiso

estions QQOQCC-PP = (Quoi ? Qui ? Ou ? Quand ? Comment ? Combien ? Pourquoi ?

Pour qui ?) et puis de déterminer et de choisir les moyens.

Cela se fait à l’aide des outils tels que : SMED = ( Single min

oke . Ensuite, pour l’étape essayer/valider les solutions on utilisera

n Deployment = Déploiement de la Fonction Qualité, con

n de la qualité » à cause de sa forme) ou la Méthode des plans d’expériences (Tagushi).

Pour la partie Check = Quantifier, Vérifier, dans l’étape « contrôler » on fera appel au

MSP (Maîtrise Statistique de Processus, connue aussi sous le nom anglais de SPC – Statistical

Process Control) tandis que dans l’étape « interpréter - évaluer» on fera appel aux outils tels que:

Feuilles de relevées, Histogramme, MSP, Methode des plans d’expériences (Tagushi).

Quant à la partie Act = Réagir, Améliorer il y a lieu de faire appel, dans l’étape « corriger »,

aux outils tels que AMDEC et Méthode de Tagushi alors que dans l’étape de prévention des

difficu re l’AMDEC.

signe un dispositif anti-erreur simple et peu couteaux. C’est un détrompeur

qui r réventivement les erreurs, il peut être mis en place dés la conception ou dés

ous.

ltés l’outil le plus efficace s’avère êt

La signification de certains mots d’origine japonaise tels que Poka –Yoke ou Kaizen ou

d’abréviation anglaise SMED sera donnée ci dessous.

Le Poka Yoke dé

pe met d’éviter p

qu’une erreur humaine est constatée.

Kaizen signifie : amélioration continue. Le Kaizen représente une stratégie efficace de

penser et résoudre les problèmes pas à pas avec la contribution de t


Fig. 2

Le KAIZEN (KAI=changement, Zen=bon,amélioration)

Modèle Europe (occident): innovation uniquement

Modèle au Japon : innovation + Kaizen (équipement et homme)

Innovation

Ce qui est réellement

Maintenance

Ce qui devrait être (standard)

Innovation

KAIZENNouveau standard

temps temps

qui néc

te la différence essentielle de la pensée managériale traditionnelle en

occ n

d’appli

tien o

systéma de changement de série, avec un objectif quantifié.(norme AFNOR NF X50-310).

demand

minute

nécessa

nt, d’autres outils et méthodes de la qualité tels que:

Il se distingue de l’innovation qui propose des bonds en avant et des percées technologiques

essitent des investissements importants.

Cette approche réaliste a été développée par Masaaki Imai à partir de l’expérience japonaise.

La figure 2 explici

ide t et au Japon. L’efficacité démontrée du Kaizen fait qu’aujourd’hui tout le monde s’efforce

quer cette méthode (c’est la raison pour laquelle la version de la norme ISO 9000 – 2000 en

t c mpte tout particulièrement ).

Méthode SMED. Le SMED est une méthode d’organisation qui cherche à réduire de façon

tique le temps

Pour un fabriquant, la réduction des tailles de lots et le souci de répondre rapidement aux

es du marché, rendent indispensable la maîtrise des changements de série rapides.

SMED signifie Single Minute Exchange of Die, c’est-à-dire Echange d'outil en moins d’une

(en principe). En pratique industrielle Single Minute signifie que le temps en minutes

ire à l'échange de l’outillage doit se compter avec un seul chiffre.

Il existe, évidemme

Benchmarking, = se comparer aux meilleurs pour s’améliorer,

Balanced score card, = un tableau de bord équilibré et prospectif, un levier de la

performance. « C’est l’association d’une « feuille de route » et d’un « tableau de bord de

performances équilibrées » qui doivent être supportés par le Top Management de l’organisation

afin d’être déployée avec succès ». (d’après R.S.Kaplan de Harward Business School)


Reengineering, = « une remise en cause fondamentale et une redéfinition radicale des

processus opérationnels pour obtenir des gains spectaculaires dans les performances critiques que

nstituent aujourd’hui les couts, la qualité, le service et la rapidité »,

r et J. Campy ).

Six sigma, = c’est une méthode très puissante et à la fois une stratégie qui a permis le

passage

co

(selon M. Hamme

de la production - approche pourcentage des rebuts à l’approche ppm ( pièces non

conformes par million)

- Les 5 S, etc.

Une ou plusieurs de ces outils/méthodes sont ou peuvent être utilisées d’une manière efficace dans

le management des entreprises en voie vers l’excellence. L’espace consacré à cet article ne permet

pas le développement approfondi de tous ces outils ou méthodes.

Cependant, nous allons expliciter l’une parmi celles ci, à savoir, la méthode des « 5 S » qui,

de l’avis de l’auteur, est une technique de management indispensable, très simple et

particulièrement efficace. C’est la première pratique de la qualité totale et de la voie vers

l’excellence ; très connue et appliquée d’abord au Japon, puis elle s’est repandue en Europe et en

mérique. Il est conseillé aux managers, intéressés par un management qui les conduira vers

ommencer par celle-ci et de l’appliquer sans relâche. La méthode des 5S est

pplicable dans tous les secteurs de l’activité humaine : entreprise, maison, école, etc.

arras, rangement,

qui est inutile veut dire de garder strictement ce qui est nécessaire

et se débarrasser du reste. C’est lutter contre le penchant naturel de l’homme de tout

collectionner et accumuler (hamster).

- Seiton = Ranger les choses selon leur utilité suppose de placer les choses qui restent en

ordre à leur place pour qu’elles soient facilement accessibles afin d’éviter des gestes inutiles

et les pertes de temps pour les saisir au besoin. « Une place pour chaque chose, chaque

chose à sa place ».

- Seiso = Nettoyage assure la propreté du lieu de travail et en même temps permet la

détection des anomalies et des défauts. “ Cleaning is checking ou Nettoyer c’est inspecter”.

- Seiketsu = Ordre ce n’est pas une activité proprement dite mais c’est de maintenir un

aspect agréable et durable au poste de travail par l’application régulière des trois étapes

précédentes.

A

excellence de c

a

D’origine japonaise, elle tire son nom des premières lettres des mots japonais : seiri, seiton,

seiso, seiketsu, shitsuke, qui ont été traduits en français respectivement par : déb

nettoyage, ordre et rigueur. Leurs signification sera détaillée ci dessous :

- Seiri = Débarrasser ce


- Shitsuke = Riguer consiste à encourager et motiver le personnel à garder ses bonnes

habitudes afin d’améliorer de façon continue les règles pour renforcer l’efficience et

s’adapter aux exigences nouvelles. Il ne faut pas laisser de place à la dérive, la hiérarchie

doit continuer à expliquer ou réexpliquer la démarche et surtout ce qui a été mal compris

pour pouvoir travailler dans un environnement de qualité plus accueillant, plus propre, plus

sûr, plus agréable.

La mét contribuant à

l’amélioration de la produ e la méthode transforme

physiquement l’environnement du poste de travail, les gens travaillent dans de meilleures

conditions. Ainsi elle agit profondément sur l’état d’esprit du personnel tous niveaux hiérarchiques

confondus, contribuant à l’augmentation de l’efficacité et du bien être du personnel entier qui se

répercute positivement sur l’entr tater qu’elle est très simple

à formuler mais…beaucoup plus difficile à mettre en œuvre.

les méthodes de construction, de pratiquer des

opérations chirurgicales sans outils adéquats. La

qui s’applique à un m

hode des 5 S produit des résultats spectaculaires et incontestables

ctivité de la sécurité et de qualité de vie. Parce qu

eprise et sur la famille. Force est de cons

CONCLUSION

Il est facile de constater que bien des gens prétendent faire de la qualité sans utiliser ni outils

ni méthodes. Il ne viendrait pourtant à l’idée de personne de tenir une comptabilité sans appliquer

les règles comptables, de bâtir sans respecter

qualité n’est pas un métier mais « quelque chose »

étier. En ce sens, elle se rapproche de la politique. Il n’y a pas d’école pour

devenir Député ou Président, mais on voit bien que ceux qui réussissent sont ceux qui connaissent

les ficelles, donc qui utilisent les méthodes et les outils de la politique. Il est donc judicieux de

connaître et d’utiliser les méthodes et les outils de la qualité pour réaliser des améliorations

continuées et d’être en marche vers l’EXCELLENCE. Cela vaut aussi bien pour les salariés que

pour les managers.

Bibliographie:

1. L. Masalar, «Le déploiement des outils qualité de 5S à Six Sigma», Analele universitatii din

Oradea, seria «Stiinte Economice» , editie pe support CD-ROM, Tom XII, 2003;

2. L. Masalar, «Management par la qualité totale», Cours dispensé à l’Université de Liège, Faculté

des sciences appliquées, 2004 .


NOTES ON THE ROLE OF PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

Elba-Saale and the Lajta Rivers, following the borders of the Carolingian Empire which existed

more than a thousand years ago.

ent, as a consequence of which the countries of the world were faced with

meet very tough requirem

wider than ever between the developed and the developing countries. In other words, the so-called

REFORMS IN THE EU ACCESSION

JENEI György, Budapest University of Economics Sciences

and Public Administration, HUNGARY

Introduction

The history of Central Eastern Europe swarms with turning points. For the last time,

following World War II, - it is an interesting historical coincidence - Europe was severed along the

By 1990 Europe was divided; its western part lived in a greater or lesser symbiosis with the

United States, while its eastern part had a similar relationship with the Soviet Union.

In the 1980’s the communist world was haunted by a ghost, it was the ghost of democracy;

in Central Eastern Europe socialism reached its final point of its historical existence, central

planning and total state control came to be defeated.

In the 1990’s the countries with a developed market economy followed the path of intensive

technological developm

the task of developing competitive economies operating under extremely strict conditions, having to

ents.(Weidenfeld, 1992)

This competition is qualitatively different from all the earlier competitions; its strict

precondition is to carry out the greatest technological changes experienced by history so far.

This enormous change – usually embracing a whole historic era – is unfolding itself at a

breathtaking speed and is characterized by a rapid acceleration. The difference between the distance

covered already and the potentials of the near future has already opened the gap of development


technological, organizational and information gap among them has increased substancially. May I

add that those are the real losers who are unable to jump onto the track of development even in a

belated manner for they are bound to undertake the risk of lagging behind completely.

Studying the development path of the societes which proved to be successful in the past

decade it comes to light clearly and in a way that can hardly be doubted that those nations were

success ic competiteness with the involvement of socio-political

factors.

tion strategy is

the developm

ere have been fundamenta olitical and legal

ent of the public administration in the Central and Eastern European countries.

economic systems. In political and legal

te evelopment has been the collap or an authoritarian political

e of a pluralistic, multi p utional state. Those

omprehensive reform

tion. In the first place the the

ions of a typical socialist state wer d evolved.

l and personnel capacities in a new type

of loca support the development of the bases of a

ma t

began

in 1 2

t phase there were fundamental changes in the economic, political and legal

env n

away f omies, towards market-oriented economic

system a totalitarian

political system and the emergence of a pluralistic, multi party system based on a constitutional

state. Those fundamental changes required basic shifts in the functions of the state and

ful who tried to improve econom

The core task of a modernisa the improvement of public education, public

health care system and last but not least ent of administrative capacities.

In the 90's th l changes in the economic, p

environm

In economic terms the basic turmoil has been to move away from centrally planned, so

called command economies, towards market-oriented

rms the principal d se of a totalitarian

system and the emergenc arty system based on a constit

fundamental changes required basic shifts in the functions of the state and a c

of the public administra re were essential changes in the functions of

state. The funct e abandoned and new functions ha

1. Reform and Modernization of Hungarian Public Administration. The first phase

Creating democratic legitimacy set the stage for administrative reforms. In the first stage, the

basic task was to set up an administrative framework that would be compatible with the principles

of a pluralistic parliamentary democracy and of a market economy. In the second stage, the main

focus of the modernization was the development of materia

l and central public administration which could

rke economy.

The first phase of modernization occurred between 1989 and 1992. The second stage

99 and the third stage began in 1997 and still has not been completed.

In the firs

iro ment of the public administration. In economic terms the basic thrust has been to move

rom centrally planned, so called command econ

s. In political and legal terms the principal development has been the collapse of


compre es in

the fun

Restoration of the civil society

damental changes of the political system (e.g. citizen rights, freedom of the press,

guaran

al public affairs;

-

hensive reform of the public administration. In the first place there were essential chang

ctions of the state. The functions of a typical socialist state were abandoned and new

functions had evolved. These fundamental changes regarding the functions can be characterized as

follows (König, 1992):

FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE

Before transition After transition

Organizing the economy Providing the legal framework

Cultural - educative Less emphasis on ideology

Integrate the society

There were essential changes in the day to day work of the state. Its tools for functioning

have changed. The process can be illustrated as follows:

Before transition After transition

Instruments of "etatism" Social - market Mechanisms

Personal with political-ideological loyalty Civil service requirements

Democratic centralism Power distribution horizontally and vertically

Party solution Legal and economic regulations

Fun

tee of the right to association, electoral system), the establishment of a market oriented

economy and institutions for ensuring the development of a democratic society, were emphasized in

the comprehensive reform of public administration. This reform was associated with

democratization, pluralization and economic liberalization.

Reform of Public administration had included:

- Reinforcing the institutional system for a social market economy (i. e. establishing

organizations to manage state-owned property and modernizing the banking system);

- Adapting the functions and tasks of the state administration to the requirements of a market

economy;

- Substantial decentralization and reinforcing the right of local governments to independently

and democratically manage loc

Deregulation, debureaucratization, and rationalization of the public processes.


2. The second phase of modernisation. The injection of managerialism. 1992-1997

2.1. After the first phase of the modernization it turned out that the performance of the

public sector was a crucial factor in Hungary. It became increasingly accepted now that public

sector performance was one component of the overall performance of national economies not only

because of its direct impact as seller of goods and services but also because of its

ind c

unnecessary regulations could subs ctor and voluntary activity of

nonprofit organizations.

public

econom

systems should not be protected ar

from e nistrative structures-now find themselves in

com etition

have an ess

strengt

crucial d lic sector. How effectively

Hungary fulfills her responsibility for social programs, health care, the education of the workforce,

and ho e Hungarian

eco m

transitions to a market economy. The first is

the a

Great Britain, the first industrial nation, and later by the United States, France, the Netherlands,

Bel m

domina tional, state-led

tran i

transiti

framew

role of s not usurp the place of the private

eco m

run. (F

The current period of transition in Hungary is clearly not of the organic type. Although this

type of ry for it do not exist in Hungary. Hungary

started re are serious political pressures because of the

a buyer and

ire t effects on product and labor markets. Poor administration and inadequately conceived or

tantially burden the private se

From that point of view the improvement of infrastructure, the quality of

services, and the performance of public administration became key long-term factors of

ic recovery and modernization.

In addition, in this knowledge intensive era of public administration and public service

eas of the economy anymore. The public systems of each nation -

ducational and social security systems to admi

p with each other. This means that the efficiency and effectiveness of public services

ential impact on international economic competition. It is obvious that Hungary must

hen her abilities to catch up with the more established economic powers and that one of the

eterminants of success will be the relative efficiency of the pub

using will help determine the ultimate international competitiveness of th

no y.

Historically, there are two types of systematic

m rket-led, evolutionary type - we can call it the "organic" type. This was the road followed by

giu , and the Scandinavian countries. In this type of transition, the state did not have a

nt role; rather it merely facilitated development. The second is a func

sit on, in which the role of the state is decisive, especially in the beginning. In this type of

on, the state assists the private sector in many ways. It creates the overall legal and economic

ork for the transition and also serves as a major economic agent. However, even though the

the state in functional transitions is critical, the state doe

no y. The performance and the commitment of society to the transition are decisive in the long

einstein, 1990; Jenei, 1999/a).

transition is attractive, the conditions necessa

from a more unfavorable base. Moreover, the


externa

for the

hs, steel, electricity etc.).

-

ent, stimulating the import of foreign technology

ation so that government agencies can work more effectively to

l impact of high living standards in the Western world, and the internal expectations and

illusions of the population. Thus, the people of Central and Eastern Europe are not willing to wait

lengthy period of time required by an organic transition. Therefore, the state has important

tasks in the transition.

The list of tasks are as follows:

- In fiscal and monetary policy, the state must control the money supply and assume

responsibility for the government's budget.

- The state must develop the necessary infrastructure (railways, telegrap

The state must provide extensive aid and encouragement for internal entrepreneurs in the

private sector through tax concessions and allowances, low interest loans, grants, and

subsidies. It must promote competition and eliminate restrictive practices. Finally it must

develop strategies for industrial developm

and helping to restructure declining industries.

- The state must develop policies for immigration, policies for labor supply, policies for

worker participation, legislation determining the rights of trade unions, welfare policies,

education and training policies, policies for prompting research and development, and

policies for improving standards in sciences and technology.

The most important elements of the implementation of managerialism include:

- Decentralization of decision-making to the regional and local level, providing genuine legal

and financial autonomy for local institutions;

- Deregulation reforms that make the long, complicated laws and regulations understandable

to the public;

- Transforming and flattening public organizations so that they are not only reactive, but also

proactive in connection with changes in public requirements and demands;

- Changing procurement policy, financial, human resource management, and information

systems in public organiz

develop new forms of cooperation with the non-governmental organizations and the private

sector and give more attention to the citizens they serve;

- Measuring the performance and the outcomes of public sector activities by reviewing and

monitoring, rather than by commanding and controlling.

3. The third phase of modernisation. 1997-

/EU accession and administrative capacities/


In this phase it became quite obvious that the performance level of the civil service has had

decisive impact not only on the economic competitiveness but also on the political stability as well.

In the Western democratic systems the legitimacy of modern democratic states comes from the

commonly accepted and institutionalised rules of democratic processes. On the other hand, the most

visible and important trend in modern public administration is its pursuit to improve the efficiency

and effectiveness of its operations. In many cases this desire to achieve better quality outcomes tempts

public a rocesses and institutions in such a fashion that

wo

ansitional countries as Hungary public administration

has a

implem s of

mo n

terms o

of the new situation. The increasing economic, political and

soc e requirements of

leg m within

in t

and politica ent of public administration. The economic and political

environ economic and political interests

institutions have become increasingly fragmented. The modernisation process caused dramatic

change

l, and social difficulties, which have placed a special

bur n .

Thus t challenges facing public administration. For instance

peo ons, while at the same time every institution is faced with

pressures on it a continuing push for more "direct" democracy as

well as ticipation. These trends are accompanied by decreasing respect for

traditional ins r these circumstances, reacting in an

opp ss problems will only serve to harm the credibility of public

administration rable scepticism. (Jenei, 1999/b)

dministrators to depart from existing legitimate p

uld weaken, perhaps sometimes even endanger democratic processes.

In such Central- and Eastern European tr

h d to face special challenges because the creation of a political democracy and the

entation of the principles of efficiency and effectiveness have become crucial task

der isation at the same time.

Since the early 1990's more fundamental changes were introduced in public administration in

f private management methods and the commencement of an overall effort to reduce the scope

state. This has resulted in a completely

ial pressure on public administration has forced bureaucrats to consider th

alis and managerialism at the same time. This has resulted in tensions and uncertainties

Hungary.

The Hungarian public administration faces new challenges which require new approaches

he day-to-day running of services. There have been fundamental changes in both the economic

l, and the social environm

ment has become increasingly complex, as society, and the

and

s in the social character of the country with greater diversity in the population, increasing

income disparity, changes in family structure and lifestyles, and growing safety concerns. The

transition has brought many economic, politica

de on public administration

here are many pressures and

ple are losing confidence in all instituti

s resources and budgets. There is also

more opportunities for par

truments of "representative" democracy. Unde

re ive way, or trying to minimise

, an institution already viewed with conside


Apart from that the implementation of the standars and values of the European

Administration public administration. These

dministrative principles are not formalised "acquis", but more than a code of ethics. They are

legally ng certain set of civil service standards and values actually, transmitted by law

(Consti

supervisory institutions: courts, prosecutor,

, the media;

-

ffectiveness (performance in achieving the goals and solving the public problems).

-

-

(Recht );

-

Driven Government:

Space has had great challenges for the Hungarian

a

defined containi

tution, acts of Parliament or by-laws). They are considered to be common trends and features,

not a particular, national organisational model of civil service.

The main administrative values are as follows:

- Reliability, Predictability (legal certainty). Rule of law (Rechtsstaat) against arbitrary

power, cronyism, bribery, corruption;

- Openness availability for external scrutiny); Transparency (the examiner can "see

through"). Necessary instruments for the rule of law against maladministration, secrecy;

- Accountability, (answerability for the actions, protecting both the public interest and the

rights of individuals as well). The possibly

ombudsman, internal and external audit, inspectorates, standard-setting authorities,

parliamentary committees

Efficiency (Managerial value, good ratio between resources and results);

- E

In the implementation of the administrative principles there are day to day tensions:

between professional integrity, political neutrality and professional loyalty;

between autonomy, discretional decisions of civil servants and the rule of law

sstaat, Etat de droit

between legalism and managerialism.

Facing the internal and external challenges the Hungarian public administration has to

evolve comprehensive and substantional public management reforms. The main components of

these reform efforts were and are as follows:

- Catalytic Government:

Steering Rather than Rowing

- Community-Owned Government:

Empowering Rather than Serving

- Competitive Government:

Injecting Competition into Service Delivery

- Mission-

Transforming Rule-Driven Organisation


- Results-Oriented Government:

Funding Outcomes, Not Inputs

efits. Socialist democracy was also

emphas

ach. Thus the experiences of quality models in

CEE c

not speak about service

deliver

ferent and in many cases

deficits – in som

ent of administrative

capacities which provide the opportu ent of

4. Conclusion

4.1. Service orientation has became an integral part of the modernisation of the state and

public administration. Quality improvement is not only a managerial issue but it belongs to the

establishment of “Rechtsstaat” the rule of law as well. Before the transition, the great and the small

public service systems delivered by the state were essentially ben

ised but in this democracy the expectations and requirements of the social groups were

artificially created by the ruling elite. Therefore the demands of the “bottom” were created by the

“top”. In other words it was a “top-bottom” appro

annot be evaluated without the establishment of a service orientation in the framework of

constitutional state and pluralistic political system.

Without a radical and clear cut transition toward democracy we can

y. They are only benefits.

A genuine service delivery can be implemented only on the basis of a political system

where:

- the human right of the citizens are guaranteed constitutionally and in the practice as well;

- there are channels in the system for interest articulation of the different social groups;

- there are institutions for achieving compromises among the dif

controversial interests.

Additional remark: the interpretation of “customer” instead of “citizenship” can be twisted

on another way in the countries of CEE. The state-customer relationship can have a meaning which

is totally different from the Western countries, when “customer” is equivalent with the

“beneficiary” and than we can speak about the benefits of a paternalistic state instead of a customer

orientation based on requirements of the social groups.

In the CEE countries creating democratic legitimacy set the stage for administrative reforms.

In the reform and the modernisation of public administration the first stage was to set up an

administrative framework that would be compatible with the principles of a pluralistic

parliamentary democracy and of a market economy. This phase is basically over – with a few

e CEE countries, but some of the CEE countries could not complete this stage of

modernisation.

In the second stage the main focus of the modernisation is the developm

nities for competition. (Jenei, 1999/b) It is the requirem


the EU

public service systems have

become

ivate sector

and vo

ad the

perform

ement” was a

sequen

hat these

countri

“Rechtsstaat” does not mean that it is

already

accession but generally speaking, the ability to compete is the requirement of the current

technology and knowledge intensive phase of economic development.

Isolation and dependency cannot be avoided without the development of a performance

orientation in the public sector. Nowadays the performance level of public service systems is a

crucial component of the economic competitiveness. In other words

integral part of the competition. In the countries of CEE are under the pressure of external

constraints as well. The role of external constraints is obvious when you have the ambition not to

establish a Museum of Outdated Techniques from your country.

But the role if internal constraints is not always quite clear. However poor administration

and inadequately conceived or unnecessary regulations could substantially burden the pr

luntary activity of non-profit organisations.

Thus the improvement of the infrastructure, the quality of public services

ance of public administration have become key factors not only in the modernisation of the

public administration, but of economic recovery and modernisation as well.

4.2. Even in the EU countries there are tensions between the administrative principles. There

is a broadly discussed tension between the principles of professional integrity and professional

loyalty. And a well-known consequence of customer orientation, quality improvement and

application of management techniques is the tension between legalism and managerialism. In the

EU the development of the “Rule of Law” and the introduction of “New Public Manag

tial process. (Even in this development tensions are well-known )

Compared to this there is an essential difference in the CEE countries, namely t

es had in the early l99O’s just established the legal and organizational framework of a

“Rechtsstaat” and shortly after this they also got the challenge of introducing managerial systems

and techniques in the public sector. Basically the development of the “Rule of Law” and of the

“New Public Management” have become a parallel process. It means that the real danger in the

region is not a tension between legalism and managerialism, but a fragmentation.

Creating a legal – organizational framework for a

a functioning legal state based on Weberian principles. But without a functioning Weberian

democratic system the consequence of the initial steps of “New Public Management” is corruption.

It means that the quality models pave the way to the direction of corruption.

On the other hand without introducing the quality models the CEE countries cannot increase

the competitiveness of the public sector which is an essential component of the economic, social

and political modernisation processes of these countries.

Are we really in the trap situation? Is it a dilemma which cannot be solved?


The only solution is that the CEE countries do not try to avoid the Weberian phase of

development. A functioning Rechtsstaat is a necessity in the course of modernization but you have

to add to this development the application and implementation of the western quality models as

well. You need a balanced position and public administration needs a stable political background

and strong consensus of the political parties in supporting this process.

Another precondition of the transferability is that each CEE country has to find its own way in

develop

u can only absorb

their ex a realistic evaluation on the current situation of your own countries.

And yo

stake instead of a relevant synthesis.

l developed by a local government or by a school or a health care

institut

ies as well. A famous example of the impact of the Tilburg

model nts. The “Neue Steuerungsmodel” was initiated in the German

local g

t product

hich was not implemented in their own city but it had a positive impact in Germany.

ird precondition of transferability is the clear understanding of the main function of

e different quality models. You need a clear notion of what you are going to implement.

ac nd in many cases

up

Ci

the ust preserve their traditional strengths.

att e

pro efore the transition includes the following

su

res ooperative, cooperative.

ing its own system. It was already mentioned the public administration system of the EU

countries are not compatible. They cannot be copied or mechanically transplanted. Yo

periences when you have

u have to take into consideration that knowledge has always its cultural connotation.

To make a selection from the experiences of different models is a possibility but you can be

sure that the consequence of it will be a combined mi

A certain quality mode

ion can have a great impact on the development of quality models in the CEE countries. It

happened among the Western countr

to the German local governme

overnments following the suggestions and recommendations of the Tilburg model. It is

interesting that in Tilburg they evolved a model and apart from it they created an expor

w

The th

th

4.3. It is obvious that all organizations in the public sector have to adjust and

commodate to the changing circumstances. These changes occur rapidly a

they are unpredictable. Therefore, public organizations need to be stable and to be able to keep

with the changes. The requirements for public service management are very complicated.

vil servants need new managerial skills and new types of managerial attitudes and values, but at

same time, they m

In Hungary, an essential component of public sector reform is to establish new values and

itudes among public officials. A new type of civil servant is needed, one which can be protectiv

when required, but who can also work as a partner and a manager when necessary. The ideal personal

file of such a civil servant which was not present b

characteristics: Productive and efficient, empathetic, tolerant, reliable, responsible, loyal (but not

bservient) positive toward people and problems, neutral toward political parties, creative and

ourceful, constructively critical, respectful, helpful and courteous, flexible c


How many civil servants now work according of these standards? How many are motivated by

ese values seems obvious that the majority of the civil servants are not. In addition, the following

anagerial skills are needed for improvement in the performance of the public sector: Thinking

trategically, taking initiative, working under pressure, accommodating risk managing resources and

eople, effective delegation of tasks and responsibilities, prioritization, cross-cultural understanding,

bility to work with new technologies communication skills, speaking foreign languages.

These attribu ust be met, if civil

servants are to possess the values e as follows:

On the individual level:

Work that civil servants can identify with, appropriate working conditions, the rational share

of competence, salaries whi upport (support in housing

for example), Career opportuni

On the group level:

A favorable psychological atmosphere for working groups in the organization, leaders who

exhibit

Refere

. Feinstein, Charles (1990), Historical Precedents for Economic Change in Central Europe and

the U Credit Suisse First Boston, and Oxford: Oxford Analytica;

2. Jene

ocratic Process and the Market. Challenges of the Transition. Edited

by M

Perspektiven der Oeffentlichen Betriebswirtschaftslehre, Berlin Verlag, 1999/b 450 pp.;

4. Wei

5. Kön

nces

(SA

th

m

s

p

a

tes define the ideal type of civil servant. The conditions that m

and technical skills listed above ar

ch provide a decent standard of living, social s

ties for advancement.

a clear and cooperative style.

On the organizational level:

Clearly-defined and accepted organizational goals, an operational cooperation among the

divisions of the organization, a well-operating, modern information system, practical results.

nces:

1

SSR, Boston:

i, Gy., Establishment of an independent, neutral civil service in the former socialist

countries of Central and Eastern Europe, 60–70 pp. Printed by The United Nations University,

Tokyo, 1999/a In. The Dem

ihaly Simai;

3. Jenei, Gy., Public Service Management and the Transition Process in Hungary, 128–138 pp. In

Stand und

denfeld, Werner (1992), The future of Europe. Alternatives- strategies-options for the

International Bertelsmann Forum, Bonn-Petersberg;

ig, Klaus (1992), The transformation of a ‘real-socialist’ administrative system into a

conventional Western European system. International Review of Administrative Scie

GE, London, Newbury Park and New Delhi), Vol. 58. 147-161 pp.


NCTION DEPLOYMENT (QFD)

Technical University Iasi, ROMANIA

Abstract: i nalyze and improve a special structured

product – the elec ) techniques.

This paper u authors: that of the functions of

electric energy and that of using the phases of the production, transportation and distribution

process of the elec c .

The conclu n g the energy management, using the

QFD concept.

Introducti

One impor t cept was the application of the

quality control in he guarantee of the quality in the early

activity of an i

Quality Fu ti se of Quality, is the best

device ever create o to what the customer wants

and needs.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a methodology for listening to the Voice of the

Customer and using that information to drive aspects of product development.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a structured approach to defining customer needs or

requirements and translating them into specific plans to produce products to meet those needs.

Some of the benefits of adopting QFD have been documented as:

QUALITY FU

FOR ELECTRIC POWER

Gheorghe CONDURACHE and Anca IUGA

Th s study aims to find the ways to a

tric energy- using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD

is nique for the two new concepts created by the

tri energy as technical characteristics

sio s suggest new possibilities of approachin

on

tan moment in the evolution of the quality con

the development of the products, that is t

ndustrial unit.

nc on Deployment (QFD), also known as The Hou

d t tie product and service design decisions directly


• Reduced time to market

• Reduction in design changes

• Decreased design and manufacturing costs

• Improved quality

• Increased customer satisfaction.

1. QFD Methodology flow

The basic Quality Function Deployment methodology involves four basic phases that occur

over the course of the product development process.

During each phase one or more matrices are prepared to help plan and communicate critical

product and process planning and design information. This QFD methodology flow is represented

below. These four phases are:

1. product planning:

•

ond to need and opportunities;

• establish critical characteristics target value;

2. assembly/part deployment:

• identify critical part & assemblies

• flow down critical parts characteristics;

• translate into critical characteristics & target values;

3. process planning:

• determine critical process & process flow;

• develop production equipment requirements;

• establish critical process parameters;

4. quality control:

• determine critical part and process characteristics;

• establish process control methods & parameters;

• establish inspections & test methods & parameters.

define and prioritize customer needs;

• analyze competitive opportunities;

• plan a product to resp


As a graphic ouse of Quality.

This H se o alit

use of Quality parts

The most diff atrix because it

require e procurem from many

sources.

Quality Function Deployment Product Planning Matrix

support of the QFD-method is being used a diagram called H

y is presented below: ou f Qu

Ho

icult of the House of Quality parts is Customer Requirements M

ent and collecting processing of a great quantity of informatis th on

4

2 5

CORRELATION MATRIX

NRIX

M

ITITION

MATR

CONNECTION MATRIX

TEHNICAL EVALUATION MATRIX

1

3

6

TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS

MATRIX

CUSTOMER REQUIREME TS

AT

COMPET VE EVALUA

IX


2. House of Quality- for electric power

At the beginning, establish the functions of electric power (customer requirements) and then

their weight, as follows:

1- the least important ; to 5- the most important.

Customer Requirements Matrix

Nr. Weight

This chapter shows an application of QFD method for electric power.

a. Customer Requirements Matrix

crt. Sb. Functions

1 F1 The use of electric power must not cause butts. 4

2 F2 Electric power must be measured with accuracy. 5

3 F3 Electric power must be distributed economically to a large

ber of customers. 4

num

4 F4 Electric power must change in other forms of energy (heat,

ht). 3

electric lig

5 F5 Electric power must be distributed quickly and economically

all largeto distances. 3

6 F6 Electric power must be produced on any emplacement

comply wit4

h technical and economical view.

7 F7 Continuity 5

8 F8 Built-in reliability 5

9 F9 Plant and people safety. 5

10 F10 Environment protection. 3

11 F11 Electric power m be of quality on delimitation point

between purveyor and customer. 4

ust

t.

wer mus be blig

ust p mit e m asur ent f qu lity

12 F12 Electromagnetic compatibility between pant and

environmen4

13 F13 Electric po t o ing (a service asked by

customer). 5

14 F14 Electric power m er th e em o a level

in a network knot. 4

Electric pow

15 F15 tension voltage with frequency

er must bring to customers an alternating

and effective value, 3

maintained in some limits.


T EC 15 V

2

b. Technical characteristics

This matrix pres ts e i w c c st o e e ases of energy (energy

production, transport and energy distribution)

1-

2-

3-

4-

8-

9-

en lectr c po er hara teri ics n th thr e ph

G T DT TP

matrix

kCustomer SG A

5-

6-

7-

c. In th

+2-

1

fuel (SG

mechani

electric

ascent tr

elec

transform

custome

transpor

descent

tric

Correla

is matri

strong p

2

- stea

c ene

powe

ansform

ation p

r.

S

b

m

rg

r o

t;

transfor

cable (E

ve

Nam

ing

tation m

x is bein

ositi

3

en t

(T

p

er (RT

ost;

g era

y - tu

n rodu

mer;

C);

T

C1 C

fuel

rel ti

atrix

g used

a on

4

l

o

r );

c

) ;

E ect

r);

bine

tion par

echnical

2 C3

ergy

h

mec

hani

c en

Elec

tric

pow

er o

n pr

oduc

tion

the next

s ips;

5

ic w

m rs

h rac r

C4 C5

r po er

a ete (G

c a te

Asc

ent t

rans

form

er

correlation

to -2- s

6

h es

r

istics ma

C6 C

p as

- gene at

trans

port

Des

cent

tran

sfor

mer

:

trong neg

7

)

trix

7 C8

or ;

Elec

tric

cabl

e

Tran

sfor

mat

ion

post

e aativ rel

8

C9

tio

cust

omer

nship.

9

L 110/20kV


Correlatation matrix

C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C1 C2 C3

C1 - +2 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -2

C2 +2 - +1 -1 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2

C3 +1 +1 - +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 -1

C4 -1 -1 +2 - +2 -1 -1 -2 -2

C5 -1 +2 -1 +2 - +2 +2 +2 +2

C6 -1 -1 +2 -1 +2 - +1 -1 -2

mil men

C2

C7 -1 -2 +2 -1 +2 -1 - +2 +2

C8 -1 -2 +2 -2 +2 -1 +2 - +2

C9 -2 -2 -1 -2 +2 -2 +2 +2 -

d. Conection matrix

It is being use a si ar argu t:

0- no relationship; 1- weak relationship; 2- average relationship; 3- strong relationship.

Conection matrix

C1 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9

F1 3

F2 2 3 3 2

F3 2 1 2 3

F4 1 3

F5 3

F6 3 3 3

F7 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3

F8 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

F9 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

F10 3

F11 3 3 3 3 3 3

F12 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

F13 3

F14 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

F15 3


e. C luation m r

This m s

analogy has be een electric power and nuclear energy.

om rat e analysis

ompetitive eva at ix

atrix represents a comparative analy is from the customer’s point of view. The

been made tw

C pa iv

crt. power energ 1 F 12 F 23 F3 4 F4 5 F5 6

Nr. Functions Electric Nuclear y

F6 7 F7 8 F8 9 F9 10 F10 11 F11 12 F12 13 F13 14 F14 15 F15

f. Technical evaluation matrix

This matrix includes: target value, technical difficulty, importance ratings and technical

evaluat

cal evaluation: an analogy between electric power and nuclear energy.

Importance ratings: assign a weighting factor to relationship symbols (1-2-3) and multiply the

targ add the result products in each

colu

ion.

Technical difficulty: in this way:

1- for structures too difficult to make;

3- for structures too easy to make.

Techni

et value by the weighting factor in each box of the matrix and

mn.


Technical

characteristics C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9

Target value 86 90 116 76 89 81 81 104 103

1 ■ ■ ■

2 ■ ■ Technical

dificulty 3 ■ ■ ■ ■

Importance ratings 86 180 348 228 178 243 81 312 103

Electric

power Technical

evaluation Nuclear

energy

Conclusions

Fifteen functions of the electric power have been presented, but the most important

functio

F13- Availability (a service asked by customer).

Effectiveness (electric power must bring to customers an alternating tension voltage

with frequency and effective value, maintained in some limits.

ph sport and energy distribution).

and the nuclear energy. From this analogy, the most important functions of the electric power are

ns are:

F2- Accuracy.

F7- Continuity.

F8- Built-in reliability.

F9- Plant and people safety.

F15-

Technical characteristics of the electric power have been submitted depending on the 3

ases of the electric power (energy production, tran

In the competitive evaluation matrix an analogy has been made between the electric power

F8- built-in reliability;

F11- ability to create a delimitation point between purveyor and customer.

F13- availability (a service asked by customer).

appear to be:

F2- accuracy;

F3- economical distribution to a large number of customers;


F15- effectiveness (ability to bring to customers an alternating tension voltage with

frequency and effective value, maintained in some limits).

In the technical evaluation matrix the most important reference points are:

C3- electric power on production parameters- 116.

C8- transformation post- 104.

From the com the

technical more important

for the electric power comparing to nuclear power, as:

C3- electric power on production parameters;

C4- ascent transform

C6- descent transform

C8- transformation post;

C9- customer.

The most important customer’s demands for electric power are:

Refere

orld Journal

SAV

eria valorii, Editura Tehnica Info, Chişinău, 2001.

parative analyse between electric energy and nuclear power, (from

characteristics point of view), some technical characteristics are

er;

er;

F2- accuracy;

F8- built-in reliability;

F13- availability (a service asked by customer).

F15- effectiveness or applicability (ability to bring to customers an alternating tension

voltage with frequency and effective value, maintained in some limits).

nces:

1. Akao. Y., Quality Function Deployment – QFD, Integrating Customer requirements into product

design, productivity prev.Cambridge Ma, 1990;

2. Adam. E., Value Management - Cost Reduction Strategiesfor the1990-s, value W

E, 1996;

3. Condurache. G., Management aplicat I – Managementul valorii produsului, Editura

„Gh.Asachi” Iaşi, 1997;

4. Ciobanu. R. M., Condurache G., Ingin


Sânziana GHINET1, Rodica CÂNDEA2 and Gheorghe CONDURACHE2

analysis of the social balance sheet allows management to seek out different

possibi

SOCIAL BALANCE – AN INSTRUMENT

FOR THE HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

1S.C. Industria Sârmei Câmpia Turzii, ROMANIA 2Technical University “Gh. Asachi” Iaşi, ROMANIA

Abstract: This paperwork presents the theoretical and practical aspects regarding the

social balance for human resources analysis in an organisation.

The

lities to increase the efficiency of human resources of the company, with favorable

consequences for l both the activities within the organization and its employees.

Introduction

The social balance notion has been successfully used ever since1977, when it was

introduced in France and became mandatory for every organization larger than 300 employees. The

first goal of the social balance (SB) is to offer social information to everyone who is interested in

the company (employees, management, stockholders, customers and even suppliers).

The SB chart/sheet shows, in the most complete way, the outcomes (positives and negatives)

and the quantification of all the efforts spent by using the census of all the actions initiated by the

compan ll material and financial resources consumed. The goal of SB

is to ev

y and the individualisation of a

aluate the results and the methods.

The SB is a chart/sheet elaborated annually consisting of quantitative and uncommented

information, expressing the social state and labor (work) conditions within the company.


1. The drawing up of a social balance

The social balance contains different kinds of figures: absolute values, rates, statistics,

binary and ordinal numbers.

The drawing of a social balance entail the utilisation of same indicators every year, specific

indicato or each c , and e.

The social balance is structured in seven chapters, every chapter gathering a succession of

indicators. The drawing and the distribution of the social balance follow a number of steps:

collecting information ojec t rt ap

Preparation and elaboration of the social balance is a human resources department task,

which normally should possess most of the required information. The final report is approved by the

Board.

This report should be a public document accessible for: the management, the shareholders,

the employees, and even the business partners. This makes the social balance a public relation

instrume the co prov n e a and

communication.

Informed employees are more productive because social information is part of work

sat tion and this is a very important issue of performance, both individual and for all the

com y.

Social balance should be the first step to go in planning all actions performed by human

resources department and it should be the image of the company’s policies regarding human

resources.

The social balance is ful i tablis organization cial nosi eing

one of the defining elements for the global hum l with

the social budget and the social board.

The social balance reflects the company stat one moment or for a period of time, but its

fin urpose is to give agement the opportunity to improve the company performance

thr establishing e social dysfunc s such as absenteeism, nonquality costs or

even work dissatisfaction and social tensions.

2. Social bala rs

Social balan re divided in two ories: structure indicators (they express the

sta performance indicators (they prai nts recorded). The

structure of a social b os ke th an ba e. Ev category of indicators could

be detailed for each company.

rs f ompany that grants it a great advantage: pursuing the evolution in tim

s and pr t prepara ion, repo proval and distribution.

nt, mpany ing tra sparenc nd availability for social dialog

also

man

cato

rs a

and

alm

use n es hing

e at

tion

categ

cial

the ′s so

g sy

diag

, as

s, b

as an resources administratin stem wel

the

s for som

indi

me)

ce is

cost

nce

in ti

alan

ce indicato

ent one mom se movem

ery

e

t ali e fin lanc

isfac

pan

al p

ough

te at


3. Case study: SOCIAL BALANCE INDICATORS FOR S.C.”INDUSTRIA SÂRMEI” CÂMPIA TURZII S.A.

Chap Indicator 99 00 1 2 19 20 200 200

Employees

1.1 Personnel

1.1.1 Total personnel as of 31.12 5710 866 904 661 5 5 5

1.1.2 Average monthly personnel, relevant ye ar 6122 5761 5951 5724

Gend at of 31.12

Number 4216 4414 4455 4262 Male

rate 9 73.84 75.25 75.45 75.2

Number 1494 1452 1449 1399 Female

rate 26.16 24.75 24.54 24.71

1.1.4 Age groups breakdow n for the total personnel, as of 31.12

Number 1590 1528 1313 1104

rate 27.8 26.0 22.2 19.5

Number 2170 2232 2212 2081

rate 38.0 38.0 37.4 36.7

Number 8 8 105 1085 1162 112

rate

7 8 9

rate 13.5 14.8 16.3 17.1

Num 109 142 238 358

1

1.1.3 er breakdown of total personnel, as

18-30

4 5 4

31-40 5 6 6

41-45

18.53 18.50 19.68 19.92

Number 75 70 66 971 46-50

7 3 6 5

51-55 ber


rate 1.91 2.42 4.03 6.32

Number 8 9 13 19 over 55

rate 0.14 0.15 0.22 0.33

1.1.5 Average age in the organization 9 9 4 3 36,3 36,4 37,4 37.8

Number 488 640 508 487 0-5

rate 8.55 10.91 8.6 8.6

Number 1058 946 687 521 6-10

rate 3 3 18.5 16.1 11.64 9.2

Number 2264 2184 2390 2245 11-20

rate 39.65 37.23 40.48 39.66

Number 1003 1017 1101 1105 21-25

rate 17.56 17.34 18.65 19.52

Number 778 812 857 862 26-30

rate 13.62 13.84 14.51 15.23

Number 119 267 361 441 over 30

rate 2.1 4.55 6.11 7.8

1.1.7 Breakdown of total personnel by detailed structure of qualification, as of 31.12

Number 441 418 502 494

rate 7.7 7.12 8.5 8.7

Num 347 333 377 369

1.1.6 Total personnel breakdown by seniority, as of 31.12

University Education Total

2 3

Technical University education ber


Rate 6.08 5.67 6.38 6.52

9 8 1 1 University education

rate 1.66 1.45 2.12 2.21

17 16 16 22 Foremen

rate 6 9 7 3.08 2.7 2.7 3.9

55 50 59 59 Technicians

rate 0.96 0.85 1.00 1.04

240 25 25 259 Highschool – Monthly

rate 4 25 7 4.2 4. 4. 4.5

479 497 492 46 Workers Total

rate 01 87 45 68 84. 84. 83. 81.

Number 4768 4577 4819 4598 Qualified workers

rate 83.5 78.03 81.62 81.22

2 2 2 2 Qualified woSchool )

rkers ( Occupational te ra 40.96 39.48 42.11 42.45

Number 1294 1329 1297 1209 Qualified workers (Highschool)

rate 22.66 22.65 21.97 21.36

Number 1140 1022 1036 986 Qualified workers ( Training courses)

rate 19.96 17.42 17.55 17.42

Number 29 401 108 26 Unqualified workers

rate .051 6.84 1.83 0.46

Number 5 5 25 25

Number 6 2 5 5

Number

Number 8 1

Number 7 8 7 24

Number 339 316 486 403


1.2 21 85 06 62 Employment during relevant year 2 4 4 2

1.3 Departures (Leaves)

1.3.1 Departures total 1357 325 347 505

1.3.2 Number of resignation - - - -

1.3.3 e limit 07 2 0 2 Retirement leaves, ag 1 8 5 6

1.3.4 Retirement on sickness basis 19 18 21 15

Mutual agreement of parties 1.3.6 Deaths 10 6 8 14

27 Activity decreases 1041 27 2 31.3.8 Professionally unsuitable 40 19 11 9

1.3.9 Disciplinary deviasion and suspensions 33 28 46 59

6 5 61.4 Promotions

rate 10,19 10,12 10,11 10,06

1.5 Absenteeism

1.3.5 107 170 229 319

Number 24 83 02 576

1.5.1 1538 Number of days groundless absence days 1350 1438 1588 1.5.2 91602 Number of absence days on grounds of sick and maternity leaves 96354 86568 86196 1.5.6 Number of absence days for family events 1733 2453 2679 2391

1.5.7. Number of absence days for citizenship obligations 1038 1113 1025 988

1.5.8 1483756 Number of effectively worked days 1562500 1515230 1557749 1.5.9. 1580275 Number of total working days (leaves excluded) 1662975 1606302 1649237 1.5.10. Number of legal leave days 181022 174312 174168 173850


2 Wages / Remmunerations and related expenses

128,53 175,70 326,98 425,67

2.1.1 ,689,300 ,687,500 ,233,600 ,115,000 Average monthly wage ( lei ) 1 2 4 5

2.1.2 53 33 10 303 Periodical bonuses ( billion lei) 2,6 5,2 7,1 10,

2.2 Hierarchy of wages

2.2.1 The ratio between management pemployees wages average

ersonnel wages average and unqualified 8 6 2 7,2 7,9 8,8 7,5

2.2.3 Lump sum of highest wages management 0,106 1,68 3,69 5,44

2.3 Wages calculation method

2.3.1 ntage 4.01 4.87 3.45 1.68 Hourly employees perce 8 8 8 8

2.3.2 Monthly employees percentage 15,99 ,13 ,55 ,32 15 16 18

2.4 Related expenses

Sick allowances and maternity leaves 5,106 7,287 6,058 10

10, 14,612 13,401 2.4.3 Family events leaves 0,092 213 440 922 0, 0, 0,

Retirement indemnisation 2.5 Global salaries / wages expenses

2.5.1 Per 173,807 269,305 466,934 602,391 sonnel expenses

ded value

2.6 Stockholders structure

AVAB - - - 27,605

2.1 Lump Sum of wages 7 9 2

2.4.1 ,115

2.4.2 Paid vacations 662 20,276

2.4.4 0,903 1,101 1,058 1,585

2.5.2 Ad 296,549 377,014 566,149 558,796

2.5.3 Turnover 892,621 1223,067 2035,111 2451,158

APAPS 63,270 63,270 63,270 45,804


SIF Banat - Crişana 2,899 2,899 2,899 3,817 3 3 3 2

PPM 3 3 3 2

3 Hygiene and safety condition

3.1 Labour and transportation accidents 27 24 29 23

3.1.1 Number of permanent disabilities 1 - 2 -

Number of t3.1.3 Number of disabilities days 1308 695 092 894 1 2 1

3.1.4 Number of dedly accidents 3 - - -

Occupa

ed occupational diseases 1 1 1 -

3.2.2

Number of employees suffering from pathological diseases of occupational is

1 atio

sthma

1 bilateral

rial

a

character and their description

1 chronic manganm

occupnal bronchial a

neuro-sensohypoacousi

-

3.2.3 er of statements from the employees that the working processes are Numbpredisposed to inflicting occupational diseases - - - -

3.3 Health and safety committee

3.3.1 The members of manager, commer

the labor Health and Safety Committee : production cial manager and deputy commercial manager, chief

fety office, coordinating physician, e Free Union, representative of the Sigma Union,

15 16 16 engineers, had of health and sarepresentative of thmajor workshops

17

3.3.2 Number of meetings 4 4 4 4

3.4 Safety related expenses 4,911 9,028 17,515 24,601

3.4.1 Safety issues personnel (Health and Safety Office) 6 6 6 6

,831 ,831 ,831 ,774

3.1.2 emporary disabilities 23 24 27 21

3.2 tional diseases 3.2.1 Number of denomination for declar


4 Other working conditions

4.1 the working time Duration and structure of

4.1.1 5 days *5 days *5 days *5 daysWeekly schedule 8h * 8h 8h 8h

4.1.2 days Yearly leave average number of 32 31,7 31,2 30,9

4.1.3 s according to the general Work agreement for all Holidays number of dayemployees 8 8 8 8

4.2 Work organization

1 shift 750 719 771 791

4629 4314 4418 4161

4.2.1

3 shifts 743 728 764 772

Average number of employees holdingjobs of 2 shifts

4.3 Working physical conditions

4.3.1 Number of analyses of toxic products and measurements 1264 1096 1058 1024

4.5 Expenses for improving the working conditions 20,813 18,417 29,561 32,546

5 Training

5.1 Continuos professional traning – number of people

5.1.1 Qualification courses 109 21 68 -

5.1.2 Certification courses 155 125 21 67

5.1.3 Development courses 760 746 1714 1857

5.1.4 Specialization courses 130 279 142 158

5.1.5 Continuos training weight in the employees mass 18,8 20,3 32,68 36,37

5.1.6 Amount granted for continuos training 367,8 459,2 513,7 803,1

5.1.7. Number of studies contracts 68 72 78 78

Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences ICELM - 1 June 3 - 5, 2004

6

34

172

0,78

1,14

8 8 12

32 32 32

187 190 235

1,33 1,16 1,93

1,40 1,58 2,03

Number of emplo

Professional Relatio

Representatives of pe

Information and com

Labor law enforceme

Other living conditi

al endeavors, vac

r social, cultural

yee ies ls benefiting from stud

ns

rsonnel and union delegat

munication

nt

ons depending on the org

ation and treatment packa

and sports charges

eave

es

anization

ges

72

5.1.8

6

6.1

6.2

6.3

7

7.1 Soci7.2 Othe


CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The board of the social balance is elected for a 4 consecutive years period, allowing to

pursue the evolution of the organization ′s human resources and personnel policy.

• The first chapter ”Employees” illustrates a continuously decreasing trend of total

numbe f m

ation and governmet were followed by

the rep acement of all the executive management. As a consequences of the new political

orienta

ghen visas became history in 2002, and a large amount of labor

hand em mutual agreement

of parties w

eople

choose e

workers) and the rate of unqualified workers is continuosly

decreasing (from 6.84 % in 1999 to 0.46 % 2002).

n mass, the average wage and the bonuses mass are continuosly

ing, but not enought for covering the inflation rate. The ratio between the management average

e unqualified workers average wage varyies randomly , but the management

muneration mass has been growing spectacularly during the 4 relavant years (from 0.106 bl lei in

r o anpower, also the average amount of personnel, with only one exception: relevant year

2001, an election year. Changes made in public administr

l

tion, the number of employees grew up. The balance was equilibrated in a very unusual

way: the formerly prohibited Schen

igrated to Western Europe, hoping in greater incomes: the departures on

as obviously increased compared with 2001 .

• The age, seniority and average age in organization pointed to an alarming fact: the

ageing of the personnel. Average age in the organization increased from 36.39 to 37.83 in only 4

years. The cause must be searched in Romanian labor legislation (The social insurance law 19 /

2000), which increased the retiering age, but there are also some social causes: young p

oth r professional fields, where they get paid better and find better opportunities for a career

development.

• If the increased average age in the organization isn′t a very flattering finding, it is still a

good thing that the employees’ educational level is continuosly increasing, for all categories

(University degrees, foremen, qualified

• The absenteeism rate is also worrisome. With all the management efforts and coercion,

the absenteeism rate (both the groundless absence days and the ground sick days) is quite high (6.25

% in 1999, 5.8 % in 2000, 5.6 % in 2001 and 6.27 % in 2002). There is a very good explanation for

that situation: one gets paid better for staying home (sick) than for going to work, which is both a

big flaw of the labor law and a lack of labor culture among Romanian people. the earn is better and

you dont work , you stay home . This is one of the most worying things : lack of labour culture .

• The remuneratio

grow

wage and th

re

1999 to 5.44 bl lei in 2002).


• There is a continuos preoccupation for improving the labor hygiene, health and safety

the of work accidents and the number of permanent and temorary

cupational disseases and no testimonies from the employees regarding any

s that

nother interesting aspect is the preoccupation for continuous training.

Chapter 5 shows that the number of employees who were benefficiary of a training form

is growing every year : from 18.8 % in 1999 to 36.37 % in 2002. The new Labor Code allotted a

special chapter for the personnel training, emphasizing the compulsoriness for the employer to give

every employee the oportunity for traning at least one course at

condition for employees. The Health and Safety Comittee is involved in investment for improving

work conditions. The number

disabilities decreased in relevant years and there were no deadly accidents within these 4 years.

• No oc

procceses to produce occupational disseases were declared.

The new Romanian Labor Code provides special rules for labor health and safety, rule

are mandatory for every employer.

A

•

every two years. The annual

Training Program should cover all training needs for the employees and for that organization.

• Chapter 6 is dedicated to the social dialog indicators and union information activities

inside the organization.

• Chapter 7 gathers information regarding the organization′s concerns about social,

cultural and sports charges. The organization makes a large allowance every year for covering a part

of the vacation and treatment package.

This is for the first time when a social balance is elaborated for Industria Sarmei and up to

our knowledge there is no other company in Romania that uses this kind of instrument for the

Human Resources Management. The social balance has the great advantages of being that a flexible

structure of indicators and of being adaptable to every kind of company. Being elaborated for 3 or 4

consecutive years, the human resources evolution can be watched under all the aspects and it can

also identify causes for some of the organization’s dysfunctions: inefficiency of labor hand, under

training, lack of motivation.

References: 1. Bouric G., Techniques de Gestion. Gestion socio – economiques 1996;

2. Cândea D., Fărcaş D., Diagnosticul şi decizia strategică, Ed. Expert 1998. (Strategic

Diagnostic and Decizion);


3. Cândea R., Cândea D., Comunicare Managerială, Ed.Expert 1996. (Managerial Communication);

4. Cândea R., Cândea D., Comunicare managerială aplicată, Ed. Expert 1998. (Applied

Managerial Communication);

5. Emilian R – coordinator, Conducerea Resurselor Umane, Ed.Expert 1999. (Human Resources

Management);

. Mathis R., Nica P., Rusu C., Managementul Resurselor Umane, Ed. Economică 199l. (Human

Resources Management);

7. To

8. Le

6

rrington D., Hall L., Human Resource Management, Ed. Prentice Hall Europe 1998;

gea 53/2003, Codul Muncii (Labor Code).


t both controversial and attractive field of the marketing

communication conducted by the organizations. The incomes and expenditures and, consequently,

the effec

international refere development of the

field in the Romanian market.

are a lot o er

direct Based o d rk d of co chniques

and instruments of m rketing used in direct, tive app

consumer, aiming to generate quantifiable results (direct orders, lead generation and building of the

consum

provid nfrastructure on r re ps with customer

acterize th t m ng pm the ional the most

releva rovide e stu pleted by the Direct Marketing Association,

including, in a distinctive section, i tio th o for 3 ts. These

marke , U Ki F ta erla ain,

Austri nd, Denmar nd gal e, lan rwa ), Japan,

Chine epublic a, on ys land ilippines (Asia), Canada

INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF THE DIRECT MARKETING

DEVELOPMENT: THE ROMANIAN MARKET IN THE CONTEXT

Călin VEGHEŞ, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, ROMANIA

Abstract: The paper approaches the most significant coordinates of the development

registered by one of the mos

tiveness of the specific campaigns implemented, the experiences registered in 30

nce markets may be perceived as cornerstones for the future

There f points of view ref ring to the conceptual and operational contents of the

marketing. n these, irect ma eting can be define as a sum ncepts, te

a personalized and interac roaches of the

er traffic toward to the selling points of the organizations products and services) and to

e the i for the l g-term p ofitable lationshi s.

To char e direc arketi develo ent in internat markets

nt data are p d by th annual dy com

nforma n about e status f the field 0 marke

ts are: Germany nited ngdom, rance, I ly, Neth nds, Sp Belgium, Sweden,

a, Finla k, Irela , Portu , Greec Switzer d and No y (Europe

se Taipei, R of Kore Hong K g, Mala ia, Thai and Ph


and M mer ust d N ala ean ntina il (South

Ameri uth Afric a).

dy appro the t m ideri ollowing

indica of di rke xpe s, of s-to-c (B-to-C)

direct m iness-to arketing

expenditures, volume of sales generated by the direct marketing activities, volume of sales

generated by the business-to-consum e of s

the bu -business direct marketing act To wi elop us of the

nation as well ave ifi ere e ded dy have

been through th clus th es av corre to the

Roma et.

sis of th t m g e tur als ctive ns in the

field nding to th sessm perio hus een nd 2000, the specific

expen e decrease nific from .231 9.02 US he most

significant decreases have registered by the Japanese (- 9,01 %), Thai (- 5,93 %), Swiss (- 5,84 %)

and G ) ma

e level of the 30 international reference

arke d Romania (expressed in millions US Dollars)

Volume of expenditures Dynamic of expenditures

exico (North A ica), A ralia an ew Ze nd (Oc ia), Arge and Braz

ca) and So a (Afric

The stu aches direc arketing development cons ng the f

tors: volume rect ma ting e nditure volume busines onsumer

arketing expenditures, volume of the bus -business (B-to-B) direct m

er direct marketing activities and volum ales generated by

siness-to ivities. relate th the dev ment stat

al market ( as to h a sign cant ref nce), th data provi by the stu

extended e in ion of e figur (where ailable) sponding

nian mark

The analy e direc arketin xpendi es reve two distin evolutio

correspo e as ent ds. T , betw 1995 a

ditures hav d sig antly, 235 to 18 0 millions Dollars. T

erman (- 5,00 % rkets.

Table 1. Direct marketing expenditures at th

m ts an

Country 1995 2000 2001 2005* 1 2000-2005* 995-2000

Japan 107.851 67.278 69.985 87.090 - 9,01 % 5,30 %

Germany 29.381 22.733 25.591 36.886 - 5,00 % 10,16 %

United Kingdom 12.847 16.530 17.671 24.312 5,17 % 8,02 %

France 16.331 13.969 15.711 21.614 - 3,08 % 9,12 %

Italy 11.942 11.611 13.098 18.951 - 0,56 % 10,29 %

Canada 5.590 6.422 6.791 8.846 2,81 % 6,61 %

Netherlands 5.716 4.808 5.517 8.003 - 3,40 % 10,73 %

Switzerland 6.487 4.801 5.098 5.898 - 5,84 % 4,20 %

Chinese Taipei 3.327 4.310 5.081 10.554 5,31 % 19,62 %

Spain 4.628 4.065 4.563 6.703 - 2,56 % 10,52 %

Australia 3.636 4.045 4.507 6.406 2,15 % 9,63 %

Rep. of Korea 3.318 3.618 4.271 7.634 1,75 % 16,11 %


Belgium 4.447 3.588 4.044 5.895 - 4,20 % 10,44 %

Sweden 3.100 3.132 3.574 5.347 0,21 % 11,29 %

Hong Kong 2.632 2.694 2.939 5.386 0,47 % 14,86 %

Austria 2.904 2.408 2.706 3.840 - 3,68 % 9,78 %

Norway 1.880 2.389 2.599 3.274 4,91 % 6,51 %

Finland 1.832 1.797 2.088 3.242 - 0,39 % 12,53 %

Denmark 2.015 1.799 2.026 2.942 - 2,24 % 10,34 %

Ireland 882 1.408 1.744 3.309 9,81 % 18,64 %

Mexico 385 1.473 1.716 3.238 30,78 % 17,06 %

Argentina 1.139 1.073 1.139 1.479 - 1,19 % 6,63 %

Brazil 693 810 926 1.475 3,17 % 12,74 %

Portugal 477 474 545 858 - 0,13 % 12,60 %

Greece 360 435 506 797 3,86 % 12,87 %

582 493 493 661 - 3,26 %New Zealand 6,04 %

Mal 359 725 aysia 341 388 - 1,02 % 16,28 %

270 334 372 489 4,35 % 7,92 %

Thailand 186 137 149 229 - 5,93 % 10,82 %

Philippines 34 45 52 95 5,77 % 16,12 %

Romania wnd wnd 5 12 wnd 25,00 %

Note: * d values. Th chy 30 ion ets stablis idering the f specific ex es ed

e of th t p he na ts relatively compensated

through the more spectacular evoluti

30,78 %) and Ireland (+9,81 %), other favorable evolutions occurring in the Philippines (+ 5,77 %),

Chinese Taipei’s (+ 5,31 %) and United Kingdom arkets.

or the 20 5 im l th e ma expected

to regi olu hu vol th ma expen expected

to grow from 205890 to 286178 millions US Dollars. T st spectacular increases are expected

to occur in the Chinese Taipei (+ 19,62 %), Ir 18, Me 17,0 aysian (+

16,28 es (+ ) rea ,1 arkets. Less important increases are

estima e Swiss, J e, eal rge , C nd N markets

while the estimated average annual dynamic of the direct marketing expenditures is around of 10 %.

estimatevolume o

e hierarpenditur

of the register

internatin 2001. Source: The Direct Marketing Association.

al mark has been e hed cons

The decreas e mos art of t traditio l marke has been

ons registered in less important markets such as Mexico (+

’s (+ 5,17 %) m

Predictions f period 00–200 are opt istic: al e referenc rkets are

ster favorable ev tions. T s, the ume of e direct rketing ditures is

he mo

ish (+ 64 %), xican (+ 6 %), Mal

%), Philippin 16,12 % and Ko n (+ 16 1 %) m

ted for th apanes New Z and, A ntinean anadian a orwegian

South Africa


Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, F nd ill th rnatio ets in this

respect, while Chinese Taip d R of are ted ate an idate their

presen first ten pos .

findings e ide d co ring rec g exp s on B-to-

C and, respectively, B-to-B markets. Thus, the B-to- have

registered a similar evolution, between 1995 and 2000, decreasing from 106.400 to 87.104 millions

US Dollars. Seventeen international m registered unfavorable evolutions, among the

most significant being the Japanese ( %) ss ( ), ,81 % n (- 4,94

%), Ge - 4,85 %), Fr (- 4,8 and ian ( %) The increases produced

have b stered by th xica 29,89 Irish ,86 nese 6,10 %),

Philipp 92 %) and d Ki m (+ %) m ts.

Table 2. B-to-C direct marketing nditu t th l of terna ference

ets ( essed illio D

Volume of expenditures of exp s

rance a Italy w remain e top inte nal mark

ei an epublic Korea expec to penetr d consol

ce in the itions

Interesting can b ntifie nside the di t marketin enditure

C direct marketing expenditures

arkets have

- 8,06 , Swi - 6,06 % Thai (- 5 ), Austria

rman ( ench 1 %) Belg - 4,48 markets.

een regi e Me n (+ %), (+ 8 %), Chi Taipei (+

ines (+ 5, Unite ngdo 5,51 arke

expe res a e leve the 30 in tional re

mark expr in m ns US ollars)

Dynamic enditureCountry

1995 2000 2001 2005* 1995-2000 2000-2005*

Japan 47.660 31.307 32.257 38.053 - 8,06 % 3,98 %

Germany 13.898 10.841 12.093 16.859 - 4,85 % 9,23 %

8.727 11United Kingdom 6.320 8.262 .512 5,51 % 6,86 %

Italy 5.742 5.499 6.111 8.420 - 0,86 % 8,89 %

.856 5.359 5.930 7.852 - 4,81 %France 6 7,94 %

Canada 2.94 .571 5 3.395 3.571 4 2,88 % 6,13 %

rlands .468 2.079 2.364 3.306 - 3,37 % 9,72 %

pain 2.361 2.030 2.251 3.152 - 2,98 % 9,20 %

1.777 1.944 2.140 2.938 1,81 % 8,61 %

.691 1.969 2.055 2.268 - 6,06 % 2,87 %

hinese Taipei .259 1.693 1.962 3.835 6,10 % 17,77 %

.043 1.625 1.806 2.506 - 4,48 % 9,05 %

.248 1.419 1.642 2.754 2,60 % 14,18 %

ong Kong .363 1.414 1.512 2.651 0,74 % 13,39 %

weden .276 1.226 1.379 1.975 - 0,80 % 10,01 %

ustria .322 1.026 1.131 1.516 - 4,94 % 8,12 %

Nethe 2

S

Australia

Switzerland 2

C 1

Belgium 2

Rep. of Korea 1

H 1

S 1

A 1


N orway 838 1.014 1.080 1.325 3,89 % 5,50 %

exico 245 906 1.050 1.898 29,89 % 15,94 %

enmar 925 795 878 1.210 - 2,98 % 8,76 %

inland 694 642 729 1.048 - 1,55 % 10,30 %

723 676 710 886 - 1,34 % 5,56 %

reland 314 480 583 1.028 8,86 % 16,45 %

383 464 524 803 3,91 % 11,59 %

reece 227 263 305 478 2,99 % 12,69 %

ortugal 221 212 240 363 - 0,83 % 11,36 %

51 207 203 259 - 3,78 % 4,58 %

145 179 197 254 4,30 % 7,25 %

alaysia 02 91 102 180 - 2,26 % 14,62 %

hailand 85 63 68 99 - 5,81 % 9,46 %

hilippines 18 24 28 49 5,92 % 15,34 %

: * estima . The rarch the 3 terna al marke been estaering the volum pecif xpend es reg ered i 01. Sourc e Direct

expe ures he lev f the 30 national r

ark expr d in m ions ollars)

Vo e of endi s Dynamic penditureCountry

M

D k

F

Argentina

I

Brazil

G

P

New Zealand 2

South Africa

M 1

T

P

Note ted values hie y of 0 in tion ts has blished consid e of s ic e itur ist n 20 e: Th Marketing

Association.

Table 3. B-to-B direct marketing ndit at t el o inter eference

m ets ( esse ill US D

lum exp ture of ex s

1995 2000 2001 2005* 1995-2000 2000-2005*

Japan 60.191 35.971 37.728 49.037 - 9,78 % 6,39 %

Germany 15.483 11.892 13.499 20.027 - 5,14 % 10,99 %

9.781 13.762France 9.474 8.610 - 1,89 % 9,83 %

United Kingdom 6.527 8.269 8.944 12.800 4,85 % 9,13 %

Italy 6.200 6.112 6.987 10.531 - 0,29 % 11,50 %

Canada 2.645 3.027 3.220 4.275 2,73 % 7,15 %

Netherlands 3.248 2.729 3.153 4.696 - 3,42 % 11,47 %

Chinese Taipei 2.068 2.617 3.120 6.719 4,82 % 20,75 %

Switzerland 3.796 2.832 3.043 3.631 - 5,69 % 5,10 %

Rep. of Korea 2.070 2.200 2.629 4.880 1,23 % 17,27 %


Australia 1.858 2.101 2.367 3.468 2,49 % 10,54 %

Spain 2.268 2.035 2.312 3.550 - 2,14 % 11,77 %

Belgium 2.404 1.963 2.238 3.389 - 3,97 % 11,54 %

Sweden 1.824 1.907 2.196 3.372 0,89 % 12,07 %

Austria 1.582 1.382 1.575 2.323 - 2,67 % 10,95 %

Norway 1.042 1.376 1.520 1.949 5,72 % 7,21 %

Hong Kong 1.269 1.280 1.426 2.735 0,17 % 16,40 %

Finland 1.138 1.155 1.359 2.194 0,30 % 13,69 %

Ireland 567 928 1.161 2.281 10,36 % 19,71 %

Denmark 1.090 1.004 1.148 1.732 - 1,63 % 11,52 %

Mexico 140 567 665 1.340 32,28 % 18,77 %

Argentina 416 397 429 593 - 0,93 % 8,36 %

Brazil 309 346 401 672 2,29 % 14,20 %

Portugal 256 262 304 495 0,46 % 13,57 %

New Zealand 332 286 290 401 - 2,94 % 6,99 %

Malaysia 257 250 286 545 - 0,55 % 16,87 %

Greece 133 172 201 319 5,28 % 13,15 %

South Africa 124 155 175 235 4,56 % 8,68 %

Thailand 102 74 81 129 - 6,22 % 11,76 %

Philippines 16 21 25 47 5,59 % 17,48 %

Note: * estimated values. The hierarchy of the 30 international markets has been established cons ing

The B-to-B direct mark perienced d 2000, a

relatively less favorable ev , de ng f 28. 0 rs. The

increase of them m e e Me 32,28 %),

Ireland ), Norw l ( an + ave been

negative ensated by r o m ike Japan (- 9,78 %), Thailand (-

6,22 %) 6 .

T edictions rel th io o-C to-B arketing

expenditures show favorable trends. The B-to-C direct ma expenditures are expected to grow

from 93.628 to 124.048 millions US Dollars, mainly due to the increases to be registered in markets

idering the volume of specific expenditures registered in 2001. Source: The Direct MarketAssociation.

eting expenditures have ex , between 1995 an

olution creasi rom 1 829 to 1 2.775 millions US Dolla

s, some ore than impressiv , register d in the markets like xico (+

(+ 10,36 % ay (+ 5,72 %), Phi ippines + 5,59 %) d Greece ( 5,28 %), h

ly comp the dec eases pr duced in arkets l

, Switzerland (- 5, 9 %) and Germany

he pr ated to e evolut n of the both B-t and B- direct m

rketing


such as aipei (+ 1 , + ), (+ ), Philippines (+ 15,34

%), Ma 2 %) u o 4 ls -to- arketing

expendi d f .2 2. ion llar the same

markets being the most rep v r h ipe 5 % (+ 19,71

%), Mexico (+ 18,77 %), Phili Korea (+ 17,27 %), Malaysia (+

16,87 %) and Hong Kong (+ 16,40 %).

The analysis of the lt o ities and

campai s the draw the en cl ke e o enditures.

Thus, b nd th g ist th

internat rkets, a relatively s t , 11 15 lions US

Dollars. ajor reason s le on ate eg lopments

occurred anese ( - , S 5, rm %) and

Belgian (- 4,61 %) market h at of the increases produced in the

Mexican (with a sensational increase ,7 is 12 eg 93 %) or

Philippi ,73 %) ma

S eriod to co see a h pti ers he rated are

expected to grow, from 1276.752 to 1952.557 millions US Dollars. The most important increases

are expected to occur in m

Republic of Korea (+ 23,52 %), Philippines (+ 23,39 %), Hong Kong (+ 22,66 %) and Ireland (+

22,53 % ases ant fo nit do a, rway and

Switzerland. The average annual dyna the ted s es t a .

Ta sales gen ed by direc rket ivit am 30

ternat mar (expressed in millions US Dollars)

olum sales rated ic o

Chinese T 7,77 %) Ireland ( 16,45 % Mexico 15,94 %

laysia (+ 14,6 and Rep blic of K rea (+ 1 ,18 %). A o, the B B direct m

tures are expecte to grow, rom 112 63 to 16 127 mill s US Do s, almost

resentati es in this espect: C inese Ta i (+ 20,7 ), Ireland

ppines (+ 17,48 %), Republic of

sales generated as a resu f the direct marketing activ

gns allow ing of same g eral con usions li in the cas f the exp

etween 1995 a 2000, e sales enerated have reg ered, at e level of the 30

ional ma ignifican decrease from 15 .100 to 1 7.938 mil

The m of this le s favorab evoluti was rel d to the n ative deve

in the Jap - 10,21 %), Thai ( 6,98 %) wiss (- 31 %), Ge an (- 5,19

s which ave fully compens ed some

of + 46 4 %!), Ir h (+ 18, %), Norw ian (+ 10,

nes (+ 10 rkets.

till, the p me is n from ighly o mistic p pective: t sales gene

arkets such as Chinese Taipei (+ 25,85 %), Mexico (+ 24,29 %),

), smaller incre being icipated r the U ed King m, Canad Japan, No

mic of genera sales i timated a 12–13 %

ble 4. The erat the t ma ing act ies and c paigns in

in ional kets

V e of gene Dynam f sales Country

1995 2000 2001 2 1 2000-2005*005* 995-2000

Japan 900.924 525.676 561.817 758.426 - 10,21 % 7,61 %

Germany 133.592 102.348 114.883 188.152 - 5,19 % 12,95 %

113.444France 93.793 98.941 184.149 1,07 % 13,23 %

United Kingdom 66.477 97.015 102.782 155.542 7,85 % 9,90 %

Italy 48.852 50.505 59.326 104.372 0,67 % 15,62 %

Switzerland 51.668 39.328 41.884 52.681 - 5,31 % 6,02 %

Canada 29.097 35.087 37.614 53.885 3,81 % 8,96 %


Netherlands 24.639 25.708 29.850 49.958 0,85 % 14,21 %

Chinese Taipei 16.202 22.508 28.173 71.047 6,80 % 25,85 %

Australia 19.537 22.755 26.643 44.194 3,10 % 14,20 %

Belgium 21.365 16.876 19.444 31.529 - 4,61 % 13,32 %

Sweden 13.224 14.747 17.062 28.518 2,20 % 14,10 %

Norway 8.681 14.579 16.044 20.488 10,93 % 7,04 %

Rep. of Korea 11.300 12.787 16.014 36.760 2,50 % 23,52 %

Austria 14.971 13.952 15.747 25.631 - 1,40 % 12,93 %

Spain 12.123 13.422 15.517 26.776 2,06 % 14,81 %

10.761 10.555 12.027 19.925 - 0,39 % Denmark 13,55 %

Hong Kong 12.235 29.178 10.509 12.016 - 3,00 % 22,66 %

3.518 8.088 10.081 22.334 18,12 % 22,53 %

Finland 7.053 8.293 9.865 17.935 3,29 % 16,68 %

Mexico 437 2.973 3.712 8.819 46,74 % 24,29 %

Argentina 3.080 3.019 3.314 5.118 - 0,40 % 11,13 %

Portugal 1.893 2.261 2.582 4.615 3,62 % 15,34 %

New Zealand 2.607 2.220 2.393 3.794 - 3,16 % 11,31 %

Brazil 1.099 1.561 1.845 3.524 7,27 % 17,69 %

Greece 802 1.033 1.273 2.359 5,19 % 17,96 %

Malaysia 586 626 746 1.716 1,33 % 22,35 %

South Africa 185 259 302 449 6,96 % 11,63 %

Thailand 369 257 291 540 - 6,98 % 16,01 %

Philippines 30 50 61 143 10,76 % 23,39 %

the 30 iNote mated values ier f nt al m as b lished con he volume cif re d i . So Dir eting

Association.

T generate he m g a an gns have

registere ignif ec ro 76 95) 39 m S Dollars

(in 2000 unfavo vo ha ur e J 9,82 %), Thai (- 6,76

%), Swiss (- 6,10 %), Germ 53 d (- ) m ich pensated

the incre duced in th et x 6, Ire ,84 ppines (+

10,76 %) and Norway (+ 9,34 %).

: * esti . The h archy o ernation arkets h een estabsidering t of spe ic sales gistere n 2001 urce: The ect Mark

he sales d by t B-to-C direct arketin ctivities d campai

d a relatively s icant d rease, f m 777. 3 (in 19 to 588.8 illions U

). The most rable e lutions ve occ red in th apanese (-

an (- 5, % ) an Belgian 4,80 % arkets wh have com

ases pro e mark s of Me ico (+ 4 14 %), land (+ 16 %), Phili

Ireland


Also, the sales gene y o- ct marketing s and campaigns have

decreased, between 1995 and 2000 to 1 S he most

significa s have o d i ap - 1 ), an (- 4,80

%), Swi %) and ( % ets un e ev ave been

strong enough to compensate the increases regist

Ireland (+ 19,06 %), Philippines (+ 12,70 %) and Norway (+ 12,53 %).

Table ales genera y th -C t m g a and s in 30

internat ma (expressed in millions US Dollars)

Volume of sales ics o

rated b the B-t B dire activitie

, from 733.329 569.10 millions U Dollars. T

nt decrease ccurre n the J anese ( 0,63 % Thai (- 7,22 %), Germ

ss (- 4,61 Belgian - 4,39 ) mark . These favorabl olutions h

ered in markets such as Mexico (+ 47,97 %),

5. The s ted b e B-to direc arketin ctivities campaign

ional rkets

Dynam f sales Country

1 2000-2005*1995 2000 2001 2005* 995-2000

Japan 462.160 275.585 290.937 367.820 - 9,82 % 5,94 %

Germany 71.740 53.969 59.745 92.935 - 5,53 % 11,48 %

United Kingdom 37.185 53.507 55.815 79.597 7,55 % 8,27 %

France 43.377 38.600 43.094 64.866 - 2,31 % 10,94 %

Italy 26.450 26.503 30.641 50.978 0,04 % 13,98 %

Canada 16.747 19.850 21.046 29.047 3,46 % 7,91 %

Switzerland 24.597 17.952 18.767 22.298 - 6,10 % 4,43 %

Netherlands 11.976 12.154 13.959 22.383 0,30 % 12,99 %

Australia 10.757 11.954 13.772 21.685 2,13 % 12,65 %

Chinese Taipei 7.346 10.426 12.841 30.513 7,25 % 23,96 %

Belgium 11.121 8.694 9.907 15.334 - 4,80 % 12,02 %

Spain 6.924 7.400 8.431 13.671 1,34 % 13,06 %

Norway 4.485 7.009 7.529 9.215 9,34 % 5,63 %

Austria 7.795 6.691 7.396 11.205 - 3,01 % 10,86 %

6.237 6.382 7.238 11.280 0,46 % 12,Sweden 07 %

Rep. of Korea 7.074 15.108 27 % 4.965 5.761 3,02 % 21,

7.23 6.168 6.912 16.00 - 3,13 % 21,01 %

Denmark 5.618 5.240 5.855 9.138 - 1,38 % 11,76 %

Ireland 1.514 % 3.297 4.039 8.310 16,84 20,31 %

Finland 3.123 3.388 3.938 6.588 1,64 % 14,23 %

Mexico 297 1.980 2.457 5.523 46,14 % 22,77 %

Hong Kong 1 3


Argentina % 2.092 1.992 2.159 3.184 - 0,97 9,83 %

Portugal 1.022 1.172 1.319 2.246 2,78 % % 13,89

Brazil 656 941 1.098 1.988 7,48 % 16,14 %

New Zealand % 1.257 1.013 1.064 1.578 - 4,22 9,27 %

Greece 560 682 835 1.480 4,02 % 16,76 %

Malaysia 205 205 240 515 0,00 % 20,23 %

South Africa % 115 158 182 260 6,56 10,47 %

Thailand 193 136 153 272 - 6,76 % 14,87 %

Philippine 18 30 37 81 10,76 % 21,98 %

f the 30 Note ted valu hi o i n s ha tablished considering the volume of specific a t 0 ce: T Marketing

Association.

The perspectives of evolution for the sales ge y ct ma ctivities and

campaigns are promising gm e d , .480 to 915.101

millions US Dollars (in 2 for i c s pectiv in

2001) to illion oll 0 r e es

T er y si c r arketing activities and

campaigns ith an annual average dynamic of 20

%, the m

Mexico (+ 22,77 %), Philippines (+ 21,98 %), Republic of Korea (+ 21,27 %), Hong Kong (+ 21,01

%), Irel %) a lays ,2

he sal erated by the B-to-B a activ ampaigns

in 30 int iona ket s mi Dol

e o of s

: * estima es. The erarchy nternatio al market s been es b-to-c s les regis ered in 2 01. Sour he Direct

nerated b the dire rketing a

: both se ents ar expecte to grow from 638 (in 2001)

005) – the bus ness-to- onsumer ales, res ely from 638.273 (

1037.454 m s US D ars (in 2 05) – fo the busin ss-to-busin s sales.

he sales gen ated b the bu ness-to- onsume direct m

are expected to grow, between 2001 and 2005, w

ost significant increases being estimated for the markets of Chinese Taipei (+ 23,96 %),

and (+ 20,31 nd Ma ia (+ 20 3 %).

Table 6. T es gen direct m rketing ities and c

ernat l mar s (expre sed in llions US lars)

Volum f sales Dynamic ales Country

1995 00 5* 2000 2001 2005* 1995-20 2000-200

Japan 438.764 091 879 606 250. 270. 390. - 10,63 % 9,33 %

France 50.416 60.341 70.350 119.283 3,66 % 14,60 %

Germany 61.853 48.379 55.138 95.217 - 4,80 % 14,50 %

United Kingdom 29.292 43.508 46.968 75.945 8,23 % 11,79 %

Italy 22.401 24.002 28.685 53.393 1,39 % 17,34 %

Switzerland 27.071 21.376 23.117 30.383 - 4,61 % 7,29 %


Canada 12.350 15.237 16.569 24.838 4,29 % 10,27 %

Netherlands 12.663 13.554 15.891 27.575 1,37 % 15,26 %

Chinese Taipei 8.856 12.082 15.332 40.535 6,41 % 27,39 %

Australia 8.780 10.801 12.871 22.508 4,23 % 15,82 %

Sweden 6.987 8.365 9.824 17.238 3,67 % 15,56 %

Belgium 10.243 8.182 9.537 16.195 - 4,39 % 14,63 %

Rep. of Korea 6.335 7.026 8.940 21.651 2,09 % 25,24 %

Norway 4.195 7.570 8.515 11.273 12,53 % 8,29 %

Austria 7.175 7.261 8.352 14.425 0,24 % 14,72 %

Spain 5.199 6.022 7.086 13.105 2,98 % 16,83 %

Denmark 5.143 5.315 6.172 10.787 0,66 % 15,21 %

Ireland 2.003 4.792 6.041 14.024 19,06 % 23,96 %

Finland 3.929 4.905 5.926 11.348 4,54 % 18,26 %

Hong Kong 5.004 4.341 5.104 13.174 - 2,80 % 24,86 %

New Zealand 1.350 1.207 1.330 2.216 - 2,21 % 12,92 %

Portugal 870 1.089 1.263 2.369 4,59 % 16,82 %

Mexico 140 993 1.255 3.296 47,97 % 27,12 %

Argentina 988 1.028 1.155 1.934 0,80 % 13,47 %

Brazil 443 620 747 1.536 6,95 % 19,89 %

Malaysia 380 421 506 1.201 2,07 % 23,33 %

Greece 242 351 437 879 7,72 % 20,15 %

Thailand 176 121 138 269 - 7,22 % 17,33 %

South Africa 70 101 120 190 7,61 % 13,47 %

Philippines 11 20 25 61 12,70 % 24,99 %

Note: * estimated values. The hierarchy of the 30 international markets has been established considering the volume of specific b-to-b sales registered in 2001. Source: The Direct Marketing

Association.

The same perspectives are also expected to occur for the sales generated by the business-to-

business direct marketing activities and campaigns. Thus, the most significant increases, with an

average annual dynamic of more than 20 %, are expected to register in the markets of Chinese

Taipei (+ 27,39 %), Mexico (+ 27,12 %), Republic of Korea (+ 25,24 %), Philippines (+ 24,99 %),


Hong Kong (+ 24,86 %), Ireland (+ 23,96 %), Malaysia (+ 23,33 %) and Greece (+ 20,15 %).

The most important conclusions to be drawn are related to the direct marketing expenditures

and sal

of Korea; the increase is expected to be moderate for the “mature” markets, where direct

ting has already reached a significant level of development (mainly in the European

markets); the lowest dynamics are expected to be registered in Switzerland and Japan;

ajor market segments, by the B-to-B campaigns,

ed to the B-to-C segment;

e expenditures – Chinese Taipei, Mexico, Republic

of Korea, Philippines and Ireland as well as Hong Kong and Malaysia. The increase of the

sales will be a moderate one on the “mature” markets (mainly in the European markets); the

lowest annual dynamics are expected to be registered in Switzerland, Norway and Japan;

• the estimated levels of the sales generated support the more significant contribution of the

B-to-B direct marketing campaigns, their dynamics being superior to that specific to the B-

to-C ones.

The comparative analysis of the expenditures and sales suggests, in terms of effectiveness, a

small decrease between 1995 and 2000, followed by an easy revival produced in 2001. The

increasing trend is expected to be maintained between 2001 and 2005. The gross margins generated

by the direct marketing campaigns were of 84.4 % (1995) and decreased to 83.7 % (2000). The next

year has brought a slight increase to 83.9 % and they are expected to reach 85.3 % (2005).

Similar evolutions are anticipated for the both B-to-C and B-to-B market segments. Thus,

the B-to-C campaigns (which have generated gross margins of 86.3 % - 1995, respectively 85.2 % -

2000 and 85.3 % - 2001), are expected to provide a 86.4 % margin (2005). Also, the B-to-B

campaigns (which have generated gross margins of 82.4 % - 1995, respectively 81.9 % - 2000 and

82.4 % - 2001), are expected to provide a 84.4 % margin (2005). The segment of the individual

consumers has generated and it is expected to continue to generate a sensible higher gross margin

by comparison to the segment of organizational consumers.

es for the international reference markets:

• after a small decrease, registered between 1995 and 2000, direct marketing is expected to

register, both in terms of expenditures and sales generated, a significant increase in the next

period, from 2001 to 2005;

• the most important markets supporting this trend of development (in terms of the

expenditures) will be Chinese Taipei, Ireland, Mexico, Malaysia, Philippines and Republic

marke

• the vector of the future direct marketing development will be represented, considering the

specific expenditures at the level of the m

their dynamics being superior by comparison to that relat

• the major markets supporting the trend of development (in terms of generated sales) will be,

practically, the same like in the case of th


Based on these statistics, it can be stated that direct marketing represents a field well

implemented within the current activities of the organizations present in the international markets,

its instruments being employed in different ways according to the specific level of penetration and

integration in the reference markets. The tradition, the evolutions occurred and the dynamics

registered in the United States place this market as the most suitable model for the future

development of direct marketing, the other markets representing just more or less successful copies.

References:

. Stone, Bob, Jacobs, Ron – Successful Direct Marketing Methods, seventh edition, McGraw-

Hill, New

. Vegheş, Călin – Marketing direct, Uranus, Bucharest, 2003

** “Economic Impact US Direct Marketing Today”, eighth edition, WEFA Group and The Direct

Market

1

York, 2001;

2

*

ing Association, 2002, www.the-dma.org


of Economic Studies, Bucharest, ROMANIA

y the analysis of

the qua

g a four-step scale,

me ary one. To make a comparison with the frequently used concept of PLC (Product

Life Cycle),

launching, all the events occurred within t the postal and te munica ices,

financial and services, d d ser ovide e specialized operators supporting

this assumption.

scale, direct market sent w n the R n org oth

formally and operationally. There is a number of organizations co plan, o ize and

implem arketing ca s or, st, to c uct som its spe ities

(development and usage of databases, mailing of the personalized an -persona offers

toward rs and prosp employ of the t phone nd und

telemarketing campaigns and activities, direct response advertising).

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIRECT MARKETING SERVICES

IN THE ROMANIAN MARKET

Călin VEGHEŞ, Academy

Abstract: At a first sight, the development stage of the Romanian market of direct

marketing services appears to be a mixture corresponding to an emergent and, respectively, a

growing market. The early developments produced in the inter-bellum period, continued by the

poor presences registered in the period of the centralized economy have been followed by a more

significant development after 1990. The paper presents the main results provided b

ntitative and qualitative data regarding the direct marketing industry as well as the most

relevant conclusions based on these.

In spite of some remarkable evolutions for an emergent and transitional market, the level of

the direct marketing development in Romania can be characterized, considerin

rely as a prim

the Romanian direct marketing can be considered as being in the initial stage of

he areas of lecom tions serv

banking edicate vices pr d by th

Even at a small ing is pre ithi omania anizations b

ncerned to rgan

cific activent direct m mpaign at lea ond e of

d/or non lized

and/or inbo the custome ects, ment ele in outbou


There are also present in the market some specialized provider ated direc rketing

support services such as advertising and direct marketing agencies, database suppliers, media

suppliers covering practically all the spectrum of the communication media and channels – TV,

radio, press, courier services and postal and telecommunications providers all acting in an

environ re regulated.

have been expected the transition period bring term rect

marketing development. Still, the evolution of the domain has been an ascendant one, and it is

rather i mo ificant ent eve e field o rketing

as well as the Romanian economy and market were not able to grow more. Yet, the basis of the

future development of the field have been established and the most recent changes occurred allow

to ident ing trends of gr

The major coordinates of the direct marketing development a are re to the

same factors determining its inc n the intern nal ma adeq mic

environ cant changes in terms of the social and cultural characteristics of the

consum ore proper in cture stal a teleco tions the

development of the communication media, an institutional environment able to regulate and, thus,

to support the development of main a ent of nal d ting

association (The Romanian Direct Marketing Association, since November 2003).

s

results achieved (especially from a financial perspective) are less significant, their presence

represe ct

s of rel t ma

ment more and mo

It would to more in s of the di

mpossible to notice a re sign developm when n the entir f ma

ify promis owth.

in Romani lated

uate econorease i different atio rkets: an

ment, signifi

ers, a m frastru of po nd mmunica services,

the do nd the establishm a natio irect marke

Near these, the emergence and the development of a number of specialized service provider

have contributed to the favorable evolution of the field. Even their number is too small and the

nts a kind of guarantee for the further development of the industry. The major dire

marketing agencies active in the Romanian market are listed in the table below:

Table 1. Major direct marketing agencies present in the Romanian market 2002 – 2003

Agency YofE Turnover

(2002) Emp

DBS

(% IC)

Covered

fields

121 Marketing 2000 165000 12 1000000

(95 %)

all

industries

Cash Group 1995 wnd 16 > 300000

(0 %)

all

industries

200000 all CIPP DmD 1998 wnd 4

(62.5 %) industries


Clarity 1999 wnd 7 6000

(0 %)

IT,

agriculture

Direct Mail&

Press Distribution 1999 wnd 30 wnd wnd

Direct Marketing

Concept 1998 144500 2

(99 %) industries

380000 all

Felicitas Marketing

Romania 1994 wnd wnd

>

1000000

(wnd)

all

industries

Hit Mail 1997 700000 75 6000000

(50 %)

all

industries

Mailers 1998 400000 15 12000000

(96 %)

all

industries

Open Public

Services 1996 830000 50

(99 %) industries

5000000 all

Unicorp 1997 wnd 7 7000

(0 %)

all

industries

Yof E – year of establishment, Turnover (2002) – the turnover of the agencies expressed in US rs registered in 2002, Emp – number of full-time employees, DBS (% IC) – the size of the databases (the specific weight of the individual consumers), Covered fields – the markets addressed through the vices provided by the agencies. Sources: The Business Review Workbook 2003, Bucharest 2004.

The analysis of the industry of direct marketing agencies present in the Romanian market

the drawing of some interesting conclusions about their activity and results as well as the

Notes:Dolla

owned ser

allows

ent s

•

•

nsitive rather to other than marketing communication and sales

ire ector. Thus:

the most part of the Romanian direct marketing agencies has been established between

1996 and 1998. Among the factors determining their appearance can be mentioned the

newness of the field and the intention of the beginners to speculate the opportunity of being

first in the market providing specialized services, the experience and the results of a part of

the direct marketing agencies founders achieved within the „traditional” advertising

agencies, the recession of the Romanian market (and, consequently, of the advertising

industry) companies and marketing services providers searching for not necessarily more

effective but definitely cheaper marketing communication and sales promotion solutions);

the most important result achieved was, in fact, the ability to remain in the market

which has proven to be se


promotion instruments and techniques. The turnovers of the direct marketing agencies for

2002 (less than a half of them being open enough to make public the specific volumes of

sales...) hardly compete the budget of a single „traditional” advertising campaign for a fast

moving consumer good, proofing again, if necessary, the launching stage of the Romanian

direct marketing industry and market;

the current development of the Romanian direct marketing industry is an extensive

process. As a fact, nine out of eleven direct marketing agencies active in the Romanian

market address to all the organizations coming from all industries. If, at a first sight, this

may be seen as a proof of openness of the agencies toward all the products and services

markets, a more in-depth view suggests a continuous concern to search for new customers.

The contracts signed weight more in terms of importance by comparison to their objects.

Just a single agency is oriented toward the IT and agricultural markets but the size of the

database owned as well as the reserved attitude in making public the turnover may be seen

as signs of a merely limited success;

the range of the services provided is also relatively limited. The most frequently provided

services are related to the direct mail campaigns organizations and implementation

•

•

as well

•

planation for this situation is given by the profile of the

as to the database development and employment. The portfolio of activities experiences an

extension only in the case of larger agencies through the inclusion of telemarketing and

online marketing related activities. The most part of the activities conducted and services

provided are related to the database development: less favorable, the interest of the agencies’

customers is not related to the further usage of the databases in the direct marketing

campaigns they being mainly the result of some „traditional” marketing actions

(promotional contests and sweepstakes, sampling and other sales promotion activities);

the structure of the databases owned by the Romanian direct marketing agencies is

specific for an offer oriented mainly toward the development of the databases related

services. Unfortunately, these services are not completed with other supporting the

organization and implementation of the further direct marketing campaigns aiming to

generate direct orders. The main ex

agencies’ customers, most of them being providers of consumer goods and services and

preferring to allocate significant amounts of money for „traditional” marketing activities

(especially marketing communication campaigns). Other reasons of this situation may also

be represented by, on a hand, the limited competencies of the specialized providers and, on

another hand, the limited direct marketing knowledge and expectations of the potential

customers of the agencies;


•

ade public by the agencies are more than

pressive in the context of the Romanian market (Coca Cola, Philip Morris, Nissan,

ented considering the customers of the direct

marketing agencies. Second, the current customers perceive direct marketing with a lower

t by comparison to the „traditional” marketing communication activities. Thus, the

related investments have weighted only for 4.8 % (in 2001) respectively 4.3 % (in 2002) in

ith the „traditional” advertising agencies present in the Romanian

nce achieved as well as their better

agencies in their race to get as much as possible of the marketing

Romanian market (25 out of 35) are providing direct marketing

consolidate their positions in the market was to subcontract the direct marketing campaigns

gain by the advertising agencies. Still, it is to be stressed that the direct marketing agencies

have apparently succeeded to improve their position in the market as, by comparison to the

previous year (2002), the weight of advertising agencies providing direct marketing services

has decreased from 80 % to 70 %;

• finally, the international dimension of the direct marketing agencies is poorly

represented. Just two of the existing agencies have international connections (Open Public

Services having a Swiss participation of 45 % – EDMI Holding, while Mailers being

affiliated to D Interactive, a French company specialized in providing CRM services). This

suggests the fact that Romanian market of direct marketing services is still less attractive for

the potential foreign investors, the model established by the „traditional” advertising

the customer portfolio of the direct marketing agencies is less diversified. Even the

names included within the customers lists m

im

Suzuki, Shell, Microsoft, Gillette, Bergenbier, British American Tobacco, Mobexpert, Brau

Union, Kraft Foods, Hewlett Packard, Danone, Pfizer, Tuborg, ING Nederlanden, Compaq,

Cisco, Computerland, Shell Gas, Romtelecom, Unilever, MasterFoods, Glaxosmithkline,

Rank Xerox, McDonald’s, IBM, Porsche, Ogilvy&Mather, Graffitti BBDO, La Fourmi, Star

Foods, Sony, Benckiser, Johnson & Johnson, MobilRom, Pfizer, Monsanto, Scala Business

Services and the list may continue...), they suggest at least two relevant limits. First, the

number of the penetrated fields is still limited. More, fields of activity recognized as

landmarks for the direct marketing development – such as financial and banking and

insurance services – are poorly repres

interes

the total of the advertising expenditures made at the level of the Romanian market;

• the competition w

market is a definitely tough one. The far richer experie

image in the market are two strong pillars sustaining the advertising agencies competing

with the direct marketing

communication budgets brought in the market. The most part of the relevant advertising

agencies present in the

services. One of the solutions employed by the direct marketing agencies to remain and


agencies – the takeover of the agency by an international name of reference – so desired and

practiced in the national market being too far.

The major conclusion to be drawn states that, in terms of the direct marketing services

provided by the specialized agencies, the field ewhere at the end of the launching and

relatively close to the development phase. It is t be expected that the development of the entire

Roman eting

communication at the level of the Romanian organizations will bring better times for the direct

marketing industry. As the necessary, minimal, infrastructure in terms of providers and specialized

services seems to exist, the d orts of the direct marketing

agencies to stimulat and offer them an

xtended portfolio of competencies and services.

Ston

. Veg

uide to Businesses & Services in Romania”, Business

edia Group, Bucharest, 2003;

*** „

is som

o

ian market and a better understanding of the role of marketing and of the mark

evelopment of the field lays on the eff

e the organizations to want more than to build databases

e

References:

1. e, Bob, Jacobs, Ron – Successful Direct Marketing Methods, seventh edition, McGraw-

Hill, New York, 2001;

2 heş, Călin – Marketing direct, Uranus, Bucharest, 2003;

*** „The Workbook 2002. The Ultimate Guide to Businesses & Services in Romania”, Business

Media Group, Bucharest, 2002;

*** „The Workbook 2003. The Ultimate G

M

Agenţii de Marketing Direct 2002”, in Advertising Maker nr. 17, November 2002, p.13 –18.


COMUNICATION AND CHANGE AS MANAGERIAL ABILITIES

CU and Ionela PAVEN

supervising of the co

It is obvious the important role of the communication in the control of the change. In this

paper we will consider the help given by the managers to the people, to understand why there are

changes, supporting them during the transition, resolving the problems that can appear, quicken

them to involve and dedicate to the events.

The change is the testing field for managerial capacities, for the managers’ ability of

understanding people, for their honesty and communicating ability.

gers can successful control the change, then they can be confident in a su l

supervising of the continuity and routine.

It is obvious the important role of l of the change. In this

paper we will consider the help given by the managers to the people, to understand why there are

changes, supporting them during th

Arcadie HINES

„1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia, ROMANIA

Abstract: The change is the testing field for managerial capacities, for the managers’

ability of understanding people, for their honesty and communicating ability.

If managers can successful control the change, then they can be confident in a successful

ntinuity and routine.

If mana ccessfu

the communication in the contro

e transition, resolving the problems that can appear, quicken

them to involve and dedicate to the events:

1. A few strategies to obtain people’s support. In this field there is the golden rule: “What

you don’t like don’t do it to the other one”. We all know how it is when you are kept in the dark,

helpless and manipulated, but when we make other to feel this we want them to be grateful to us!


These

sses through the same situation.

y need to picture themselves and their situation after the change;

ee the change as a piece of an endless process, in which the company

competitively,

strategies, in obtaining support in change’s application means much more than the common

sense, which we are supposing that everybody has it, when he pa

If the people want to endure successfully a change they have some simple conditions:

• They need the whole context for the proposed change and its signification;

• The

• They need to feel that there aren’t contested their self esteem and their security;

• They need to be involved in planning and application as soon as possible;

• They need to s

searches the continuous improve of the quality, services that are offered,

efficiency, rationality and so on.

2. The origin, the context and the meaning of change. We all have to feel that we

understand what is happening around us: that we have in mind a practical model obvious about how

everything works and why people do what they do. There is that certain self understand which

underlines our membership sensation or our feeling like home in our community, in our working

place or in our culture. We appreciate its value only when there is no self-understanding, like when

we are in other places and situations, when our practical model doesn’t apply.

In figure 1 we present the types of human answers to change.

Fig. 1 Types of human answers to change

iliar stereotypical of the

English man being abroad.

Answers to change

Rebellion Dependence Adaptation

There are three types of human reaction to change: two childish and an adult one. The

childish ones are the rebellion and the dependence.

The rebellion gushes through believing half everything that is new and sustaining that

nothing is changed, that you are right and all the others are wrong. The dependence gushes through

being overwhelmed by everything that is new and different, without understanding anything,

leaving others to decide for you. We can recognize both answers in fam


The adult answer consists in elaborating a new practical model for the new situation, based

on observation, questions and maybe on attempts and mistakes.

The rebellion and the dependence are natural reactions to the scarceness of information in a

new situation. The adult answer in elaborating a new understanding is based on the access to

information.

It is often said that the first question, which humans ask about every change, is: “What is in

it for me?” In fact, this question is usually the second. Almost invariably, the first one is “Why?”

and has two answer types:

Because (for example the antecedents, the origin and the circumstances) and:

For that (for example the means and the intentions).

The first one is referring to the present situation and on what has to be done, and the second

one is er

have to thin ough,

nor the e r will gain a very strong support

source. In figure 2 is presented the correlation between “why the change” and the forces needed by

answer from the staff regarding the inevitable changes,

than it

ref ring to the future and on what has to be accomplished. As a general rule, the humans

k at all changes possible through these two perspectives. The future vision isn’t en

pr sent. If these two can be collocated than the manage

change.

Fig. 2 The correlation between “why the change” and the forces needed by change

If the manager wants a constructive

Objectives

Where we are Unhappy about the present

Where we want to be

Why the change? Forces for the change

is practical to give them explanations. If he can satisfy an unpleasant by offering information

instead of rejecting it or negating it, than he has moved the dialog on a much productive field.

3. Visualizing the new situation. We have already seen that the unknown fear is a powerful

and motivating factor, but it is also a terrible resisting force to the change. So it is much better for

the manager if he succeeds to make public all information; this one decreases at the maximum the

unknown’s area and minimizes the resistance based on it.


We don’t know the future until it becomes present. This doesn’t explain the manager’s

speechless on undetermined time and the fact that the manager asks the others, the staff, to “wait

and see

nly the sight sense.

“How sound, how will be for us the new situation?” Regarding the

employ

working p odate to the new situation?”

eir own reactions” - then

:

mind”, they are real for those persons.

e plans to make them work.

Total devotion for the change, because the people will start to feel it as “their problem”.

Obviously, it is an exercise of participation and anticipation, not of “guessing”, so the

manager will succeed to introduce the change in the company when he will prepare the s

support will all the r too early for the

company’s manager to break out a certain process and it is never too late to continue it. In the

beginn

”. The manger can help the others giving them the power over the company’s futures and

establishing a control over this one, if the manager can determine the staff to try to imagine “a

repetition” of the future. It can be said “visualization” but it doesn’t involve o

it will appear, how it will

er, he will ask: “What will I do, what will I feel, learn and say? Where it will be my new

lace and how will I accomm

If the manager succeeds to involve the staff in process – to use their imagination to project

them selves in the new situation and, as a matter of speech, “to observe th

he will obtain the best positive reactions in the same time

The anticipation of the barriers, which might foreclose the change’s acceptation.

Although some barriers exists only “in the

Support for realizing som

taff to

ir forces the introduction of the new, of the change. It is neve

ing he will help at solution the problems that may appear in the new working or organizing

system, to satisfy as many requirements as possible. After the event, he will provide the staff the

details for the application of the change or of the new working system.

4. Manager’s care for self-esteem and security. When the manager thinks that his security

and his status are threaten by the change, he will become defensive and he will reject the danger.

And otherwise: if the manager is satisfy by the change knowing that, no matter what will happen,

his self

initiation of the change. The Japan managerial

policy

broken dishes”

esteem and his security will remain unchanged, than he will be ready to assume much risks.

In this way, many risks can be eliminated.

It is one of the radical principals of the Japanese management. In the big Japan companies,

the employers are assured that the managers won’t allow that the change’s results to injure their

interests; the staff itself will be one of the important

of continuous improving of a product and of a method it is based on an implied contract: the

change’s benefits will be split between all the participants.

Contrary, the most workers outside of Japan can remember a lot of examples with changes

felt a manipulation, when all the benefits went towards a certain group and “all the


towards another one. With such memories, it is obvious why they don’t want to collaborate to their

own crash.

5. The manager must sue to the staff in time. If one company’s manager wants indeed that

his staff won’t be only docile, but to be involve in the change and to support it, than it will appear

some obvious advantages in seducing them as soon as possible in this process:

• It is trust demonstration;

• And, most important, it offers for the ones involve the opportunity to bring their own

contribution to the process.

As many people bring their contribution to the new system, the many will feel it as

belonging to them and they will make sure that it works.

The contrary is the case when the staff isn’t involved in imminent change. In figure 3 it is

represented the diagram of the elements of a successful change based on an efficient collaboration

between the manager and the staff.

ave been made at the right moment –

become

g them selves that their fears aren’t justified when the manifestations

are taking place. The vicious circle of change based on secrets is shown in figure 4.

Involved information

Membership trust Signing

Support up

Fig. 3 The diagram of the elements of a successful change

We see, sometimes, in action a classical kind of prophecy regarding complacence. The

managers avoid involving theirs staff in planning the change, because they are anticipating their

objections and weaknesses. They don’t want to challenge the staff if it is not necessary, especially

when they are vulnerable and their projects are half supported. As a measure of protection, the

leadership doesn’t want to reveal their plans until they are certain that they have gained the staff’s

support or until they are making them “chess mat”.

As a consequence of these secrets they might obtain exactly the contrary. When is presented

to the staff a plan almost ready to be apply, everybody examine it carefully, especially for what it

might not work: that is for the deficiencies that could have been avoided if they were asked before.

What could have been a useful suggestion – if it would h

s into a no useful complaint, if it is too late.

In this way, the managers which don’t succeed to involve their staff in making decisions –

because they are scared that the process might be detained by the objections, the humming or the

demands – they are convincin


Leadership’s fears Results obtained by the leadership

Staff’s rejection Objections

Fig. 4 The vicious circle of change based on secrets

It is obvious how this vicious circle can be stopped; but that action needs courage, because it

defies what might be taken as the experience lesson.

6. Manager must demonstrate that every change made is better. Many people don’t realize

of the

tem either where the new

e to

e. They are expecting that the new washing machine should be

conomical, should have many programs and to have another design that the last one. The insurance

companies are paying the difficulties in deciding “a substitute”, when all the present products are

available with others characteristics that the original article.

All these are so familiarly, for us as customers, so we don’t stop to think over them,

although it wouldn’t hurt to do it as a producer, because the same rules are applied. For each

the profound changes that took place in business world, during the ’80 and in the beginning

‘90’s. There aren’t captive markets no more, nor the intervention or governs’ settlements to

perate the competition’s impact; there aren’t “simplified” markets

customers buy what the old customers want. The customers realize that their choosing hav

fallow the new, the change and the improve. People expect that the nest car should be much

sophisticated that the last on

e

consumer, which thinks as normally the continuous improve of the product, must exists a producer

who thinks in the same way.

Secret information Prepared projects Reference limit

Advanced projects

announced

Ignoring Rumors

Suspicion Skepticism


Phenomenal accomplishments, technological revolutions, the total “rethinking” of a product

ill always be rare events. What keeps us in business is a simple thing: being always in front of the w

competition. This doesn’t mean to disappear from the competition. It is enough to be so advanced

so you pass the first the finish line. This involves a continuous and restless search of the improve in

ll possible ways: quality, quantity, opens minded, opportunity, efficiency, viability, productivity

nd so on.

peopl en if

the compan e to show

to establish a certain relation is that the company’s

a

a

Obviously in searching big and small improves, the companies’ managers involve many

e in research for gaining as many improve for their products and services as possible. Ev

ies’ managers don’t want to be involved in this researching process they hav

understanding towards the idea. The best way

manager should demonstrate the improve brought by a change.

Androniceanu, A.

, Printing House Encyclopedic, Bucharest, 1993;

Bibliography:

1. , Management of the Changes, Printing House ALL, Bucharest, 1998;

2. Burduş, E. ş. a., Management of the Organizational Change, Printing House Economical,

Bucharest, 2000;

3. Drucker, P., Innovation and Entrepreneurial System

4. Drucker, P., Innovation and Enterprising Spirit, Printing House Teora, Bucharest, 2000;

5. Hinescu, A., Management, Univ. „1 Decembrie 1918”, Alba Iulia, 1998;

6. Hinescu, A., Management-Marketing, Printing House AETERNITAS, Alba Iulia, 2000;

7. Hinescu, A., Considerations regarding the content and the necessity of introducing the change,

the new, in the magazine “Wood Industry”, Nr. 3-4, 1990, pg. 185-189;

8. Nicolescu, O., Verboncu, I., Management, Printing House Economical, Bucharest, 1999;

*** Planning and controlling the change, Printing House and Business Consulting RENTROP &

STRATON, Bucharest, 1998.


A NETWORK, FROM

D

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, ROMANIA

How is a tour operator taking the decision to build and organize a destination?

How is the area of it decided? Is

ite different as that one described by academic literature.

ORGANIZING A TOURISM DESTINATION AS

E POINT OF VIEW OF THE HOST AND OF THE CLIENT: CASE

STUDIES ON AGROTOURISM AND A TOUROPERATOR

Ilie ROTARIU,

Abstract:

the theory valid in practicing? Once set it up which could be the

best way to manage it?

The study is based on the experience of Euro-Host Group. During the WATA Annual

Meeting in Bled in 1995 two managers, one from Austria and one from Romania found out that one

way to balance the destinations they were working on was to increase their force by adding similar

ones from the same geographical area: Central Europe, at the time a free niche. The marketing

researches showed that Western Europe was well organised to meet the Asian tremendous demand

estimated for the first decade of the third Millennium. The case shows that a destination can not be

“organised” by tour operators without local support and enrolment not only through partners but

also by local actors. And that the theory has to fit to the real opportunities. From the point of view

of a client a destination is qu

In the same line, we have come to the conclusion that the development of agro and rural

tourism in developed countries is mainly a result of the need for social peace than a business.

Before coming to talk about networks we just point out one of the definitions of a tourist

destination. Gunn1 (1994) define the tourist destination as a geographical area that has a critical

mass of development that can satisfy the objectives of the tourist. The main elements of a tourism

1 Gunn, C. A. (1994). Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts and Cases, 3rd ed, Taylor and Francis, New York.


destination are natural resources, accessible transportation, attractive services, promotion and

information In order to sell a tourist destination specialized structures have occurred: the DMCs

(Destination management companies or ground handlers). According to Rob Davindson and Beulah

Cope (2003) DMCs are key intermediaries whose strength lies in their extensive and detailed

knowledge of the destination where the meeting events is to be held.

Terms like “building, organizing, managing a tourist destination” are not used from a very

long time. We state that there are two capital types of their meaning.

The first one: Tourism is not for poor people, like the people of Somalia or Bangladesh

b.e. Poor countries might earn money from tourism mainly by developing the international

tourist arrivals.

The second one: organizing leisure and recreation for the local community and also for

tourists that visit it.

How is a tour operator taking the decision to build and organise a destination? How is the

area of it decided? Is the theory valid in practising? Once set it up which could be the best way to

manage it?

Our study is based on the experience of Euro-Host Group. During the WATA Annual

Meeting in Bled in 1995 two managers, one from Austria and one from Romania found out that one

of the ways to balance the destinations they were working on, was to increase their force by adding

similar travel agencies from the same geographical area: Central Europe, at the time a free niche.

1995 Bled. Ex Yugoslavia was in war, in fact a short break for some of its new result

countries. Because of the flight costs almost of the participants to WATA General Assembly came

from Europe. Soon, an impressive feeling has risen and points out the differences between Eastern

and Western countries. We present the conclusion of the two managers, gained in time. This

conclusion illustrates also our first statement about the meaning of tourist destination: that one

meaning organizing leisure and recreation of the local community and also for tourists that

visit it..

At the time and in the time Euro-Host founders appreciated that there are no fundamental

differences between West and East concerning democracy or political organization. Even if East

countries have to redevelop the democracy they have loosen being left into communist system after

the 2 nd WW, the traditions and basic feeling are the same. Even concerning religion. The gap was

economic, the development of their economy. East countries hosted “classical” industries, old type

of factories and, by consequence their productivity. West countries have overcome that level and

their economy relays on the new generation of “soft” industries based on high productivity. The

“productive” systems of the postindustrial societies have such a level of performance that a very


small part of the population can assure the required quantities of good for the hole population even

an over production for export that can cover the needs of the hole planet. But this production is

limited as quantity. The economic demand for profit overcomes even the moral considerations, even

the Christian charity. In EU, b.e. the workable agricultural areas are strict limited in order to sustain

an acceptable level of the production that will not lead to overproduction and thus the crash of the

prices, a situation hard to be controlled and imagined now, when the “ symbol economy” is several

times t

ural tourism. Substantial founds are allocated by EU for

such c

ritain. And these countries

are the

hey need social peace. More, we have

arrived

eans a future

high un

he volume of the “physical economy”. The unemployment that result in this way must be

absorbed in a way or an other. The services sector is the affordable issue. In EU, is more and more

usual that in the same farm the first generation perform the classical agriculture and the next one

has to lead towards services, as agro or r

onversions. As a consequence the building and organizing and managing of a “tourist

destination” is extremely sophisticated and a first priority. We appreciate that a huge work of

persuasion of the population is achieved. It started by inoculation the use and need to travel to

surroundings mainly during weekends (the average distance in tourism is now of 65 miles). A

special infrastructure was sustained and developed in order to involve low costs (camping, biking,

walking, trekking etc). A large part of the “disposal” labor is engaged in tourism, organizing the

tourist destination, maintenance of the utilities, sport and leisure, promotion, information, guiding

etc. This phenomenon is much more perceivable in EU’s countries that have high incomes and

developed economies: Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Great B

same that make the greatest efforts to help the Easter economies, specially to develop the

rural tourism. The incomes in rural tourism are not high but they afford a reasonable earning and

mainly the continuous occupation of labor force even if the touristical flows are seasonable (during

off season the conservation, the modernization, the maintaining and the opening of the tourist bases

are done). There is a reasonable question that showed up: why this interest and these efforts from

people used with the work and the profit and for which the help used to be in a form of sponsorship

or philanthropy. We have concluded that it is because t

at the end result that the demographic evolution of Europe has brought the both categories

of countries in the same position: the demographic decrease of the population on medium and long

term and the pressure of imminent immigration, especially from outside Europe. More, once the

enlargement process started it was decided also the progressive modernization of the adherent

economies. That is performance economies, similar to those of Western Europe that m

employment too. We have to add to this, for agriculture – to keep the case – the need for

reconversion or professional reorientation of a large part of the population of rural areas. In

Romania 50% of the population leave in rural areas and most of it has the income’s sources in this


area. As an effect of the adheration only a small part of this population will be involved in

agriculture, the industrialized agriculture. For Romania we can consider that 42-43% of the

population will be affected. Even if only half of it will be obliged to find a new business and we

reach impressive figures, millions of people. And it is obvious that the system of unemployment or

social g

ern Europe

was we

illion of millionaires of Pacific area will be the future

clients ove

classic tourism

Europe, the E

group obliged

The Ce ut of communism and the new structures were to be built.

They starte

that time a reg ienna, Budapest and then Prague to join

their e

Check Republic, Slovakia, Rom

rants can not be accepted because of social risk: the labor force must be kept under pressure,

trained for further efforts. The situation is similar in all others adherent.

But this is the social part of the nowadays challenges in tourism. Rural tourism is not a

business for tour operators. It might be for small size enterprises, the local ones. For large

ones, the profit margins are too small. They must involve themselves in building, organizing and

management of other type of destination.

What Euro-Host has concluded? There is only one way to balance the destinations they were

working on: to increase their force by adding similar agencies from the same geographical area:

Central Europe, at the time a free niche. The marketing researches showed that West

ll organised to meet the Asian tremendous demand estimated for the first decade of the third

Millennium. We can see that the over one m

rcoming the Americans. And these are clients with buy power that need a new kind of

that must afford them the contact with the roots of contemporary civilisation:

uropean culture. More, the financial power of the entrepreneurs of Euro-Host

them to focus only on incentive and business tourism.

ntral Europe just came o

d by finding partners in the area and were obliged to teach them what a destination is. By

ional governmental action which pushed V

fforts was used to combine local actors in order to build the area and assemble the local

destinations into a common offers and a distinctive ones. Euro-Host decided to use the wave. Our

conclusion: the network needs a suitable environment to be able to work and develop. Otherwise it

will be too difficult to built the net and make it workable.

In order to “optimised” the trans ocean flights’ costs by offering more as a destination using

the same flight, it has come as natural that the Central Europe – common speaking the former

Habsburgic Empire – might be a “destination that can be an alternative for Western Europe. It

might include as highlights Vienna, Budapest, Prague and Transylvania. That is Austria, Hungary,

ania and Poland, all of them sold by a common name.

At the time, the tourism structures were weak in the area and their performances far from the

international tourism standards, mainly those for incentive and corporate events. And more, each of

them was playing alone, separately and thus unattractive for this kind of tourism. Connecting all


together would strong their hit power on international offer either for some of them or for all of

them. Clients might have the opportunity to choose and organise their “own” trip by combining

different local destinations that offer the same type of services and the same quality level. That lead

to the concept of adjustable destination. How was it built up?

Step one: organising the net: As the development level was different between the group

members a schedule was set up to build the net, the group. Former Cosmos Austrian tour operator

opened

mark and juridical state for a couple of years, in order to keep

their m

h destination highlighting its particularities; local specialist had to

thorities. The local

conjun

ust

be able to have the sam

subsidiaries in Budapest and Prague in order to involve and use the local specialists.

Because of local conditions Romania was appreciate to be ready only for 2004-0006. Other partners

jointed the group. Euro-Hosts is now available in Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary,

Slovakia and Romania as well as in Poland, Russia and the Baltic States by subsidiaries or joint

partners. They use the same name as a brand: Euro-Hosts even if each member keep behind the

common brand also their former trade

arket values. It was a net not a group, even if they use the “dot org” for their site.

Step two: organising the destination: a “rehearsal” activity started on 1996 using Western

Europe markets. That meant two directions:

1. to organise eac

deal and even to teach local actors what a destination is and how they can make

money of organising it (for example, they have to argue that Bucharest has no

downtown as the city was built by the end of 19 th century for people in carriages,

not for walking people).

2. the management of the area as a hole or as a substituting parts. The group becomes

Euro-Hosts promoting the Central Europe

The first demand has requested a terrible work. The comparison between Vienna, Prague,

Budapest and Bucharest point out huge differences concerning the time and opportunities to match

the international standards for tourism. But all over, they have to teach effectively their members

and local partners what a destination is, how they have to build it, how to organize and manage it.

They have had to deal with touristical services suppliers, but also with cultural and leisure suppliers

as museums, events organizers, art performers and particularly with local au

ctures were very distinct. By far Vienna was better equipped as a destination and it was

easier to organize and promote the fist products.

Euro-Host had to avoid classic tourist offers. They had to find and organize incentive

products that can by developed on the existing and predictable infrastructure. Each destination m

e kind of facilities: not identical but equivalent and interchangeable taking

into account their common heritage and local specificity. By example: a short tour in Budapest had


included a trip by ship on Danube to a local port where an orchestra waited the guest and was the

start point for a race on Trabant - the ex communist brother of Volkswagen – for 3 km into the

pusta, then by carriges the guests reached a farm where a typical dinner was served with Gypsy

orchestra and dances, to end the evening on Vaci Utzca on a fashion night bar. In Prague, the

Trabant race was replaced by a journey “on the steps of solder Sweig” on the pubs of the historical

centre

a tour operator the academic rules are not so important as long as it found out that it has

a critical mass of offer that meet the requirements of a certain mass of potential tourists that

can bring enough turnover to justify the investments made to organise the “destination”

through the returned profits.

A “rehearsal” activity started on 1996 using Western Europe markets. The target: corporate

potential tourists. The destination: Central Europe. The main supplying countries: Italy and France.

After 5 years of hard working with local actors involved in this offer the new destination can count

in Budapest over 60.000 tourists, in Prague over 70000 tourists and in Vienna over 65000 tourists.

More than 40% of them bought all three local destinations and an other 40% two of them using the

same global offer. Half of them came as individuals or as small groups.

Step three: The request for corporate multinational tours obliged the Euro-Host group to

organise the group’s management. The interests of each member of the “group” were different.

Each of them wants to conserve its autonomy but also to take advantage of being in the group. The

management had to focus on their common interest: the need of clients. The tool was marketing

researches and common promotion. Each member become a specialist on local area and developed

the elements that fitted the whole. All together have formed the destination.

Natural, this “destination” is far away for usual ones. Practically it is only as an offer, as a

product by a special and unique kind of combining the existing or improved elements of local

infrastructure. But this special way of doing it has lead to a new destination over the border of the

existing countries, pushed not by local people or authorities, but by a regional tour operator.

Step four: the chosen management type (based on the common interest of the members

focused on marketing and promoting and thus, supplying the clients for the whole group) has

of Prague and a vampire dinner in a medieval castle closed to the town.

You might object that all these are just classic touristical products. But they were quit new,

far away from the former local offer, they reorganised the local services and meet the request of

destination’s definition: a geographical area that has a critical mass of development that can

satisfy the objectives of incentive tourism, promoting the local destination by its specific heritage

and life. And more, all local destinations were connected in a global one offering the same, but

in a distinct way: Central Europe.

For


brought results. The puzzler of local destinations er under the same brand, allowing the

corporate clients to choose and compose the product by themselves was a good construction. Local

expertise has met into a global offer, a new facility for this kind of tourists. The group has had to

develop its activity. The first market attached was the Arabian one. Marketing researches for China

are on the way.

This example illustrates our first meaning of a destination. An unusual one, as it is just an

untouch ts it is

a destination. And an attractive one for corporate clients as they have the liberty to choose the hole

of it or just some parts they find suitable for their guests. We have found out that the theory does

not fit to the to fulfil the

eeds of its clients by organising the critical mass of existing elements suitable for tourism in a

ertain area, that can exceed the borders

built togeth

able construction using existing element. For local people it is nothing, but for touris

real opportunities, as the interests of a tour operator detect “cheaper” ways

n

c


mbrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia, ROMANIA

Abstract:

the banking stuff ha of the consumer are considered as a tendency towards a

certain decision. The buying process begins and ends much before the acquisition; it begins with the

appearance and the perception of the need and it ends with the post acquisition analysis. The consumers

take decisions, which respond to their needs in the process of choosing the best product, or service that

one bank or many banks are offering it on the banking market.

At the same time with our country entering in free market economy’s road, the Rumanian

commercial banks started to intensify their own marketing effort. Depending on technical,

organizational and financial possibilities had enlarged as much as possible their products and services

delivered to the market, which lead towards more aggressive marketing policies.

The marketing and the seals are based as well on a well known of the clients’ needs, as on

presenting the advantages which the banking products and services consumer can obtain through

buying and using them.

In all activity sectors, the increased competition had determined the producers and the

utilities’ deliverers to orient towards the best satisfy of the needs formulated by their potential

costumers, phenomenon which varies in banking sector.

The most important elements of the marketing activity are defined as:

• profitable;

• Identifying and evaluating present and future needs of the clients which action on

MARKETING OF THE BANKING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

Ionela PAVEN, „1 Dece

To be able to influence the choices of the people in banking products and services,

s to know that the actions

Identifying the present and future markets or market segments as much as stable as

these markets;

• Creating new products and services which best satisfy the needs;


• Promoting and administrating the products thus the strategic objectives should be

accomplished, such as: interest, stability, quality, satisfying the clients’ demands,

arket segments and

satisfying in the best way the clients’ dem

element of the general m

the purpose are specific.

Banking m

existing connections between the bank and the others

the banking product’s particularities.

As a conclusion, the m

a)

b)

Figur ions with the economical medium

delivering to the clients, different and specific services and products. In marketing vision, banking

competitively and so on.

Banking marketing is referring to actions done by the banks to gain m

ands. The banking marketing may be considered as an

arketing, whose global objectives although are identical, the methods and

arketing’s characteristics are a result of the complexity and the nature of the

medium’s elements, or, on the other hand, of

arketing activity can be focused and exert on the two levels, meaning:

At the level of constituting the money resources attracted in its circuit;

At the level of the concrete way to use these resources in the purpose of realizing the

organizational objectives.

Invoicing bills

Deposits and primary remunerations for the

loaned founds Short time deposits

Long time deposits

Commercial bank

Obligatand ot

ory reserves her unavailable founds

Loans on the monetary market

Administrating costs

Loans Interest paid for the

received founds Financial investments

R E S O U R C E S

U T I L I T I E S

e 1 Commercial bank’s connect

Banks are considered as working entities multi-producer because they are proposing and


products are defined here in a large acceptance and they are regarding the offer made by a bank to

its clients without being necessary to refer to the nature and dimension of the used founds.

It is necess characteristics of the banking products and services

deliver

e and “the intermediary agency’s” image;

b) The material products, which approach the best the

double meaning. In this way the banking products can be dissented through the name

al settlements, the financial ones and the banking ones creates for the banking

products and services essential and definitely characteristics which increase their

ers are different one from another. Through the customers there are also

individ

ary to present some specific

ed to the clients. These are the fallowing:

a) The banking products and services are proposed and delivered directly to the clients.

The relation “producer - consumer” appeared in this case, is directly, none

interposing to any intermediary in distribution circle. These circles are administrated

by the banks and that is why there is a total correspondence, from the client, between

the bank’s imag

banking products are im

services performances. They aren’t affected by the morally wearing out, and their

“aging” is very slow. As a proof some products are as old as the banking activity

itself, having a life as long as the banks’. They aren’t protected by patent acts and

each new service created by the bank can be immediately taken and promoted by the

banks, if it doesn’t contest the law;

c) Although the banking products and services have the same economical content and

answer the same demands, however they can be the different from one bank to

another. Regarding an industrial enterprise, for example, the specialization of a

product with certain utility, supposes the separation of the similar products through

design or, through their specific characteristics. In banking, the specialization has a

which varies from one bank to another, or through accentuating a certain quality of

the product (interest, using);

d) Banking products, are conditioned by the juridical and normative frame specific to

the banking area, and not least, by some settlements of the supervising authority. The

leg

attractively and leads towards logic, order and discipline.

Regarding the banking products and services’ demand it is worth to be underlined some

specific aspects of this one, like the fallowing:

The demand’s heterogeneity

The custom

ual persons, who have interests and opinions different, and juridical persons, from the family


associations to the large enterprises. The needs of these clients are extremely various and dynamic,

and that is why the marketing activity of the banks have to consider seriously this aspect.

The demand’s atomicity

The bank’s patronage, at least the individual persons and small enterprises, is large and

leakage. To initiate and supporting the business relations with all these clients it is necessary an

ample mobility of the resources, a concentration of all efforts in contacting and negotiating,

especially when these have thin package of knowledge and a small negotiating power. Regarding

the medium and large enterprises this issue is different, because they know very well what banking

product or service they want.

The demand’s stability

It regards, on one hand, of the relation “product - client”, and on the other hand, the relation

“bank - client”. In banking there are many products related one to another and often it might that the

demand for one banking product to generate the demand for another, in this way we are assisting to

the creation and distribution of a package of se

associated with some economize or investments plans, desired by the clients in their need to buy

different things or to build som

ds and he can obtain others loans for personal

As a complementary relation to the connection “product - client” appears the relation “bank

belong the clien t, the bank’s credibility and reputation, the managers’ ethics and

Almost all of the banking products and services are reported to money, and, often, the

enterprisers’ behavior is irrational in this field. The raison for this behavior is that there is a certain

delay between the needs and the motivations generated by a banking product or account service,

and their irrational behavior shown in the way in which they are approaching some problems that

appear.

To show a practical example of the offer of banking products and services in our economy,

we took BankPost, a bank, which we consider, that represents successfully our banking system.

rvices. For example, various banking deposits are

ething, which is correlated with their demand for different kinds of

loans. A deponent will find that it is much easier to have at the same bank his current account and

his long-term deposits. When a client takes a loan from one bank he is correlated to that bank for

the entire period of the loan, period in which he can benefit of others account services. His salary

can be transferred through the bank, he can use car

needs.

- client”. A client chooses his bank for strong reasons. The most important rule in choosing a bank

is the distance between the bank’s location and the client’s location, the social category to which

t, and not leas

theirs’ behavior.

The demand’s irrationality


structure of the products

Client

Banc Post

Security services

administration services

administration services

assistance services

Accounts Economies Loans

Figure 2 Simplified and services’ offer

In their activity we can often observe that the marketing promoted by some banks is oriented

toward

1. Ded

House, Cluj-

Nap

3.

4. Ungureanu, Pavel, Banking Products and Services, Printing House Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2000.

s market resources study, towards the deposits, and less towards their uses, which are, the

loans given. The both ones are important; especially the loans when the economies are on positive

trend, and that are why our banking system should review their loans policies.

Bibliography:

u, Vasile, Banking Management, Printing House Sildan, Bucharest, 1996;

2. Trenca, Ioan, Banking Methods and Techniques, Printing House Scientific Book

oca, 2002;

Trenca, Ioan, Management of the Banking Activities, Printing House Light Less, Bucharest, 1996;


LE MANAGEMENT DES STRUCTURES DE COMMUNICATION

AB MMATION NEURO-

LINGUISTIQUE

Rosem tional de Sciences Politiques et Administratives, Departament de

Ma

unication et du changement. Les Américains Richard Bandler et John Grinder, ses

“invent

effet, ils

voulaie

ens qui permettent de communiquer avec ses interlocuteurs en s’adaptant à leur style;

ention;

ORDÉES DU POINT DE VUE DE LA PROGRA

arie OLĂNESCU, École Na

nagement, Académie de Sciences Économiques, Faculté avec Enseignement en Langues

Étrangeres, ROUMANIE

Dévelopée à la fin des années 1970, la programmation neuro-linguistique est une approche

de la comm

eurs”, ont rassemblé leurs connaissances pour voir quels sont les ressorts qui constituent la

base des interventions des professionnels de la communication les plus performants. En

nt savoir exactement quels sont les techniques et procedures communes que ces gens

utilisent, pour pouvoir après les reproduire.

Par conséquant, la Programmation Neuro-linguistique est une technique qui nous aide à

mieux communiquer, à initier des processus de changement profonds et à long terme.

Sa démarche est formée de plusieurs pas:

1. intérêt pour les processus neurologiques qu’utilise une personne dans les situations de sa

vie;

2. montrer quel est le lien entre les processus neurologiques internes et l’activité externe qui en

découle;

3. développement et enseignement des éléments suivants:

- moy

- moyens d’obtenir de ses interlocuteurs des informations verbales et non-verbales

necessaries à la mise en oeuvre d’une interv


- techniques de changement qui permettent aux deux partenaires de communication

d’évoluer et d’enrichir la vision de la réalité.

Pour être plus clairs, nous allons expliquer les concepts qui forment la base de la

Programm

.K.O., qui peut prendre aussi un “e” à la fin pour les

perceptions extern

dans la plupart des cas, nos expériences de la representation sont mixtes: notre

attention est divisée entre ce qui se

erminée, son modèle sur lequel est fondé son comportement. Comment cela?

à partir du monde externe. Nous percevons ce qui

nous entoure par nos sens, par nos expériences antérieures, par la culture dont nous provenons, par

les opinions et les conclusions que nous avons déjà

appelon

apprentissages et croyances acquises tout au

long de notre vie, des perceptions présentes et

ation Neuro-Linguistique: les cinq sens, qui nous permettent de prendre contact avec le

monde extérieur et de récupérer des informations qui seront ensuite traitées par notre cerveau. Par

ces cinq portes, nous percevons le monde externe et nous construisons aussi notre exprérience

interne de la réalité

Le code PNL pour les processus de perception est le suivant:

V pour Visuel

K pour Kinesthésique (toucher, sensations, emotions)

A pour auditif

O pour Olfactif et Gustatif

C’est le système “quadruple” – V.A

es (systèmes de perceptions) ou un “i” pour les perceptions internes (systèmes de

representations).

En effet,

passe autour de nous et les processus internes de pensée et de

sentiment.

L’optique que la PNL a sur l’être humain est la suivante: l’homme detient sa propre vision

du monde dét

Tous nos processus de perception sont extrêment subjectifs – “on ne voit, on n’entend que

ce que l’on veut bien voir/entrendre”. Notre contact n’est pas avec le monde extérieur objectif, mais

avec “notre” monde interne, subjectif, reconstruit

faites sur la vie est les gens. Donc, ce que nous

s “le monde” n’est en effet que notre perception du monde et non pas la RÉALITÉ. Ce

monde que nous portons en nous est le résultat des

des images que nous nous faisons du futur, c’est

donc un monde limité et déformé. Selon la PNL, nous avons tous la force de changer ces paramèters

de notre vie, pour enrichir notre modèle du monde, tout en prenant appui sur les ressources sus-

mentionnées.

Pour faire cela, il faut tout d’abord repérer les sequences sensorielles spécifiques que nous

traversons au cas d’un problème et à les reorganiser.


Chaque personne a sa propre dominante sensorielle – visuelle, auditive, kinesthésique –

qu’elle utilise le plus souvent et dans laquelle elle fait preuve de la plus grande finesse de

distinction.

Par conséquant, chaque personne apprend de manière différente et communique par son

propre can d

dans la commu

pouvons conclure qu’il est resistant ou négatif…

La L ersonne:

en l’écouta p

choisissons ref nte.

ineux”, “clairement” est une personne qui construit ses expériences internes de

façon v

e de méthodes qui

nous aident dans différents dom

La question est de savoir exactement ce que l’on veut communiquer et quels sont les

résultat

l’interlo

heure…

al e communication. Ce sont des informations importantes, qui jouent un role essentiel

nication: si l’on ne connaît pas la dominante sensorielle de notre interlocuteur, nous

PN nous enseigne comment “lire” et détecter la dominante sensorielle d’une p

nt arler, pour pouvoir déceler les mots qu’elle utilise le plus souvent. Les mots que nous

lètent les processus internes que nous utilisons pour construire l’expérience prése

Dans le discours de l’autre, il faut faire attention aux prédicats (les verbes, les adjectives, les

adverbs), qui sont des mots qui reposent sur une base sensorielle. Donc, quand nous parlons, nous

disons ce que nous faisons intérieurement.

Par exemple, quelqu’un qui, pour expliquer une situation, utilise des mots comme: “voir”,

“regarder”, “lum

isuelle.

Une autre source d’informations sont les mouvements de nos yeux, qui indiquent “comment

nous pensons” et qui précèdent l’expression verbale de la pensée.

Par exemple, quelqu’un qui s’exprime en termes visuals aura tendance à diriger les yeux

vers le haut.

Tout l’ensemble de ces observations précises forme la base d’un systèm

aines de notre vie: communication professionnelle et personnelle,

enseignement, interventions pour le changement.

I. POUR UNE COMMUNICATION EFFICACE

L’un des axiomes des théories de la communication est que l’on ne peut pas ne pas

communiquer!

s que nous attendons de cette communication, pour pouvoir ensuite adapter notre message.

La PNL affirme clairement que l’indicateur de la communication est la reaction de

cuteur.

Rappellez-vous les cours où vous aviez envie de vous endormir au bout d’une demie-

Le message était clair: “Dormez”. Par contre, un prof qui veut dire “J’ai des choses

extraordinaires à vous dire” trouvera les méthodes pour tenir l’auditoire en prise.


C’est vrai qu’il est difficile de trouver les bonnes méthodes pour un auditoire de 50

personnes, il est donc utile de posséder un répertoire comporamental assez large, pour pouvoir

s’adapt

ion

s situations rencontrées (parler le langage du

préférée dans la PNL – il s’agit de repérer des indicateurs

comporta

personne qu us

verrez ces reactions non

question.

Un la PNL est la synchronisation – il faut se synchroniser sur une personne

(refléter son processus du langage pouvoir lui montrer que nous la

compre

ous comprenons son problème.

ène de l’encrage: une ancre est l’association qui s’instaure

entre un sti n entre une main sur l’épaule et

l’état intéri ants. Dans la PNL, l’encrage est utilisé

pour fixer ins, c’est une manière

d’influence manière consciente, tout en sachant exactement quelle est la nature

de cette inf ue nous en attendons.

OGRAMMATION NEURO-LINGUISTIQUE APPLIQUÉE DANS LES

LIMITATI

nous aide à devenir plus efficaces, à dépasser

nos problèmes et nos limites, car nous avons tous en nous les ressources dont nous avons besoin.

Quand nous sommes nerveux, nous savons très bien que nous avons eu aussi des états de

calme et de paix intérieure. Mais nous ne savons pas comment faire autrement, et alors nous

er avec flexibilité à tous nos partenaires relationnels.

Plus clairement, il faut avoir:

- la capacité de determiner ses objectifs avec clarté (des objectifs spécifiques,

concrets, observables, formulés en termes positifs, conçus selon une representat

sensorielle etc)

- le sens de l’observation (conscience de ce qui se passe maintenant, calibrer)

- la flexibilité de s’adapter aux diverse

partenaire, agir sur le processus de la communication plutôt que sur le contenu).

La calibration est une procédure

mentaux et physiologiques associés à un état interne. C’est comme faire une photo d’une

i est dans un certain état interne et qui montre certaines choses. Plus tard, quand vo

-verbales, vous saurez exactement quel est l’état interne de la personne en

autre concept de

, verbal et non-verbal) pour

nons. Il s’agit d’adopter, de reproduire les comportements verbaux et non-verbaux de notre

interlocuteur. Par exemple: bouger de la même façon, reformuler ce que l’autre a dit, utiliser la

même syntaxe, les mêmes prédicats. Il ne faut pas le copier, mais lui faire comprendre que nous

sommes en contact avec lui, que n

Nous arrivons ainsi au phénom

mulus et la réponse suscitée. Un exemple: l’associatio

eur + les comportements externes correspond

une réponse afin de la stimuler quand l’on veut. Plus ou mo

r les autres, mais de

luence et quel est le résultat q

II. LA PR

ONS PERSONNELLES ET LES RELATIONS PROFESSIONNELLES

Comme nous le soulignons plus haut, la PNL


tournon

ses psychologiques de nos états, nous faire

trouver

entation de l’état de limitation (la situation inconfortable)

extrêmem ction entre l’état associé (quand

nous somme

la revivons comm

tion à traiter et ce qui la déclanche

urbante à partir de la position dissociée

, la PNL nous aide aussi à enrichir notre repertoire de

comporte

pour faire

s en rond et nous sommes nerveux encore une fois et encore une fois… Alors, la PNL peut

nous aider à susciter ces états et à les connecter à la situation présente.

La PNL ne veut pas nous faire analyser les cau

les racines de nos problèmes, cela reste l’objet d’autres domaines. Dans la démarche PNL

nous devons nous appuyer sur nos propres ressources et changer ce qui ne nous plaît pas (dépasser

une limite personnelle, élargir son répertoire de comportements, améliorer ce que l’on fait déjà).

Si nous prenons une expérience quelconque, nous verrons qu’elle se compose d’un

ensemble d’éléments sensoriels (V, A, K, O) qui délimitent le territoire de cette expérience et

“construisent “ une partie du monde dans notre tête.

Pour apprendre à la dépasser, il faut passer par le processus de désactivation de l’ancre de

cette expérience.

C’est l’un des exercices de la PNL, qui consiste en la technique suivante:

1. identification et expérim

2. identification et expérimentation d’un état ressource (une situation plaisante)

3. neutralisation du sentiment déplaisant

4. vérification

Une autre technique: la dissociation simple, qui est utilisée surtout dans le cas des situations

ent émotionnelles. En effet, il s’agit de faire une distin

s dans l’expérience) et l’état dissocié (quand nous sommes hors de l’expérience et nous

e spectateurs).

Les phases sont les suivantes:

1. identifier la situa

2. identifier et experimenter un état-ressource

3. revoir la situation pert

4. vérification

5. intégration dans le futur

Comme nous l’avons déjà mentionné

On peut faire cela par l’ancrage des resources et l’acquisition d’un nouveaux comportement

mieux ce que l’on fait déjà bien.

5. intégration dans le futur.

ments.


Appliquer la PNL dans les relations professionnelles, voilà un autre sujet intéressant. Qu’il

e vendre un produit, d’animer une réunion ou de négocier un contrat, nous avons tous

tre meilleurs dans notre vie professionnelle.

s’agisse d

besoin d’ê

donc le vendeur doit savoir conduire sa rêverie, à aider le client

à imag

Dans le cas des réunions, il faut savoir maintenir l’attention et l’intérêt des participants,

donner le sentiment que la reunion apporte des

atériels mais quand

t de la réunion – accueil et calibration des participants, échange entre les

ateur en état d’éveil de tous ses sens, concentré sur les

4. conclusion – l’animateur concentre l’attention des participants sur ce qui a été realize, ce

qui reste à faire etc

La négociation est un moyen d’obtenir des autre ce que l’on désire pour soi-même. Les

ituations les plus fréquentes qui requièrent un savoir-faire de négociateur sont celles où les buts des

eux interlocuteurs semblent en opposition.

Ici aussi il y a plusieurs phases:

1. la préparation – s’assurer qu’il existe un cadre d’entente possible, decider le résultat visé,

recueillir des informations sur l’autre partie, élaborer un plan d’action, s’assurer que la

négociation sera faite avec la personne qui a le pouvoir de decision

Dans la vente (d’un produit, un service, une idée, une candidature), la qualité de la

communication est essentielle. La personne qui achète a déjà dans sa tête une projection imaginaire

de l’objet/service qu’elle achète, et

iner son futur. C’est le cas des spot de television, qui présentent un homme au volant d’une

voiture super-puissante, dans un paysage magnifique. Celui qui regarde pourrait se dire: “c’est

l’image que je vais avoir/donner aux autre si j’achète cette voiture”.

Un vendeur professionnel doit être prêt pour faire face aux objections (l’idéal serait de les

anticiper et les éviter!), qui peuvent apparaître par défaut de sychronisation ou par une définition

fautive des objectifs. Le vendeur devra savoir comment se servir de ces objections, comment les

recadrer pour résoudre les problèmes.

bénéfices pour chacun d’entre eux.

Une rénion réussie a plusieurs phases:

1. la phase avant la réunion – quand il faut préparer les aspects m

l’animateur doit se préparer lui-même pour l’animation

2. le débu

participants sur les objectifs et le but de la réunion

3. la réunion proprement-dite – l’anim

participants etc

s

d

savoir les impliquer dans ce qui se passe, leur


2. la négociation proprement-dite – la faire au niveau des intérêts réels, faire mieux

qu’attaquer et se défendre, annoncer clairement ses questions ou suggestions, exprimer

ses sentiments, ne pas blâmer l’autre, rester souple

L’un des problèmes qui peuvent apparaître dans les négociations est le blocage. Un bon

cela et trouvera toujours une méthode pour relancer la discussion et la

égociation.

le

constant de nos e personnelle et

rofessionnelle, il faut acquérir aussi d’autre facultés que celle enseignées dans les écoles: comment

pprendre et comment être flexible. La PNL est l’une des voies à suivre dans la direction de la

réussite. Elle no savoir-faire de

eux qui ont réussi dans leurs activités. La PNL nous enseigne que ce que nous sommes déjà (notre

onde) peut nous aider à devenir meilleurs dans tout ce que nous faisons et à depasser nos limites.

elaţii Publice, ISBN 973-8376-39-4;

2. Bandler, R., LA Valle, J., Persuasion Engineering, Library of Congress, 1996, ISBN 0-

9169

3. Edu

négociateur sera prêt pour

n

En guise de conclusion, nous allons reprendre un autre axiome des temps modernes: la seu

société est le changement. Alors, pour réussir dans sa vi

p

a

us enseigne à s’appuyer sur nos ressources internes et à copier les

c

m

Bibliographie:

1. Olanescu, R., Nita, M.A., Comunicare managerială. Strategii şi tehnici, Bucureşti, 2003,

Editura Facultăţii de Comunicare şi R

90-36-2;

ard Vinyamata, Manual de prevención y resolución de conflictos, Editorial Ariel,

Barcelona, 1999, ISBN 84-344-4255-8;

4. O`Rourke. J., Management communication, Prentice Hall, 2001, ISBN 0-13-101644-X.


NE

er presents some of the new manufacturing system model developed. Even

if, all of these paradigms were created for the management of industrial processes, the results

contrib

duling, and control mechanisms are being found insufficiently flexible

to respond ments.

Under thes i g system, rarely do things go as expected.

For several years, research has focused on several aspects of manufacturing, from the

individual Recent development in science,

in part

1992), Holonic Manufacturing Systems (Yoshikawa, 1992). After

W PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT PARADIGMS INSPIRED FROM

INTELLIGENT MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

BAKOS Levente, Sapientia University of Tîrgu-Mureş, ROMANIA

Abstract: The pap

ute to the development of the management as science, and are applicable for other activity

fields. We will present some of the most influential concepts: HMS, FrMS, BMS, Lean

manufacturing, ant colonies model, etc.

Introduction

In these post-industrial times, manufacturing is still one of the cornerstones of our society.

The increasing market pressure forces the industry to shorten product life cycles, to reduce time to

market and to improve product quality. Increasingly, traditional centralized and sequential

manufacturing planning, sche

to changing production styles and highly dynamic variations in product require

e c rcumstances in a present manufacturin

processes towards the management of virtual enterprises.

icular in computer science and resulting information-oriented technologies offers new

challenges in manufacturing. Hence, new concepts of manufacturing systems based on more

natural, non-deterministic fundamentals are emerging. The researchers used elements from wide

range of sciences like mathematics, informatics, physics, sociology, biology, genetics, management

of change, etc. to develop some revolutionary models like Fractal Factory (Warnecke, 1993), Bionic

Manufacturing Systems (Ueda,


more t

mpt to

system

r some researches, agents are only independent

co-ope on their own initiative. Control decisions are reached

through

lf and on the surrounding world, generally

tity contains a partial representation of its

is environment. Its behaviour is based on

the world of other agents. An agent has

presentation of the environment,

child agents,

t

pursues individual objectives.

hen 10 years of research, these concepts are step by step introduced at the top industrial

companies (Toyota, Daimler Benz, Sony, Honda, Fujitsu, etc.). The results are highly relevant for

the production management theory and the results and methods can be applied in non-industrial

activity fields.

1. New manufacturing paradigms

These new challenges were already foreseen in the beginning of the 90’s by several

researchers. In the last years several emerging concepts were developed, and important research

programs were lunched. The most important is the IMS (Intelligent Manufacturing Systems)

research program, which involves over 20 countries, 150 partner institutes and 400 researchers.

The international Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS) research program is an atte

atize and make operational world-wide knowledge of advanced manufacturing systems as a

basis for new paradigms. In the following we will give an overview of some models, developed in

the six test cases to date.

1.1. Multi agent systems

There is no unified and generally accepted definition of an agent, amongst others because of

lacking consensus on the intelligence of an agent. Fo

rating computer processes that can act

mutual agreement and information is exchanged freely among the participating agents. For

others an agent is a real or virtual entity able to act on itse

populated by other agents. To perform its actions this en

environment, and can communicate with other agents of th

its observations, its knowledge and its interactions with

several important features. It

• has capabilities of perception and a partial re

• can communicate with other agents,

• can reproduce

• has its own objectives and an autonomous behaviour

Starting with the first definition given to an agent, the multi-agents systems, “can best be

characterised as a software technology that is able to model and implement individual and social

behaviour in distributed systems.” (Bussman 1998). If we take the second definition of an agent,

than a multi agent system (MAS) is an artificial system composed of a population of autonomous

agents, which co-operate with each other to reach common goals, while simultaneously each agen


In either way defined, the MAS is strongly connected with the notion of heterarchical control,

which is a highly distributed form of control, implemented by a system of independent agents without

centralised or explicit direct control. Heterarchical control turned out to be very robust and reactive

against disturbances, especially because of its emergent behaviour. However, banning all forms of

hierarchy, most approaches for heterarchical control do not consider optimisation important, because in

reality, ‘schedules are broken down by disturbances anyway’. Predictability and stability of distributed

systems usually is also lower than in centralised ones. It is believed that in very unstructured

environments, heterarchical control without explicit schedulers can be the most suitable approach. In

other situations, however, the incorporation of a scheduler in a distributed system would enhance the

stability, predictability and performance. Another problem is more practical by nature. Many

heterarchical algorithms need to be properly fine-tuned, which is a quite labour intensive work.

ividual agents and

the inte

effect, which means every holon is an

d also a part of a larger holon at

ic manufacturing is trying to

today’s limitations in flexibility of

systems by autonomous, decentralized

ach.

holonic system is composed from different types of holons. According to PROSA

e are three basic types of holons: resource holon, order holon, product holon.

he length of the paper we will not present each type of holon and the relationship

e just mention that each type has well a determined function; each function has

itional manufacturing system. Beside the basic holons in PROSA

aff holons, which assist the basic holons in performing their work.

The concepts for heterarchical control are derived from biological metaphors and analogies

to the free market economy. In biological systems and market economies, reactivity to disturbances

emerges almost automatically from simple mechanisms in the behaviour of ind

ractions between these behaviours.

The MAS concept can be considered as a starting model for the rest of distributed, more

practical, manufacturing models, presented below.

1.2. Holonic manufacturing System

The concept of a holon (Holos in Greek is meaning whole and -on is meaning part of) was

proposed by Koestler thirty years ago in the book “The

Ghost in the Machine” The basic idea of holon is a

double-face

autonomous whole an

the same time. Holon

overcome

manufacturing

and cooperative appro

The

architecture ([1]), ther

Being constrained by t

among them. W

similarities with the elements of a trad

architecture appears the notion of st

Fixed Rules Flexibile Strategies

Hierarchical

Heterarchica

Holonic

Fig 1 Invariants (fixed rules) and (flexible strategies) variants in different manufacturing configurations


The holon posses the basic characteristics of autonomy and co-operation, whereby it is capable

of planning and executing for itself. Furthermore, the co-operation capability enables it to co-operate

with other holons in order to achieve a common goal or objective. Holons are aggregated in to

holarchies. The holarchies describe the dynamic hierarchies of a Holonic System and throughout the life

cycle of a Holonic System these dynamical hierarchies will be created and deleted on a regular basis as

a response to the current situation. We expect from a HMS to combine the best of hierarchical and

heterarchical control. It shall combine the high and predictable performance promised by hierarchical

systems with the robustness against disturbances and the agility of heterarchical systems. The HMS

must be consequent, re-configurable, self-configuring, learning and self-organising. The increased

flexibility resulting from an agile and re-configurable manufacturing system, holons shall autonomously

select appropriate parameter settings, find their own strategies and build their own structure.

An extremely important characteristic of the HMS is that they preserve a place for the

human

holarchy, HMS etc. can be found in [1], [11] etc.

ance in a wider range of situations than

their m

93)

ganizer, a resolver, and a reporter. The resulting

, one of the main characteristics of a fractal.

distinct

s in the system. They are the most flexible, and intelligent components in the system. A

detailed description of holons,

Holonic systems were found to deliver better perform

ore conventional counterparts. One of the most promising feature of the holonic approach is

that it represents a transition between fully hierarchical and heterarchical systems.

1.3. Fractal Manufacturing System (FrMS) (Warnecke, 19

The FrMS is comprised of a number of "basic components", which consists of five

functional modules: an observer, an analyzer, an or

architecture has a high degree of self-similarity

Automatic

reconfiguration of a

system through a

dynamic

restructuring

process is the most

Observed PlInformation Alternat Delivered Messa

an ives

ge

Analyzer

Observer

ive

characteristic of the

FrMS. This includes

re-configurable

hardware and

external layout

design, and also re-

Events Actions

Inner Fractal Outer Fractal

Request/Update Kno

Sens

Envir

Fig. 2 Functional modules and relationships of a fractal in an FrMS. Source: [10]

Knowledge Invoke Command Inputs wledge Actions

Fractal Status and

Configuaration

Plans

Status reports

Request

Fractal Information

Plan Fractal Results Update

Organizer

Resolver Reporter

ors Actuators

Knowledge DB


configurable interior structure of software components that can be reorganized with software

manipulations. The function of a fractal is not specifically designated at the time of its first

installation in the FrMS. The reconfiguration includes situations where the agents' enrolments are

changed, meaning that the agents are assigned a new goal and new jobs, but their composition does

not change. Every controller at every level in the system has a self-similar functional structure

composed of functional modules. In addition, each of these modules, regardless of its hierarchical

level, c ystem, the configuration of the system

may ne

n the set of parts to be produced in the system changes

due to c cases, fractals in the FrMS autonomously and

dynam of agents for the appropriate working

mechanism

, it has not been successfully

elabora a

4.

ol ing systems are being exercised intensively at the Kobe University

where, rs m at a floor level based on evolution and self-

organiz

ities are both examples of complex systems

that e

purpo is to exam ome

possible analogies from nature and to discuss

their relev engineeri

biological systems with the

organising feature represent a challenging

alternative to the p

manufacturing systems.

There has been a long held popular view

that technical processes such as design may be

partially controlled by evolutionary forces. It is

well kn has prod ex shap apted nment.

The mechanism is evol t ve etric

shapes may be produced but there are no drawings or m expr d in

any explicit way in an organism odel, the m like a

onsists of a set of agents. After the initial setup of a s

ed to be reorganized in response to unexpected events such as machine breakdown. The

system will also need to be reconfigured whe

a hange in customer needs. In these

ically change their structure, via the actions

s of the fractals.

Despite the many conceptual advantages of the FrMS

ted nd implemented.

1. Bionic Manufacturing Systems (Ueda, 1992)

Bi ogical Manufactur

fi tly, modelling of manufacturing syste

ation implementing biological analogies (Ueda et al. 1997).

Biological organisms and manufacturing facil

exist in changing nvironments. The

se of the research ine s

ance to ng Thesystems.

ir adaptive and self-

resent hierarchical

own that nature uced compl es that well ad are to their enviro

for th ution of shape is no well understood howe

athematical

r near perfect geom

essions that are encode

. In BMS m anufacturing system is considered

Manufacturing cell

coordinat

Manuf cell

Chemical flow Environment (c

nzims hormons

cell

ig u. 3. Biological and man uring system analogy, Source

hemical)

e

M&I flow Environment (M&I)

M&I’= material and information

F fact : [7]

ors Strategy, policy


living o

s it’s own “genetic code” which describes the system. In the BMS system there are

present all the selections, mutations like in the case of the living systems. The weak point of the

model

rganism) in the manufacturing system. Even so, this model

has alre ons in the Japanese industry.

;

m models:

Co

rganism, which reacts with the environment and creates products. According to this concept

each system ha

consists of the absence of the correspondence of genes (the element responsible for the

mutations and selections in the living o

ady some practical applicati

1.5. Comparison of the manufacturing paradigms

Nevertheless, although these remarkable concepts have distinctive approach, they share

some common characteristics. These are:

- decentralization of decision making;

- recursive whole-part relations architecture

- building blocks as autonomous entities with co-operative and intelligent behaviour;

- continuous adaptation to the state of the environment;

- hierarchical and lateral co-ordination based on enhanced communication;

- flexible re-configurable organizational structure;

- self organization;

- domain specific knowledge; learning.

In the table 1 we present a comparison of the key characteristics of emerging approaches in

these manufacturing syste

ncept Features Adaptive Holonic Manufacturing System

Bionic Manufacturing System Fractal Factory

Building block(entities) Holon Cell Fractal Internal structure of a

building block Pre-defined Evolution Evolution

Ontology Holarchy, Whole-part relations

Layered – organic structure

Symbiosis oenviro

f a fractal and nment

StruFunctional decomposition

n- genesis Self structuring ctural Composition of a system, Process oriented

Self organizatio

Planning and Control

Basic higher level planning, plan refinement

concurrently through communication

Concurrent response to actual situation Dynamic goal revision

Co-ordination Communication agents Enzymatic operators in

common space of communication

Communication network

Role of human Constituent of a holon Not precisely assigned Constituent of a fractal

Scientific method Agent theory Genetic algorithms, Neural networks, A-

Life Theory of chaos

Particularities Autonomy, Dynamic clustering, Co-operation

Organic structuring based on DNA-type of

information

Self organization and growth, Navigational

principal of co- ordinationReferences Yoshikawa 1992 Okino 1993, Ueda1993 Warnecke 1993


The above references are not exhausted. There are several other similarities between these

experiments.

2. Examples of some manufacturing concepts with considerable influence on new

production management paradigms

2. Lean Manufacturing 1.

demand usi add value to the

produc n

(Just in Tim eloped almost 30 years ago), so will

not be se

Opt rom

roduc

e long-term high-efficiency goal. In Lean Production mode any

problem

manufactur

mass produ

schemed by the engineers. Large amount of de

had to get ad hoc fixing.

Lean an organisation, including non-value

added activities, unnecessary

engineering, total quality m

operation be

2.2.

that live in

than to that of a single indivi al insects have captured the

attentio

The lean manufacturing concept makes possible to obtain a product that is adapted to actual

ng minimum amount of resources. It accepts only those activities that

t, a d minimalize the carriage, transport, eliminates stocks of all kind, same to JIT. The JIT,

e) concept, is already a mature concept (it was dev

pre nted in this paper due length limitations.

imisation in lean production is usually a series of goal concentrated approaches. F

p tion line planning to management, from supply chain to quality control, from sales to

technical support, all aim at th

is solved on the production line by trace back to its ultimate reason. The traditional

ing concepts often neglected the links among reaction policies. This happened in Ford’s

ction, when workers were considered as machines just react to the production plan

fected products went out of the production line and

manufacturing focuses on reducing waste or fat in

inventory and resources through the application of just-in-time, concurrent

anagement and improved customer–supplier relationships. As a result, the

comes more efficient increasing yield and reducing costs and lead-times.

Pheromone based manufacturing control system

Ant algorithms were inspired by the observation of real ant colonies. Ants are social insects,

colonies and whose behaviour is directed more to the survival of the colony as a whole

dual component of the colony. Soci

n of many scientists because of the high structuration level their colonies can achieve,

especially when compared to the relative simplicity of the colony's individuals. An important and

interesting behaviour of ant colonies is their foraging behaviour, and, in particular, how ants can

find shortest paths between food sources and their nest. While walking from food sources to the

nest and vice versa, ants deposit on the ground a substance called pheromone, forming in this way a

pheromone trail. Ants can smell pheromone and, when choosing their way, they tend to choose, in


probability, paths marked by strong pheromone concentrations. Ant societies use their environment

to guide the behaviour of single ants. The principles of this concept are: Pheromones are

information carriers and have the properties ‘strength’ and ‘evaporation over time’. Ants act in this

heromone-enriched environment and fulfil certain tasks of food foraging and nest building. An ant

takes o

one-based' co-ordination of

ants shows following benefits:

s

rmation distribution environment, where information is made available in the

form o

consequence sub-optimal results might appear-, the overall performance of the system strongly

p

n four different roles in pursuing these tasks:

- it acts as a problem solver in finding food and transporting it back to the nest

- it is an information observer/interpreter, because it observes pheromones and interprets

the strength of the scent, which is created by accumulated pheromones

- it is an information creator, as it produces the pheromones, which encode the

information that attracts other ants to food sources

- it is an information spreader, as it constantly drops pheromones on its way back from a

food source to the nest, which creates and reinforces the scent of pheromone trails.

Derived from the described principles and properties, ‘pherom

- simple coordination mechanism: ants interact with the environment in a standard and

simple way and not with each other. This adds certain benefits to the social life of these

insects: ants concentrate on posing information into and retrieving it from the

environment, they do not care about the state of other ants. Because of this simple

interfacing to the insect society ants can easily join and leave without disturbing the

society –– there is no need to inform all other ants.

- automatic ‘guidance’ to the optimal solution: the exploration of the ants (random walk)

guarantees that the society shows robust behaviour. The spreading of global information

(trails to food sources) and the feedback on the behaviour of the ant society (ants are

attracted by scents) guides the system towards a solution, which is òptimised' but not

necessarily optimal.

- capability to handle dynamic situations: because of the simple coordination mechanism,

a simple `reconfiguration' of the ant society is possible, leads to an easy

reconfigurability of a control system.

All of these theoretical advantages are extremely promising. If the practical solutions will

confirm, a revolutionary communication paradigm is about to born. According to this, all agent

operate within an info

f ‘artificial pheromones’. The weak points, at this moment, of the practical applications are:

the systems needs permanent tuning and feedback, the spreading speed generally is not enough- as


depends on the number of pheromone types and the ‘evaporation over time’. At this moment the

author knows about a valid application at Daimler Chrysler, more precisely in a paint shop of one

their fa

s: there are complex, open systems (interact with the exterior), stochastic,

elf-regulating, self-organizing, microeconomic, with discrete events. From organizational point of

ferent only in few from other complex systems. Being in permanent competition,

me and market pressure, the developed methods surely are ready to be also tested in other activity

a short example concerning a possi

educational system their lives. The move

requires m ent for all

orien ulation, in order to provide a

architecture supporting integration of onment is used

an

accepted su er viewed as an artificial tool, mechanism, or system developed

will tran some authors, as radically as did the coming of steam power and

from

trans ent’ can be created which will

manufacturing system

paradigms. The length of the paper not allowed to analyse the possible implications on the

ctory located in Germany.

3. Possible applications in non-industrial fields

Even if, all of these paradigms were created for the management of industrial processes, the

results can be used in other activity fields. The majority of the manufacturing systems, have the

following characteristic

s

view, they are dif

ti

fields, such social sciences, public administration, health and education. In the following we present

ble educational application.

The notion of a learning society has been promoted as the next stage of evolution of the

, which enable people to learn continuously for the rest of

to a learning society requires changes in personal attitudes and the educational infrastructure. It also

ajor technological support to provide open access to a learning environm

people, in all places at all times. In [6] is presented the development of the Learning Web, an agent-

ted network supporting knowledge access, collaboration and sim

widely accessible learning environment. The essence of the Learning Web environment is an open

heterogeneous subsystems. The term envir

here, initially, rather th system, because this learning environment will become part of the

rroundings and no long

to aid learning. What makes this ‘learning environment’ possible is an emerging paradigm, which

sform society, according

the industrial revolution. This is the paradigm of the computer-based intelligent agent developing

research in distributed artificial intelligence. By integrating this new approach with recent

developments in telecommunications, distributed computing, knowledge databases, language

lators, and multimedia systems, a transparent ‘learning environm

allow the often-foretold learning society (Boshier, 1980) to become a reality.

Conclusions

In the paper, we presented very briefly some of the most well-known


Romanian industry. Being involved in the global market competition, it is predictable, that the first

local application soon might appear.

We can conclude, that the next generation manufacturing systems will be more strongly

time-oriented, while still focusing on cost and quality, agile, decentralizated, having autonomous

entities with co-operative and intelligent behaviour, flexible re-configurable organizational

structure. Worldwide the future work focuses on e practical development of the ideas introduced

by these models. The key issu g, production planning, web-

based manufacturing.

References: . Van Brussel et al: Reference architecture for holonic manufacturing systems: PROSA, Elsevier

Science, Computers in Industy, nov.1998;

2. Bus lonic Manufacturing Control, Proceedings

of IM

95GN/;

5. Hi uring systems based on fusion of contract

nets an e, Computers in Industry, November 2003;

6. Matur itecture for Distributed

Organi

7. M

th

es are: shop floor control, schedulin

1

smann, S., An Agent-Oriented Architecture for Ho

S Europe, April 15-17, 1998, Lausanne, Switzerland;

3. Dooley L., O’Sullivan D., Decision support system for the management of organisational

change, First International Workshop on Intelligent Manufacturing Systems, 1998;

4. Gaines B.R., Norrie D., Knowledge Systematization in the International IMS Research

Program, http://ksi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/articles/SMC

seh, F. S., Model and control holonic manufact

d Petri nets, Elsevier Scienc

ana, F. P., Norrie D., A Multi-Agent Coordination Arch

zational Systems;

ill, F., Sherlock, A., Biological analogies in manufacturing, Computers in Industry, Volume

43, Issue 2, October 2000;

8. Monostori L., Hornyak J., Kádár B., Novel approaches to production planning and control,

Proceedings of IMS Europe, April 15-17, 1998, Lausanne, Switzerland;

9. Peeters, P. et al., Pheromone based emergent shop floor control system for flexible flow shops,

Artificial Intelligence in Engineering, vol.15, issue4, 2001;

10. Ryu Kwangyeol et al, Modeling and specifications of dynamic agents in fractal manufacturing

systems, Computers in Industry, Elsevier |Science, July 2003;

11. Sousa, P. and Ramos C., A distributed architecture and negotiation protocol for scheduling in

manufacturing systems, Elsevier science, Computers in Industry, 1999.


ERIAL DECISION

econom

ess for one of the main achievements.

veral action posibilities, cases which are found in

the dec

ing one

of the v

MANAG

Larisa COCOI, “1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia, ROMANIA

Defining and setting the part of the decission:

In management, the purpose of the decision action, consist in the aware course of

ical and social activity of the firm. The decision represents an essential element of

management, being the most important utterance instrument, in oppinion of many authors. The

decision is the principlal feature of the management, it's most active, dinamic

_expression,throughout which it practise it's functions.

The decision involves several elements, such as:

1. one or more objectives;

2. the identfication of several variants for achieving the goals;

3. choosing or selecting, aware optional proc

The solution of a decision problem involves two main actions: settling and defining the

decisional problem (if there is a decisional need) and choosing the right solution which in those

circumstances should satisfy in the best way possible the objectives of the one who's making the

decision. In all decision circumstances there are se

isional variants. The evaluation and the comparing from several ponits of view, contribute to

the finalizing of the rational choice and the optimal variant. Regarding to the need of decisional

variants and the part of the decident in the decisional process, is good to know Gheorghe Boldur

statement:"Praxiologically speaking, the variants of a decisional problem represents the resources of

the decident, of which he can take advantage lucidly. The decident has the liberty of choos

ariants, being objectives, indepentent of his will"


In the management process, the decisions are made knowing well the reality, being ultimate

acts of the thinking process of the decident (individualy or colectively) and their urpose is to

mentai

and informational given. In concusion, the development of the firm is prefigured and

directe

the decisional subsystem there are multiple interdependence, all together assuring

the 'com

f the managerial decision are: the decident; the object (task); the

given i

ndividual decisional factor or a participating organ, represents the main

elemen

ly.

n the goal of the economical global system (the organisation) in a dinamic structure. As an

ultimate product of the thinking process (individualy or colectively), the decision becomes an

essential management process, this representing the act of transcending from thinking to taking

action.

The role of the decisional system.

The decisional system accomplish in the company the following two main functions:

a. it directs the general development of the firm and its components.

The anticipations on which are based the development of company's activities are actually

groups of strategic decisions, tactical or current through which the main objectives are established,

the main ways of action for accomplishing them, as well as the human resourses, materials,

financial

d by the plan decisions;

b. launching the firm personell activities and its components. Each person inside the

company, as well as each compartment, has to accomplish the tasks based on the managers

decisions, which precisely establish what is to do, where, how and in what ways, the restrictions and

so on. throughout their decisions, mostly current and rarely tactical. Of course, between those two

main functions of

mands' ensemble, essential to the well going of the company in the complex conditions of

the transition to the market economy.

The components of the managerial decision.

The main components o

nformations; the variants based on the possible or imposed criteria; the multitude of the

objective conditions state which caracterises the certainty degree, risk and uncertinty;the

consequinces of the decisions taken localy or socialy; the main goal. Other specialists adds to these

elements two more: the enviroment and the time.

The decident, the i

t, which through its will- starts the action and prevents the reactions of those who take place

in the process.Throughout the decision the personell of the firm starts to work, making it action in a

certain way, so that in the end they can obtain their goal. So the decision belongs to the human

factor, and it reflects in life by the human too, being a volitional act, plus a personell imp

In the decisional process, even while elaborating the decision, conflictual states take place,

starting from establishing the eficiancy objectives, their justify, the goals; the decident starts an


single action from a number of other actions, which implies a big responsability. For every decision

and decident, the optimization keeps the efficiancy, the main element for managing.

The complexity and the dinamics of the economical and social development need the

magnifying of the components of decision capable of making the decident take the risk at his own

will, fo

e level of

organiz

e engagement in every action. Making the

decison

represent ways of taking an

action,

hich exists independently of his will, using many criterias which make

possibl

Th m mponent that gives

the general im

points of view points of view, the

decident h to

Expres ing on the objectives followed by

the dec it has to fulfil the

r the greater ability of doing his present and future tasks, elaborating the mesures which

come with the adoption of the decision; these mesures must assure the execution of the decision. A

personnel with efficient leaders is recognized by the results, work and life's enviroment, th

ation, the attitude and the intervention in difficult situations, creativity spirit and many

others. The decident (individualy and colectively) is more of a subjective factor, but becouse it's the

one that makes the decisional problem, it's evident that all the elements of the decision, as well as

the decision itself, are influenced by some caractheristics of the level of competence. This is the

main factor that makes the connection between the quality of the decident and the quality of the

decision.

Regarding to the main decident, he has to have a leading democrat style behaviour: to know

how to behave with the direct subordinate, with the employees in general, to gain their atention, to

influence them in order to stimulate the responsabl

, the individual decident has to consider the following: the sphere of influence and the

importance of the decision; to whom the decision is refered, to inform about the consequinces and

so on.

The multitude of decision variants "Vm" this is an esential element, imposed by the

definition of decision itself. When the problem is formed and the solution is researched only in one

direction, which constitute only one variant, there is no way of satisfying the choice condition for

every scientific based decision.

The variants have to be identified and made clearly, for making an ansamble orientation in

the decision elaborating process. So the variants of a decisional problem

ways of which the decident dispose for solving a formulate problem. The decident is free to

choose one variant, w

e their comparing.

e ultitude of the estimating criterions "Cn" of the variants is the co

age of a decisional process, making possible the comparison of variants from diffrent

established by the decident. Based on the multitude of the diffrent

as make a selection of variants based on the goals, and on the advantages.

sing the multitude of decision criterions is depend

ident. In order to, represent a criterion by the decident point of view,


following n

economical, so

followed by th

on each other.

Fo st

variants, emph

can be identifi

The multitude of estimating criterions consequinces of the variants is the decisional

element w ich

consequinces

certain criterio ltitude of the variants are between the minimum and maximum

limits. Consid

reached on ma

For exa roductivity of a certain worker, the maximal value

would be r

number of con

Th w

criterions are b mbers, while the quality based

criterio ing, bad, very bad).

In conc

as many cons ons. The size of the consequinces can be

establishe by of the

consequin s

accumulated e

methods, on th n.

the follow

1 F e

- the analyse, evaluation and giving the resourses,

fficienty.

n scientific and

2 T.T.

co ditions: to individualize a size of the cantity and quality caractheristics (technical,

cial and so on) of the multitude of variants, to be in conformity with the objectives

e decident, to be able to be a quantum for all the posible variants and not to depend

r e ablishing the list of decision criteriums, the decident will consider the multitude of

asizing, for each variant, the main advantages and disadvantages, from which later

ed the estimating criterions. Lets say the variants are developing countries.

h gives the quantity or quality criterion level for each variant. The level of the

is established independently for each criterion and variant. The consequinces of a

n for the studied mu

ering the nature of the criterion, the most favorable of unfavorable situation can be

ximum as well as on minimum.

mple, for a criterion such as the p

mo e favorable and the minimal value would be more unfavorable, while in the medium

flicts-criterion is the other way around.

e ay of expressing the consequinces is diffrent from one criterion to another. If the

ased on quantity, the consequinces are expressed in nu

ns can be expressed in qualificatives (excelent, very good, good, satisfy

lusion, the multitude of consequinces is related to the multitude of criterions, being

equinces for a variant as estimating criteri

d the given situation by which the decident is confronted. Naming the size

ce is the result of practising the atribute and it is based on the extrapolation of the

xperience, on the knowledge of the realistic laws, on the exact technical-scientifical

e statistics laws, on the prediction technics and so o

Clasifying the decisions. 4 of the most important decision clasifications have been made by

ing authors:

. H tman, Les secrets des geants americans, Paris, Seuil, 1969:

- operational - specific to the operational systems and subsystems;

conception (orientation) - refers to

settled on preocupied functions mainly on assuring the e

- prospective - it applies on making the objectives, planning them, o

technical research, in inovating functions mainly.

Paterson,Theorie du management, Paris, Gaulhier Villars, 1969:


- vegetative - elementary form of decision; in order to making this decision, the

decident doesn't have to know the reason for doing that job. Doesn't have any role in

sed; the decident decides only

He is the unqualified worker.

involved; he has to be in touch with the operations

For

ether two pieces, decides only how he's going

- are made by compartment chiefs and so on; the establishment of the

programs involves the good knowing of the management (administrative council).

in the company's policy; every novelty has it's own policy, towards the

goal; this way the other decisions become confusing.

mances, the control.

- administrational - regarding to structuring the resources for creating a maximum

achievement, structuring the authority relations and responsabilities, work and

information, getting and developing the resources.

4. W.T. Morris, The analysis of management decisions, Homewood, Richard D. Irwin Inc. 1964:

regarding to the quantity of information:

taking the decision, the information already been impo

the way operation elements vary.

- automatical - the decident is

needed by the production process.Here the working people are semi-qualified.

example, a worker that need to put tog

to do the operation.

- routine - the decident has to know all the reglementations that causes this process;

for deciding due to these reglementations (decided by someone else). It needs a

specialized worker.

- interpretation - here the last decident doesn't judge 'why' and 'for what'; is the

begining of creativity, anticipation, the interpretation part. These kind of persons

needs to be found and promoted.

- programming

- political -

3. Ansoff, Corporate strategy, Bungay, Suffolk, Pcnguin Book, 1970:

- operational - for example, leveling the resources, operation programming,

supervising the perfor

- strategical - regarding to the enviroment relations, the goal and the objectives.

- in certainty circumstances - complete information; there are no uncertainties.

- in risk circumstaces - for example the decision of the rulett player; has only a small

quantity of information, as above.

- in uncertianty circumstances - not enough informaton.

regarding to the nature and duration of retrieving the financial resources:

- operational - caracterized by the fact that implies spendings that will be recovered in

a near future and is about difrent ways of using the constant resources;


- investments - usualy reffers to instalations and equipments; it needs funds that can be

recovered in a far future.

level or hierarchical steps – superiors, mediums, inferiors.

time - with flexible limits, frequency:

economically – possible, optimale

other criterions - anticipated and unpredictable, analitical and non analitical ans so on

Decision part in th

The decision part in the manegement process, determined in the first place, a magnifying of

e decisional activity; The function of a system in agreement with the importance of the

economical elp you can

et the objectives and the ways of achieveing them; through it, you can determine the place of each

rganizational link - sub-unit and subject- in fiding the solution for the predicted tasks. With the

help of

omfel, Bucuresti,1995.

e management process

th

and social order are directly related with the qualities of decision; with it's h

g

o

the solutions, you can coordonate in space and time the resources, and that assures the rithm

of solving the problems, it addapts to the perfectioning and correction needed for the efficient

development of the action.

Bibliography:

1. I. Mihut (coordonator), s.a., „Management”, Univ.1Decembrie1918 ,Seria Didactica, Alba Iulia 1999;

2. A. Hinescu (coordonator), s.a., „Managementul general al intreprinderii”, Ed. Aeternitas, Alba

Iulia, 2003;

3. E. Mihuleac, „Bazele managementului”,Ed.R


ANAGEMENT CONTROLLING

of Alba Iulia, ROMANIA

the material and financial resources, for the economical processes and

the ob e

omy.

f ruling.In the management tasks, the inspection one has a big importance; in some

compan

yees comitment. The traditional

aproach r

led standards;

M

Larisa COCOI, “1 Decembrie 1918” University

In order to assure the efficiency of the management activity, is necessary to organize a

sistematical inspection for all

tain d resoults. A good inspection means perfecting and strenghtening the ways of the

achievement, inspectioning the main batches of the company, so that the inspection reaches the

requirements of market econ

The enterpriser is caracterized by a total control of the company need, which can affect

his ability o

ies it is very often (especially in the service department). These can lead to some

comunication difficulties, to use the team concept and emplo

fo the control process has three steps:

1. measuring the company's performances;

2. comparing the results to the sett

3. making some collective actions.

The role of management inspection is to maximize the parametters refering to the quantity

and quality of the obtained results and the time it took. Mentaining these parametters to the

maximum efficiancy is assured by:

a) Constant checking of the quantity results and the parametters;

b) Estimating the size and direction of the influence of diffrent factors which influence

the caractheristics of these parametters;

c) Embracing the correction measures and watching their effects.

Watching the stability mentainance of the foresight and achievements, measuring the


performance and comparing them to the plans, assuring the right informations in order to lead them

to the inspection measures, the control is an important side of management, like an sub-system.

The specific role of the control is mentaining the actual ways due to the established

parame

e.

spection role means achieving the management goals. Inspection role is not only

establis the positive effects which reffers to the right

action

nd the

causes

tioning imposed by letting beside the deficiencies and the

causes

on, he informations given by the inspection, assures data about the

way th

anagerial act, it contribute to the

ficiency of all actions. Assuring the growth of individual and collective responsability, the

to make the activities achieve the goals. So the purpose of the inspection is to

ults, using the same techinics, ways and instruments, verifying

process, after decision and command, and it makes the connection between the first step and the

ma only be understood in their interdependent

tters, discovering the delaying and acelerating factors, and promoting the positive effects

factors.

The inspection rol

In

hing the errors in management activity, but also

and making it achieve the strategic and tactical goals.

The main inspection roles are:

1. estimating the results, throughout which, close to the results measurements findings, as

estimating by comparing the results to the objectives and standards initially established, a

that determined them;

2. the recovering function, determined by control's orientation not only to realizing and

estimating the facts, but also the corec

that generated them;

3. the preventive function, takes action before the deviation of the values, not after they

took place;

4. the informative functi

e decisions are taken, about some aspects of the company;

5. the educational-stimulus fuction which come from the fact that the control activities,

action like forces that stimulates the efforts of the companies for getting over the present situations

and obtaining some superior economical results.

The inspection is not a goal itself, but a link of the m

e

inspection purpose is

evaluate the objectives, then the res

the reached levels. In other ways, inspection is right after coordonation, and in the managerial

action. Therefore, making he decision work, is the main goal of the inspection, making better the

managers experience, and another objective is to assure and defend the interests of the company,

king it evolve. The inspection's objectives can

complexity with the entire managerial activity, it's role being to raise the guarantee of actions in the


managerial process. It should not be mistaken, the objective with the object of control, which is

ractically unlimited, especially compared with the processes of execution, situations and problems,

ctors, deviations of inspection content.

The special role of inspection is that it he

problems of managerial factors. The immediat intervention of evident solutions for preventing

negative effects, is the s of the

company and of the firm.

The pshychological problems of inspection.

The way the inspection of managerial activities takes place, has deep psychological implications.

In thi at is

being inspected. From the managerial point of vi he inspection represents the way of taking its

ecisions. The goal is to make the worker think that is permanentely supervised and overlooked.

do, about the conditions in which he works, the

posibil e encurajed to expose their ideas,

the bes

the tasks in a

superio

ion in the general effort of making

the activity of the company of trade or turism, more efficient.

Bibliog

agement-Marketing” ,Ed. Aeternitas, Alba Iulia, 2002;

3. A. H e

serviciilo

4. D. Ursu, S. Briciu, s.a., „Management”Ed. Star Soft, Alba Iulia, 1998.

p

fa

lps in realizing, and getting solutions to the

most semnificative way the inspection can solve the problem

s process there are alot of complexe relations between the one that inspects and the one th

ew, t

d

Every worker thinks about what he has to

ities of makeing work easier. It's best that the employees ar

t ideas are going to be followed.

Another psychological aspect of the content is that the employee is solving

r way when he knows he is supervised. The inspector has to know that fact and has to

complete the supervising with the control of the execution so that he can tell the capacity, the work

and the worth of the employees.

In the inspection process, the manager has to be close to the one that is being controlled, to

show a great spirit of friendship through which he should assure the right relations between the

employees and himself, the right way of knowing the employees, of their capabilities, of a

continuous development of the human factor and his participat

raphy:

1. I. Mihut (coordonator), s.a., „Management”, Univ.1Decembrie1918 ,Seria Didactica, Alba

Iulia 1999;

2. A. Hinescu, I. Iuga, s.a., „Man

in scu (coordonator), s.a., „Managementul intreprinderilor mici si mijlocii din sectorul

r” Ed. Aeternitas, Alba Iulia, 2003;


Carme

Abs

Framework for debate w

(b) Recommendations regarding priorities, prel

the key issues and tackle the

This paper is organized into four parts. The first part highlights the principles of

Inform ls,

classifi suggested list of potential projects is provided

to enab

anity.

As suc

E-GOVERNMENT APPLICATIONS TOWARDS

AN INFORMATION SOCIETY

n RĂDUŢ, “Constantin Brâncoveanu” University of Rîmnicu Vâlcea, ROMANIA

tract: This paper aims at proposing:

(a) ithin a roundtable discussion;

iminary plans and initiatives that address

identified problems in building the Information Society.

ation Society. The second part introduces e-government along with a listing of its goa

cations, and different development stages. A

le readers to familiarize themselves with the breadth of e-government applications, and how

the latter creates value for the identified Information Society principles. The third part proposes a

draft for national and regional priorities, initiatives and suggested e-government pilot projects. At

the end, a conclusion summarizes the main issues in this paper.

I. INTRODUCTION: PRINCIPLES OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY

In its attempts to adopt a universal definition for the “Information Society”, is targeting to

involve all stakeholders in developing a common vision and understanding of the Information

Society and in creating a strategic plan of action to realize this vision for the benefit of all hum

h several prominent policy exercises including a list of principles for the Information

Society. The main principles are:

• Human resources training and development: this principle ensures that every citizen

should be equipped with enough skills to be involved in the Information Society;


• Universal access: this principle stresses the importance that information needs to be

o ll

• Infras affordable,

s r communication infrastructure on a national level

w a s;

• F strategies: this principle involves

g r the specific requirements

o e n to the Information Society;

on the new

nsumer protection, confidentiality and disclosure rules. The regulatory

will handle competition, taxation, customs, jurisdiction, and conflict resolution.

• Development of ocal needs: this principle

acknowledges the importance of developing applications using local languages. Most

important ones are e-learning, e-health, e-government, e-commerce, and e-business.

II. E-GOVERNMENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE INFORMATION SOCIETY

A. DEFINITION OF E-GOVERNMENT

There is no unique definition for e-government. However, the most common definition is the

following: E-government, or electronic government, refers to the use of information and

communications technologies to improve the efficiency, effectiveness, transparency and

ility of government. E-government is also a tool to enhance the economic competitiveness

of businesses and to em

government services to citizens, for an

improved interaction with busin

transparency, greater

convenience, revenue growth,

extended to everyone. The public has the right to access basic and relevant information

f a aspects of the society;

tructure development: this principle affirms the need to develop

ecu e, and reliable information and

ith n efficient connectivity to global network

ormulation and implementation of national ICT

ove nment to develop national political commitment tailored to

f th ir countries, and thus to participate in the transitio

• Formulation of coherent regulatory and legislative rules: this principle touches

changes needed to deal with the problems and issues of the information age in order to

attract investment and fight corruption; the legal framework should handle intellectual

property rights, co

applications and content suited to l

accountab

power citizens.

B. OVERVIEW OF E-GOVERNMENT

Traditionally, citizens and businesses interacted with government agencies in a government office.

With the coming of the information age, it is now possible to deliver governmental services closer to the citizen

though the use of personal computer in the home or office, or through the use of kiosks in public spaces.

E-government strives for a better delivery of

ess and industry, for citizen empowerment through access to

information, and for a more efficient government management. As a result, e-government direct

impact on the economy and society can be less corruption, increased

and/or cost reductions.


C. E-GOVERNMENT BENEFITS

The following benefits are recognized as being associated with e-government applications:

• Better delivery of services and information to businesses and citizens; • Creating new employment opportunities in public and private sectors; • Reducing poverty and illiteracy; • Transparency of government; • Public sector reform and anticorruption;

e to the variety and breadth of government

service

1. Government-to-Government (G2G)

G2G aims at serving both intra and inter-government agencies within a nation and among nations.

It is so ested that government ought to improve and upgrade their internal systems and

procedu

cause it has a direct

impact on the private sector and reduces the cost of conducting transactions with the government.

Some G : procurement, taxation, and licensing.

• Empowerment through access to information; • Improving efficiency in government processing; • Bridging the “digital divide”; • Contributing to a knowledge-based economy.

D. CLASSIFICATION OF E-GOVERNMENT SOLUTIONS BY SECTOR

E-government solutions are so diversified du

s. In order to better identify and analyze these solutions, it is better to organize them into the

following classes (figure 1):

Figure 1

E-government solutions classifications

Government-to-Business

Government-to-Employee

Government-to-Citizen

Government-to-Government

E-gov

metimes sugg

res before electronically transacting with citizens and business; thus making G2G the backbone of

egovernment. Some G2G applications: inter-agency payments, procurement, and standardized forms.

2. Government-to-Business (G2B)

G2B aims at serving the business sector. It usually receives support be

2B applications


3. Government-to-Citizen (G2C)

G2C aims at serving the citizen. It facilitate citizen interaction with government by

enhancing access to public information through the use of websites and/or kiosks, by reducing the

time and cost to conduct a transaction, by attenuating the agency-centric nature of some government

functio

t employees. It usually based on the use of the Intranet/Internet.

Some G plementation of a human resource management system with self service

functio

ns. G2C is perceived to be the primary goal of e-government. Some government are

currently offering a one-stop shopping site for the citizens. Some G2C applications can be civil

registration, health, education, and municipal services.

4. Government-to-Employee (G2E)

G2E aims at serving governmen

2E solution is the im

nalities that allows the employee to apply online for a annual leave, check his total number the

balance of his remaining vacation, and review his review his salary slip among other things.

E. CLASSIFICATION OF E-GOVERNMENT ACCORDING TO THEIR STAGE

OF DEVELOPMENT

E-government has evolved through four stages: presence, interaction, transaction, and

transformation as illustrated in figure 2.

Figure 2 Stages of e-government development

entry for egovernm

1. Presence The first stage is presence. It is easy and cheap to implement, as it is the most basic level of

ent. A typical example is a web site that lists information on the agency, such as

hours of operations, address, phone numbers, and contact person. It has no interaction capabilities.

It could be compared to an electronic brochure presenting passive information.


2. Interaction

The second stage is interaction. It helps the citizen avoid a trip to the government office or

even make a phone call by providing him with the needed information and the electronic forms that

can be

h

capab tie -

servi p s completing electronically a license

renewal or paying taxes. The activity involved in this stage is usually one way either to government

or to client dependin

4. Transformation

The fourth stage is transformation. It is the most difficult to implement due to technical,

fiscal and administrative constraints. It uses workflow and collaborative tools to streamline

information in both direction to and from federal agencies and citizens. It removes barriers and

promotes customer-oriented solutions. This stage has a major impact in the way current

governmental agencies are organized; it will transform the existing structure, laws, and procedures

and pave the way for a new virtual organizations.

F. OBSERVED GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE FOR IMPLEMENTING ICTS

STRATEGY

Government should establish an organizational structure that ensures proper mechanism for

delivering e-government strategy to decision-makers and planners, and at a later stage for

implementing viable corresponding solutions.

Most Est countries adopt one of the following three organizational structures:

(a) A Ministry of Information and Communications ;

(b) A High level authority figure championing e-government solutions ;

(c) A government body headed by a high level authority and composed of several ministers.

n the government-enabling environment; however, model (a) is a structure mostly

found in developed countries a

successfully used in a number of countries in the world to fight corruption, introduce administrative

reform, and contribute to revenue growth and /or cost reduction.

filled electronically or printed and then sent by mail.

3. Transaction

T e third stage is transaction. It automates government functions and has more streamline

ili s. This stage is more complex and more expensive to implement. It is somehow a self

ce o eration that allows the citizen to conduct tasks such a

g on the activity.

Thorough studies must be conducted for each of the above organization structure, taking into

consideratio

nd newly industrial countries.

G. PROMOTING E-GOVERNMENT TOWARDS AN INFORMATION SOCIETY

E-government applications are used to offer greater convenience to the citizen and the

business society by providing more governmental transparency. E-government solutions have been


The efforts of the government should be geared towards creating an enabling framework and

politica

eas).

Figure 3 below maps e-government contributions towards an Information Society. Three

layers constitute the buildin

• Layer one highlights the effect of e-government in the transition towards an Information Society.

• Layer two portrays main stakeholders and respective vertical line of business;

• Layer three lists main benefits for each stakeholder.

Figure 3 E-government contributions to the Information Society

l will to improve connectivity and enhance efficiency of private and public services

(including rural ar

g blocks of this diagram:

A list of the most accepted solutions has been prepared, to choose from based on their

priorities:

1. Government-to-Citizen:

Income taxes, job search services, social security, personal documents, car registration,

application for building permission, declaration to the police, public libraries, certificates enrolment

into higher education, announcement of moving, health related services, and employment services.


2. Government-to-Business:

Government interactions with businesses could be grouped into three main functions as

shown in table 1.

Table 1 G2B interactions with the business sector

3. Government-to-Government:

Linking government network authorities together, and budget preparation and Control.

4. Government-to-Employee:

, government, education, health, industry, services,

poverty

sting laws are not applicable or may be

detrimental t h -government. Government should operate in an environment

where electro c bmission, electronic payment, intellectual property right,

and data protection are all legislatively accepted and protected. In addition, regulatory and trade

Human Resources Management, financial back office Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP),

and property management.

III. PRIORITIES FOR NATIONAL ACTION PLANS

A. INTRODUCTION

National ICTs strategy: As a general rule to build an Information Society, national ICTs

strategy should take into consideration the following objectives:

(a) Increase widespread availability of low cost, high speed Internet access;

(b) Enhance effectiveness and efficiency of government systems;

(c) Link up to a knowledge based economy by developing a sound Information Society

foundation;

(d) Increase transparency of its services.

These objectives takes into account a very large number of factors linked to a country’s

socioeconomic development; these factors include investment, finance, regulatory frameworks,

development of human resources, infrastructures

and employment.

Legislative, regulatory and trade polices: Exi

o t e development of e

ni signatures, electronic su


policies should exist to encourage private sector to invest in ICTs. For example: (a) tax exemption

of newly established ICTs firms for a defined period of time, (b) government subsidies for certain

ICTs sector that require initial high investment, (c) deregulation of the telecomm sector, (d)

privatization, (e) low tariffs on hardware and software imports, (f) and foreign exchange regime.

However, before any legislative actions are taken the following four principles are essential for seif

electronic transactions as illustrated in table 2.

Table 2 Four essential principles for electronic transaction

Infrastructure development: The building block for any e-government initiative is to deploy a

national infrastructure with high bandwidth backbone and wide covering area. This infrastructure should

(a) offer competitive pricing for telecommunications services, (b) integrate information,

telecommunication, government ministries, and public institutions/department together; and (c) be

equipped with required systems and networks needed for securing safe on-line transaction.

ICTs Human skills development: For effective use of ICTs, Est countries should invest in

developing local human resources. Potential initiatives would be (a) increasing public expenditure

on education and integrating e-learning in the national curricula, (b) providing incentives to reduce

brain drain, (c) developing the private sector, (d) leveraging from technical assistance provided by

international organizations, (e) and promoting research and development centers in alliance with

both the education and the industry sectors.

Fight illiteracy: Even though this topic is related to e-learning, it is still a major handicap

for bridging the digital divide and for diffusing ICTs services such as e-government and e-health.

Thus, government should fight illiteracy in the region in order to equip people with the necessary

skills to use and benefit from ICTs applications.

B. SUGGESTED IMPLEMENTATION MODEL

The suggested model is composed of three parts:

• Sectoral priorities;

• Model building blocks;

• Framework.


Sectoral priorities are derived from the national policy. Four priorities are illustrated at the

bottom

s to complete the big picture by placing

the eorg a

pyrami -hand side of the

Suggested model

of figure 4. These priorities could be realized through a variety of building blocks organized

in four groups. For example, a given priority might be realized by a consultation (transaction),

conducted through a portal (channel), supported by knowledge base (e-business enablers), and

requires Business Process Reengineering (organization development). This model allows the

identification of building block gaps for different scenarios.

Once the previous steps are achieved, the model continue

anization building bocks and its sectoral priorities within the framework. The framework has

d shape composed of five layers. Figure 4 identifies the five layers on the left

pyramid and matches each layer with a typical main application on the right-hand side of the pyramid.

Figure 4


C. ROADMAP FOR GOVERNMENT ICT-BASED PROJECTS

This roadmap provides a high level framework for defining a strategy and for implementing

govern ajor steps that constitute the pillars for this

framew

rnment, how to measure and

commu

s to all segments of the population enables community members

to acqu

• Public Internet Kiosks

2. Important role of Public-Private Partnership: Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is becoming a

popular method of implementing e-government projects and developing the ICTs industry. The

advantages of forming such alliances lie in the ability to mobilize more capital and to use the

private sector expertise in project management and efficient project expenditure. In return, the

government will involve the private sector to contribute more in the development of the Information

Society, while retaining its responsibilities for public interest matters and guaranteeing delivery of

services. Implementation of technopoles and incubators are two approaches for supporting PPP.

3. Promote freeware/shareware: Development of software application based on freeware/shareware

technology in EST member countries should be encouraged in order to (a) build local capacities in

ICTs, (b) bridge the digital divide by providing cheaper solutions to mass market, (c) contribute to

the growth of Information Society and knowledge-based economy, and (d) contribute to the growth

of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs).

4. Administrative reform: E-government, e-health, or any other e-business initiatives should be

accompanied by redesigning business processes, introducing quality and audit control mechanism,

implementing an e-procurement system, and acquiring technical and project management skills.

5. Promote ICTs entrepreneurial development: The private sector and more specifically SME are a

major s

ment ICTs based projects. The seven m

ork are: define a vision and priority areas, assessing e-gouvernment readiness, fiind e-

leadersand political will, select the right project, plan the right project, plan the maage e-

gouvernment project, overcome resistance from within gouve

nicate progress, keep relationship with private sector.

D. E-GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES TOWARDS AN INFORMATION SOCIETY

E-government initiatives can be grouped in five main areas as listed below:

1. Increase access: Providing acces

ire information related to government services and plans. ICTs should be accessible though a

wide diffusion of telephony and/or mobile lines especially in rural areas and by lowering access

hurdles. Typical applications could be:

• Private cyber cafés; • Centers equipped with phones, faxes, photocopies, PCs, printers and Internet;

.

ource for job creation. EST countries should encourage entrepreneurial development by (a)


setting up ICTs incubators, technopoles, and technology parks, (b) attracting Venture Capitals (VCs) to

vest in startup ent e on ICTs firms.

In all of the above, public and private sectors should implement an audit mechanism to

assure quality and to measure the impact on poor population.

E. SUGGESTED PILOT PROJECTS

Government, which in most cases is the largest and wealthiest entity to conduct business

with, has a duty to support initiatives towards an Information Society. So as an attempt to serve this

duty, table 3 provides a list of potential e-government application.

The priorities for the region should be focused on three categories of e-government solutions

namely, Government-to-Citizen (G2C), Government-to-Business (G2B), and Government-to-

Government (G2G). The remaining category Government-to-Employees (G2E) has a less direct

impact on citizens and businesses.

A major concern that needs to be taken into consideration before initiating any of the e-

government projects is the centralization and standardization of the common data used by all

ministries. In other words, basic information should have one database structure, well-defined

metadata, and unique naming convention for data entry. The procedures for storing, accessing, and

in erprises, (b) and removing taxes for at least a defined period of tim

owning these data should be designed at the very beginning of any e-government initiative.

Table 3 Sample e-government applications


The following table (table 4) elaborates on main functionalities of selected applications for

the short and medium terms.

Table 4 Main functionalities of selected e-government components


imple

discussions and development of the initiatives and priorities mentioned in the above sections.

IV. CONCLUSIONS

In summary, this paper highlights the impact of e-government applications in developing an

Information Society. It recommends a list of priorities together with a roadmap and model for

menting e-government solutions. The paper is intended to setup a framework for further


References:

1. Bar, Francois (2001), The Construction of Marketplace Architecture. Tracking a

Transformation. E-commerce and the Terms of Competition in Industry. The BRIE-IGCC E-

conomy Project. Washington, Brookings, pp.27-50;

2. B dels

and eMetrics. E-life after the rry / Preissl, Brigitte /Steinfield,

Charles (eds.), forthcoming;

3. Cohen, Stephen S. / Bradford DeLong / Steven Weber / John Zysman (2001), Tools: The

f

Competition in Industry. The BRIE-IGCC E-conomy Project. Washington, Brookings, pp.3-26;

4. Colecchia, Alessandra / Pattinson, Bill / . K. Atrostic (2000), Defining and Measuring

Ele

us, Washington.

htt

rnet and E-commerce Statistics: What they Mean and Where to Find

Them on the Web. Congressional Research Service. Issue Brief for Congress - RL 30435.

October.

ouwman, Harry / Holland Christiaan (2002), Back to the bottom line - Business mo

dot. com bust. Bouwman, Ha

Drivers of E-commerce. Tracking a Transformation. E-commerce and the Terms o

B

ctronic Commerce. A discussion paper, OECD, Paris. February;

Einsporn, T. / Wiegand, R. (1999), Electronic Commerce im Internet, Institute der deutschen

Wirtschaft, Köln;

5. EITO (2001), European Information Technology Observatory, Internet version:

http://www.eito.com/pages/EITO/what_is_eito.htm, last accessed January 28, 2002;

6. Kleemann, Michael, J. / Bach, David (2001), E-commerce and Network Architecture: New

Perspectives. Tracking a Transformation. E-commerce and the Terms of Competition in

Industry. The BRIE-IGCC E-conomy Project (ed). Washington, Brookings, pp. 389-405;

7. Mesenbourg, Thomas L. (2001), Measuring Electronic Business: Definitions, Underlying

Concepts, and Measurement Plans, US Bureau of the Cens

p://www.census.gov/eos/www/ebusiness614.htm, last accessed February 1, 2002;

8. Preissl, Brigitte (2001), Die Internet-Wirtschaft: Neue Unternehmensmodelle, neue Märkte,

neue Arbeitsbeziehungen. (The Internet Economy: New business models, new markets, new

labour relations. Wirtschafts-Technologie-Umwelt, ed. by IG Metall, Frankfurt July 2001;

9. Preissl, Brigitte (2000), Employment Effects of E-commerce: Concepts and Measurement

Problems, in: Communications and Strategies, No. 39 (3rd quarter), 2000, p.75-114;

10. Steinfield, C. and Whitten, P. (1999), Community level Socio - Economic Impacts of Electronic

Commerce. JCMC5 (2) December 1999, http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol5/issue2/steinfield.htm;

11. Tehan, Rita (2000), Inte


iaire Baia Mare, ROUMANIE

ts de vue sur la distribution urbaine des

marcha

on dans le

milieu

approches pour les modèles de distribution urbaine, les

fonctio

,

concer

en place d’un

plan de

oraires de

vraison, les dimensions et les poids de véhicules, modes de gestion du transport par un

collabo

REFLECTIONS SUR LES DEFIS DE LA DISTRIBUTION URBAINE

DES MARCHANDISES

Mihaela ŞTET, Université d’Ouest "Vasile Goldiş" Arad – subsid

Résumé: L’épreuve présente quelques poin

ndises. Les problèmes qui se posent dans l’espace urbaine sont les problèmes

d’emplacement des centres de distribution, des plateformes logistiques et l’intégrati

urbain, le stockage des marchandises, la gestion de stocks, les problèmes de transport des

marchandises en ville. La planification des ressources et des activités des entrepôts, les outils et

méthodes visant à améliorer et automatiser l’approvisionnement en réduisant les stocks et les délais

de livraison sont quelques éléments qui se posent dans la distribution des marchandises. Relatif au

ce sujet sont présentées aussi de nouvelles

ns des technologies d’informations et communications dans le système logistique de

distribution, stratégies possibles dans la distribution des marchandises en ville.

Le plus important élément dans la distribution physique, le transport de marchandises

ne quelques problèmes dans l’espace urbain: la pollution atmosphérique, la pollution sonore

et les problèmes de congestion du trafic. Pour résoudre les problèmes environnementales, de

congestion du trafic dans les agglomérations urbaines se pose le problème de mise

déplacement urbain qui inclue les problèmes relatifs à la distribution des marchandises par

la réglementation d’accès dans l’espace urbaine, la gestion d’espace urbain, du stationnement et

du temps d’accès, le chargement / déchargement des marchandises, l’établissement des h

li

ration public – privé.


L’impact des nouveaux services, tels que le commerce électronique, les livraisons à domicile

de clie té aussi parmi les défis de la distribution

urbaine

e par le grand

nombre

nes différentes. La configuration

e ville, l’infrastructure existante, la surface, le nombre des habitants sont des éléments

déterm

Pour cette raison, l’analyse des problèm

restrictions relatives à distribution physique des produits, est nécessaire d’être réalisé à partir de

mom

Le problèm archa ne peut être traité

séparément des questions de circulation et de stationnement des véhicules de livraison.

d’accès sont introdu

de personnes. Aussi, les restrictions relatives à dimension et au type de véhicules de distribution

urbaine accessibles dans les différentes zones urbaines sont éléments que doit pris en compte dans

le choix de modèle de distribution urbaine.

Dans l’espace urbaine s’impose, aussi, l’utilisation des véhicules ne polluants ou avec

émissions polluan ution urbaine est

nécessaire la sollicitation de facteurs de chargement élevés pour les véhicules qu’entrent en ville.

velopper le transport souterrain des marchandises ou de trouver de solutions de

combin

ribution urbaine des marchandises est un domaine vaste qui pose une multitude des

problèmes pour les personnes qui régissent les activités de livraison dans l’espace urbaine.

nts générées de ce type de transaction est présen

.

1. INTRODUCTION

La distribution urbaine des marchandises est un procès d’une complexité élevé

des éléments qui interviennent, les restrictions, les limites indues de l’espace urbaine.

La complexité dérive, en sus, par les différences qui se manifestent entre les agglomérations

urbaines et dans l’espace de même ville, les différences entre les zo

d

inants dans le choix d’une stratégie de distribution urbaine.

es de distribution dans les zones urbaines, des

ent de choix du type de chaîne de distribution.

e de la distribution physique des m ndises en centre urbain

L’accès dans l’espace urbaine peut être limité à quelques intervalles horaires. Ces limites

ites pour diminution le trafic urbaine dans les heures de pointe dues le transport

tes réduits. En sus, dans les diverses schémas de distrib

La distribution urbaine des marchandises est prépondérant liée de transport routier. Les

caractéristiques spatiales des zones urbaines et la grande densité de population en ces zones

nécessitent l’utilisation des véhicules légères, surs, avec une manœuvrabilité élevée.

Les possibilités d’extension de l’infrastructure routière dans les agglomérations urbaine sont limitées,

mais il est possible de dé

er le transport routier et le transport souterrain dans une variante de transport multimodal.

2. MODELES DE DISTRIBUTION URBAINE

La dist


Les services offerts de système de distribution urbaine sont:

La livraison des marchandises aux magasins;

Le stockage des marchandises dans les centres de distribution et la livraison à

commande;

La livraison des marchandises au domicile des clients;

La collecte des produits retournés, la gestion des flux logistiques inverses.

Pour réaliser ces services existent différents schémas de distribution urbaine. Les schémas

de distribution urbaine sont différents par le m

comme instrument de stratégies de segmentation

et de di

arché ou

hyperm

ode de localisation des centres de distribution, soit

dans les zones périurbaines, soit dans les espaces urbaines.

CDR – centre de

distribution

régionale

CDL – centre de

CDL distribution

CDR

CDR

locale

- points de

livraison,

magasins

CDR CDL

Fig. 1. Options d’emplacement des centres de distribution

Si, pour une grande période de temps, l’orientation a été vers la localisation de ces points de

transfert dans la proximité des zones urbaines, la tendance actuelle est de placer ces points dans

l’espace urbaine. Cet effet centripète de localisation des activités commerciales en ville est

déterminé de l’attrait que constitue le centre ville

fférenciation.

En sus, l’emplacement de centres de distribution dans l’espace urbaine réduit les distances

parcourues de véhicules de livraison. La localisation des magasins de type superm

arché dans les zones centrales réduit aussi le trafic supplémentaire généré de voitures

particulières.


Dans les grandes agglomérations urbaines le commerce de centre ville consiste en plusieurs

hyper centres et d’une nombre de centres de quartier. Les hyper centres disposent d’une forte

capacité d’attraction. Les centres de quartier ont une capacité très limitée d’attraction, desservant les

personn

alisés sont l’alimentation générale, l’équipement

de pers

inéaire tenant compte des conditions du trafic dans le réseau existante.

La modélisation de la distribution urbaine doit tenir compte que la distribution des

ma ilieu complexe et dynamique, avec une multitude des contraintes.

Les contraintes peuvent être classifiés aussi en contraintes invariables (caractéristiques physiques,

infrastructure, réglementations légales) et contraintes que, dans certaines conditions, peuvent être

modifiés (coûts, ressources). En sus, certaines restrictions sont opposées, contradictoires.

La réalisation de la distribution urbaine dans un milieu en continu changement suppose

trou ns optimales même en dition eu en qui

ce procès est réalisé. Pour cette raison s’impose d’utilisation des modèles pour permettre renouveler

les solution en temps réel, , de refaire dynamique des

horaires de livraison, dans les conditions des changements imprévues.

s un nombre n zones de livraison. Pour ces zones

peuvent ê

autre parte, le nombre et les types des véhicules, qu’ils desservent la zone de

livraison, c

La t

crée la possibilité

d’affichages des cartes inte

s

arcs de

es habitant ou travaillant dans le quartier.

Le commerce de périphérie est composé des centres commerciaux régionaux et des zones de

d’activités commerciales et les produits commerci

onne, les services, matériaux de construction.

Pour détermination de dimension et la localisation des terminales logistiques ont été

développées des modèles mathématiques basés sur la théorie des files d’attente et techniques de

programmation ne l

rchandises se réalise dans un m

ver des solutio con s des changements déterminés de mili

comme les modèles de routage dynamique

L’objectives de la modélisation de distribution urbaine sont l’optimisation des ressources et

la minimisation des effets négatives sur l’environnement.

L’espace urbaine peut être divisé dan

tre déterminés différents indicateurs qu’ils caractérisent une telle zone est la densité des

points de livraison, le volume et le nombre de commandes, la distribution spatiale et temporelle de

commandes. Dans

les aractéristiques d’infrastructure, les facilites existantes, le coefficient de service sont

des élément qu’ils doivent prendre en calcul.

sec orisation des zones de distribution permet une analyse géographique des informations

relatives la demande et l’adaptation des actions de marketing. En sus, elle

ractives avec les itinéraires alternatives de distribution.

La distribution urbaine peut être formalisé comme un réseau avec liaisons multiples. Sur le

réseau transitent les flux des marchandises et les nœuds principales représentent centres de

transfère logistique. Les nœuds finals représentent les points de vente. Les centres de transfère


logistiques peuvent être entrepôts, plateformes logistiques, centre de transbordement, stockage et

distribution. La connexion de réseau de distribution urbaine au réseau magistrale est réalisé dans les

points

n des centres de distribution urbaine coordonnées de compagnies logistiques

spécial

a diminution de distances parcourues, qu’ils ont comme effet la réduction de

coûts d

lux

supplém

types de produits par ce que la distribution de différents produits est très variable. Les produits

de transfère régionale.

Les centres de distribution représentent terminales publiques ou privées de transbordement

des marchandises et les parcs logistiques sont concentrations spatiales de centres de distribution et

bases des fournisseurs des services logistiques.

L’introductio

isées croît l’efficience des chaînes de distribution par la croissance de degré d’utilisation de

capacité de transport, l

u transport.

X

Y Z

magistrale périurbaine urbaine Réseau Zone Zone

Fig. 2. Localisations de parcs logistiques

La localisation des parcs logistiques doit assurer services performants de distribution et une

connectivité élevée dans toutes les zones de l’espace urbaine. Peuvent être prises en calcul les

dernières locations pour les parcs logistiques:

la location X, optimale quand ne se prisent pas en compte les coûts des terrains et

les investissements en infrastructure dédié, utilisé pour la grande distribution de produits

agroalimentaires;

la variante Y est la variante la plus fréquente utilisée, mais qu’il induit des f

entaires du trafic, généré des déplacements avec les voitures particulières;

la location Z, solution optimale en rapport de position relative à réseau magistrale du

transport, utilisé pour la distribution de matériaux de construction, meuble, etc.

Dans les conditions des nouvelles technologies de transbordement et transport peuvent être

développées aussi combinassions de ces variantes et leur interconnections (par exemple, A et C).

Dans le cadre de la distribution urbaine il est nécessaire de faire une analyse en fonction des


principaux livrés dans l’espace urbaine sont les produits agroalimentaires, textiles, habillement,

cosmétiques pharmacies, produits électriques et électroniques.

ment des chaînes des

magasi

permettant de livrer directe les clients à partir d’un seul entrepôt, centre de

distribu

la gestion de stocks;

ise en service et la gestion d’une chaîne de distribution est nécessaire d’assurer une

logistique perform

formation et

communications qui perm

inutions des stocks.

lles que les heures d’ouverture des dépôts et des points de livraison, des plages

La fréquence et le nombre élevé des expéditions dans le domaine de distribution des

produits agroalimentaires, le traçage des produits frais et des produits réfrigérés représentent

quelques enjeux majeurs pour l’optimisation des livraisons. La distribution urbaine suppose

l’utilisations des centres de distribution et la localisation des magasins de type super et hypermarché

dans le centre ville.

Pour les produits textiles la distribution se caractérise par le développe

ns spécialisés.

La tendance dans la distribution des produits électroniques est au développement de

schémas logistiques

tion et d’optimiser la distribution à travers une politique de flux tendus.

3. LA LOGISTIQUE DE DISTRIBUTION DANS L ’ESPACE URBAINE

Les éléments principaux visés pour le but d’optimisation de distribution urbaine sont:

la préparation des commandes pour les clients, que suppose la préparation des

produits, la manutention au centre de distribution, l’emballage des produits à livrer;

l’expédition, le transport et la livraison des marchandises.

Pour la m

ante. La livraison dans les délais prévus les produits commandes suppose l’accès

rapide aux informations actualisées en permanence sur le stock en magasins. La réduction du niveau

des stocks en magasins se traduit, d’autre part, par la multiplication de réapprovisionnements.

Une solution pour la logistique des entrepôts peut constituer le système de gestion

électronique. Les systèmes évolués de gestion des entrepôts combinent les technologies modernes

d’identification de produit par saisie de codes de barre et les technologies d’in

et l’utilisation d’un flux des informations actualisées en permanence.

L’utilisation des nouvelles technologies d’informations et des communications permet le

passage d’une logistique de flux poussés à une logistique de flux tirés, qui détermine une

diminution des coûts, par la centralisation des entrepôts, par les dim

Pour réduire ses coûts de distribution, les dispacheurs utilisent des progiciels pour optimiser

la planification des tournées de livraison mono ou multi dépôts. Il est nécessaire de prise en compte

des contraintes te


horaire

e programmation par contraintes, les recherches heuristiques.

osent pour la

distribu

istances des routes de livraison, le temps total de

transpo

x points des livraisons des

marcha s

se pose le problème de mise en place d’un plan de déplacement urbain qui

incl e

public – privé.

tier,

de zone

s de clients, les capacités des véhicules, les réglementations relatives aux déplacements des

marchandises dans l’espace urbaine.

Dans les conditions d’existence d’une parc donnée des véhicules et d’entrepôts et des clients

avec de restrictions de livraison, comme fenêtres de temps, l’optimisation de la distribution consiste

en trouver de solutions pour réduire les coûts d’opérations, la distance parcourue, le nombre de

véhicules et de maximiser la satisfaction des clients. La gestion de ces opérations se peut formaliser

par une gamme élargit de méthodes, à partir des modèles d’optimisations combinatoires jusqu'à

méthodes tel qu

Optimisation des itinéraires en fonction de la capacité des véhicules, des créneaux horaires,

des périodes des pauses, des types de voies et des véhicules sont les défis qui se p

tion urbaine.

Un problème qui se pose dans la distribution urbaine des produits est la détermination

d’impact, les influences de transport des marchandises sur le trafic urbain. Pour cette raison doit

déterminer une série des indicateurs, comme les d

rt, la vitesse moyenne, le consume de combustible, les émissions polluantes, le niveau de

bruit.

La croissance du transport routier de marchandises détermine une série de problèmes comme

la pollution sonore, la pollution atmosphérique, les congestions de trafic générées par les véhicules

de livraison et l’extension des espaces occupés par les voitures au

ndi es.

Pour résoudre les problèmes environnementales, de congestion du trafic dans les

agglomérations urbaines

u les problèmes relatifs à la distribution des marchandises par la réglementation d’accès dans

l’espace urbaine, la gestion d’espace urbain, du stationnement et du temps d’accès, le chargement /

déchargement des marchandises, l’établissement des horaires de livraison, les dimensions et les

poids de véhicules, modes de gestion du transport par un collaboration

L’une de problèmes est que les aires de livraison sont souvent de dimensions et localisations

inadaptées que détermine arrêts sur voirie de véhicules en livraison et des encombrements qui réduit

la fluidité du trafic. S’impose, donc, réglementations en ce qui concerne la gestion d’espace rou

s de parking et de zones de livraison de marchandises.

Le système de distribution peut être optimisé par le groupement des marchandises dans les

terminales logistiques urbaines, l’introduction de technologies évoluées d’information et

communication.


Les procèdes heuristiques développés récent permettent l’obtention simultanément de

solutio

et des types hétérogènes des véhicules de distribution. La routage

dynam

En

livraisons et des ’accessibilité des véhicules dans les zones de livraison.

D’a es de véhicules, de

capacités d

conditions d’int erce électronique, des échanges électroniques de données il est

possible l’a a

L’introd ion urbaine des

marchandis

La d la réduction des congestions du

trafic par la m

chargement, de mes de transport multimodales;

onomies d’échelle par la gestion des grandes

quantités des produits.

Le beso es moyennes

techniques d es (codes à barres, étiquette électronique, lecteurs), des

solutions informatiques et des solutions opérationnelles en matière d’interconnexion, interfaçage

des systèmes d’information des participants à chaîne de distribution.

La possibilité de suivi par GPS et les technologies de communication la position des

marchandises et des véhicules de livraison en temps réel permettent de prévenir de retards, de

modifier la trajectoire et d’informer les clients de l’heure d’arriver au point de destination.

D’autre part, l’introduction de commerce électronique et, en particulière, le commerce de

type B2C détermine la réduction de coûts et de temps d’achats, des possibilités de diminution des

stocks, l’extension de l’espace géographique des transactions, la croissance de réactivité, de

flexibilité dans les relations commerciales, mais, aussi, l’augmentation des nombres de flux du

trafic dans le milieu urbaine avec effets négatives sur l’environnement et l’espace routier.

ns approximatives optimales pour les problèmes d’emplacement des terminales urbains et le

design de routes pour un nombre existantes des points de livraison. Les problèmes de routage

consistent en trouver des routes qui minimisent les distances parcourues et le nombre des véhicules

utilisées, dans les conditions d’une grande nombre de commandes de livraison, l’existence de

plusieurs centres de distribution

ique peut être réalisé par l’utilisation d’information obtenue on line sur le trafic et la position

des véhicules.

sus, il doit tenir compte des fenêtres temporelles en qui peuvent être réaliser les

restrictions d

utre parte, il est nécessaire l’allocation des expéditions au diverses typ

ifférents, en rapport avec le type des marchandises et les zones de destination. Dans les

roduction de comm

lloc tion dynamique des commandes.

uction des terminales logistiques dans le système de distribut

es détermine une série d’avantages, comme les suivantes:

iminution de l’impact négatif sur l’environnement,

inimisation des nombres de déplacements à cause de croissante des facteurs de

l’utilisation des systè

Coûts de transport diminués par suite de planification du transport et des opérations de

livraison, ainsi que d’opportunité d’obtenir des éc

in de traçage des flux physiques a déterminé la développement d

d’i entification automatiqu


4. CONCLUSIONS

La complexité de le domaine de distribution urbaine, l’impact sur les quasi-totalité des

processus déroulés dans l’espace urbaine, fait nécessaire de trouver des solutions capables de

répondre à une série étendait des problèmes relatives a ce procès: la réduction de coûts de

distribution, les problèmes de gestion de transport routier, la diminution les congestion du trafic, les

problèmes environnementales.

S’impose, en conséquence, le développement des collaborations entre le secteur public et

privé pour solutionner les problèmes suivants:

l’optimisation de localisation, d’aménagement et organisation des centres de

distribution;

une meilleure gestion du transport routier sur le plan logistique;

l’amélioration de l’organisation et de la gestion des places de parking, de l’espace

de stationnement;

une meilleure régulation du trafic en zones urbaines par mesures relatives le

stationnement, les horaires et les tailles des véhicules de livraison;

développer des instruments de communication et informations pour guider la

circulation routière en vue d’améliorer sa fluidité ;

optimisation des chargements – déchargements aux centres de distribution et aux

points de livraison.

Pour améliorer la logistique de distribution urbaine des marchandises on peut utilisé une

gamme des outils comme:

la gestion physique moderne des produits, de leur stockage, le suivi automatique

des produits utilisant de codes de barre ou d’étiquettes électroniques;

la tarification urbaine;

la mise en œuvre de plates-formes logistiques urbaines, de transbordement rapide;

la gestion des équipements comme les conteneurs et les palettes;

la gestion automatique des véhicules, par l’introduction de GPS et GIS et les

nouvelles technologies d’informations et communications;

l’utilisation des solutions innovantes dans la gestion des livraisons en zones

urbaines, la livraison pendant la nuit et en dehors de heures de pointe,

l’optimisation des tournées de véhicules, le routage dynamique avec fenêtre

temporelles.


Les nouvelles conceptions dans le domaine de distribution supposent infrastructures

spécialisés, parcs adéquates de véhicules, technologies informationnelles et communications

performantes, services logistiques innovantes.

Bibliographie:

1. Binsbergen, A., Visser, J.G.S.N., Innovation Steps Towards Efficient Goods Distribution

Systems for Urban Areas, The Netherlands TRAIL Research School, (2001);

2. Boe, K., City transport operation based on logistics thinking, Institute of Transport Economics, (1999);

3. Bräysy, O., Genetic Algorithms for the Vehicle Routing Problem with Time Windows, Vaasa,

Finland, (2001);

4. Davidson, J., Kowalczyk, R., Towards Better Approaches to Decision Support in Logistics

Problems, Carlton, Australia, (2000);

5. Yannis, G., Gestion des flux et strategie concurentielle dans le transport, Les Cahiers

Scientifiques du Transport nr. 30 / 1995, Universite Nationale Technique d’Athenes, (1995) ;

6. Nemoto, T., Visser, J., Yoshimoto, R., Impacts of Information and Communication Technology

on Urban Logistics Systems, (2001);

7. Taniguchi, E., Underground freight transport systems as city logistics measures, Kyoto

University, Japan, (2001);

8. Taniguchi, E., City Logistics --- Network modelling and intelligent transport system, Pergamon,

Oxford, (2001);

9. BESTUFS – D2.1. Manuel des bonnes pratiques, Année 2000, Condition d’accès à la ville,

réglementation du stationnement et du temps d’accès, mesures pour leur application,

Bruxelles, (2000).


THE IMPORTANCE OF MARKETING TESTS IN MAKING UP

MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES

Cristina JINGA, “1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia, ROMANIA

Abstract: If the target–market is heterogeneous, using more groups, smaller and

compactor, in more senses can assure the success of the technique.

The key–piece is the moderator. He/she should be a person with good communicative skills, open,

spontaneous, agreeable, to develop a convertible state of mind. He/she should be a good listener, to

stimulate discussion, but on the other hand authoritarian, to shorten the useless ones.

Introductions

Market acceptance tests of products, draft copies of product prototypes differ from project

test in that they do not investigate needs and hidden motivations, they check real and reactions

which users and consumers have in real situations and confronted with real offers.

There is a large variety of market acceptances. Among these mention should be made on

Town Hall Test, brand test, store test, lab store test, town test, regional test market mini test, Blind

test, group focus test.

1. Product Test By Means of Town Hall Test Method

New and relatively new products are the most often tested ones on the market. Many of the

products offered on a market can be conditioned and presented in a large variety of forms, sizes,

styles, colors, packing, labels, networks and types of stores.

Different types of a product produce different reactions on the market and they are

differently accepted on the market. Some of the products are successful on the market, others are

less successful on the market and others are not sold at all. Before manufacturing a product in


hundred/thousands millions of copies it is important that the draftsman, the producer, the importer

and the distributor identify the most constructive versions with the maximum impact on the target

market.

These ones will lead to the best sales and profits. Testing the products is made by taken into

account the so - called Town Hall Test Method.

2. The Brand Test

The brand test can be necessary in at least two different situations. The most often

encountered situation is the one testing the relative popularity of many brands the efficiency and the

rating of certain advertising companies, made for brand image.

Another situation in which the brand test is necessary is the one in which a name or a label

is chosen out of many. The test is not different from the product test. To test the popularity of a

brand or to validate a name and an image, which are to be registered, psychological tests, are used

(TAT), frustration test, incomplete clause tests, and word joining tests.

3. The Store Test

Usually the store test is used to choose the best version of a product in case this product can

be launched on the market in many constructive versions. The versions differ in size, trademark,

packing label, colour, and style. For example a sauce could be red – coloured or green – coloured a

toy could be made of wood or of plastic, a book cover could be serious or extravagant. The different

version of a product is differently received on the market: one version goes well, another one bad or

even all.

It is important for the producer to come on the market on a large scale with best version of

the product because by this he/she will increase his/her profits and sales.

At the time he cannot offer a long period of tests requires the use of two or more similar

groups extended on a large geographic area selected at random. Every group includes at least 11 –

12 different shops or even more.

Each one of these groups sells one of the versions of the product.

The results of the test are measured directly by the way the products are sold in every group

of stores.

After a few days/weeks the conclusions are drawn.

The version which brings the most sales will be manufactured and launcher on a large scale.

The other version will be given reps without any regrets.


4. Itinerant Store Test

A store on wheels becomes a kind of itinerant store, a mini while market, which can change

customers daily or weekly. It moves from one street to another from one area of the town to another one.

The tested product is introduced with many others in one or more versions of presentation.

The itinerant store often succeeds in identifying the best placement, categories of customers’ shops

of good custom. Even more these itinerant stores test the existence or the non- existence of possible

patterns or specific behaviour of consume or purchase.

5. Lab Store Test

The lab store is a fictitious store where buyers simulate more or less fictitious purchases.

They choose real products or models, the packing or the label of a product, which they do not pay

for in cash and by means of certain coupons with conventional value offered at the entrance in the

shop. When the purchaser leaves the lab – store the customer leaves the product and the coupon at

the cash register.

For this he/she can get an ice cream, a cup of coffee or a newspaper. Usually the value of the

coupon equals the value of the product or brand tested which are exhibited among other products or

brands existing in the store of necessary the value of the coupon can equal the value of a person’s

daily purchases.

6. The Town Test

In choosing the price levels and in testing the chart of an advertising company the best result are

obtained on the basis of the town test. It works out on the same principle as the store test, the only

difference is that instead of groups of stores we have groups of town. It the store test is important for a

town, the town test is representative for a larger area or even for a country. A condition difficult to

achieve to linked with the comparison and representatives of the towns. The difficulty comes from

ethnical, religion, traditional differences, those of custom, revenue, and employment.

Besides other uncontrollable factors can occur such as weather labour conflicts, factory

rentals celebrating local holidays. To these factors we can add competition, which can disturb or

distort the results of the test. For example when a company launders an advertising campaign -test

in a certain town, competition can bring about a change in price in the same town.

7. The Regional Test

Markets – tests with a grater proportion can be unfolded on larger, geographical areas,

which can cover a country’s surface. Geographical areas selected to make the tests are used as


distinct market on whose basis we can compare different marketing programs, which include

completely the process of launching a product or a service.

The product is released on the market in an almost final shape to test the customer’s attitude

to the whole marketing process that should surround it.

The choosing criteria of geographical areas could be:

• The representativeness degree for a country or a group of countries’;

• The covering degree with those mass-media networks that will be used to promote and

launch the product at a real scale. T.V. and radio channels are taken into consideration,

but even these can have a partial cover (for example TVR2);

• The cover degree with infrastructure and real-scale distribution networks;

• The area and market potential-test, which will be big enough to assure a reasonable

representativeness, but small enough not to exceed the research budget;

To analyse a regional test, that costs pretty much, we should take into consideration the

attitude of the counterparts during the test. A strong competitor can introduce errors and distortions

when, during the test, reduce or increase the budgets for advertisement or price levels. Thus, it can

generate confusions and mistakes in interpreting the result.

8. Mini market test

When we don’t have time and money to realise a bigger tests for product for large consume

and same industrial products, the mini market test are the alternative. Going from house to house or

to firms, they sell different products by rotations, using catalogues, leaflet, photos and samples. The

free samples can be a variant of this type of test.

9. The blind test

Most of the products on the market are already under the protection of a certain trade –mark.

The image of the trade-mark, once made, is reflected by the products and represents a central

element, which gathers attitudes and commentaries of consumers.

The customer takes to the brand, faithful for a long time or, on the other hand, is respected.

The conclusion would be that, when he prefers a product the customer doesn’t do it just for

the obvious advantages that he feel, but also for hypothetical ones, suggested or induced from the

brand image or the origin of the product. More often than not, the image and the origin of the

trademark become even more important that the image we perceive with our own senses.

For all these reasons, the marketing tests which require the direct interventions of taste,

smell, sight, feel and hear senses in appreciating and categorising more products must be done


blindly, that is without any indication towards the trade mark and origin, otherwise the public image

or the producer will distort the appreciation.

10. The Group-Focus test

It is a test conceived as an idea, project or prototype done as an exploring group discussion.

It looks like a brainstorming session. A number of 8-12 customers sit around a table and discuss

freely various aspects concerning attributes, conditioning and presentation.

The discussion is guided by a moderator and lasts an hour a half, maximum 3 hours.

The structure of the group can be random, but can be strictly done from beforehand. The

moderator’s job is to ask more or less predetermined questions to which he seeks sincere answers.

As long as the discussion follows the desired track the moderator doesn’t intervene, letting group

ask and give questions.

As a general rule the participant are paid the time spent in a brainstorming session.

Furthermore they are assured that their discussion and opinions are absolutely necessary to generate

new ideas on new product. This can be stimulating even as future client.

Bibliography:

1. Florescu, C., (coord), Marketing, Marketer Publishing House M, Bucureşti, 1992;

2. Hinescu, A., Marketing, ETA Publishing House, Cluj Napoca, 1997;

3. Kotler, Ph., Marketing Management, TEORA Publishing House, Bucureşti, 1997;

4. Munteanu, C., Marketing: concepts, principles and examples, Junimea Publishing House,

Iaşi, 1996;

5. Prutianu, Şt., Anastasiei, B., Jijie, T., Marketing research: pure market study, POLIROM

Publishing House, Iaşi, 2002.


IL MERCATO ROMENO DELL’IT

Rozalia NISTOR, “Dunărea de Jos” University of Galaţi, ROMANIA

L’industria della tecnologia dell’informatica e’ una fra le poche industrie che rendono in

Romania. Appartenente al settore quaternario, l’industria dell’informatica e’ capace di creare

ricavi giganteschi in un breve periodo senza tante richieste d’ordine finanziario, l’eccezione

facendo gli investimenti in macchine e prodotti software.

La Romania e’ un mercato forte, essendo conosciuta come un paese con un gran potenziale

per lo sviluppo della tecnologia dell’informatica. Questa situazione non e’ da sempre cosi. Sono

stati necessari più di 10 anni per raggiungere i livelli d’oggi. Durante tutti questi anni si e’ agito in

varie direzioni: al livello del mercato dell’hardware; a livello del mercato del software; al livello

del lavato specializzato in IT; al livello di legislazione romena valida nel campo.

1. L’industria della tecnologia informatica in Romania durante gli anni del comunismo

La capacita’ di ricerca e di sviluppo nel dominio dell’IT in Romania era limitata, a causa

della mancanza delle macchine hardware e dei pacchetti software. Alla fine dell’anno 1989 il valore

stimato dei PC istallati in Romania era equivalente ai cinque USD per abitante.

Nel 2003, il mercato dell’IT romeno ha registrato una crescita del 12% in confronto all’anno

precedente. Il ritmo di crescita di questo mercato registrato in Romania nel 2003 si mantiene anche

per il futuro.

1.1. Il mercato romeno dell’hardware durante gli anni del comunismo

Durante il regime di Ceausescu, gli scambi commerciali erano caratterizzati da un

protezionismo vicino all’isolamento. Il Governo era reticente agli importi di tecnologia

dell’informazione proveniente dai paesi occidentali. Tutto quello che entrava in Romania entrava in

modo clandestino e attraverso la contrabbanda. Gli importi della tecnologia dell’informazione dai


paesi appartenenti al “Patto della Varsavia” era limitato. Limitate erano anche le opportunità del

personale che lavorava in quest’industria di specializzarsi all’estero oppure d’avere accesso alle

pubblicazioni straniere nel campo.

Questa situazione si e’ dimostrata ad essere positiva e negativa nello stesso tempo,

contribuendo allo sviluppo delle capacita’ tecniche autoctone. La produzione romena delle

macchine e’ diventata non competitiva (con prezzi alti e tecnologia antica).

La parte positiva delle cose e’ che la Romania e’ stata capace di sviluppare la capacita’

tecnologica per la produzione dell’hardware e del software proprio. Nel 1957 e’ stato costruito il

primo computer romeno, seguito del computer “FILIP” nel 1996 e “LALL” nel 1987.

Nell’era del comunismo, l’industria della tecnologia dell’informatica (IT) dei paesi

comunisti si situava fra il quarto e sesto gradino su una scala da uno a sette. La Romania aveva una

capacita’ di produrre mini computer che s’indirizzava al mercato locale (“Filip” 1996). In Romania

esistevano una serie di produttori di harware locali (“ROMCD”) di periferiche (in principale luogo

stampanti e “hard driver”) per il consumo domestico. La “ROMCD” aveva addirittura un mercato

esterno per i suoi prodotti nell’Unione Sovietica.

La maggior parte degli istituti di profilo rumeni (“FCE Bucuresti” e “ROMD”) si

occupavano della produzione di prodotti propri e dell’adeguamento e della modifica dei prodotti al

mercato locale romeno. Questi istituti erano capaci di produrre delle macchine industriali per il

monitoraggio ed il controllo dei processi industriali. Le macchine prodotte avevano nella loro

struttura dei componenti microelecttronici e software operazionale riunito in un pezzo unico che

costituiva un’applicazione in se stessa. In Romania degli anni’80 l’accento è emesso sullo sviluppo

dei seguenti mini computer:

“FELIX C” – compatibile con il computer americano “HONEYWELL BULL C11”;

“INDEPENDENT” basato e compatibile con il “DEC PDD/11/”;

“CORAL” parente del “DEC VAX 11/730”;

La “ROMCD” era socio della compagnia americana “TI-Control Data Corporation” e

fabbricava prodotti sotto licenza, il prodotto più venduto essendo un hard disk di 58 MB.

La tecnologia romena era più vecchia di quell’occidentale d’almeno 10 anni. Nel periodo in

cui nei paesi sviluppati si registrava il “boom” della tecnologia dei personal computer, in Romania

gli operatori che lavoravano sui PC romeni utilizzavano i processi “batch” con cartelle perforate e

aspettavano giorni interri per finire un’installazione di un nuovo prodotto.

Verso la fine degli anni’80 si e registrato un’apertura verso l’importo delle componenti che

provenivano dall’Asia del Sud. A quest’apertura si aggiunge la produzione dei primi micro


computer romeni: “FELIX M18” che e’ stato seguito dal “FELIX PC” che utilizzava una

piattaforma simile al MS-DOS su 128 Kb di memoria.

1.2. Il mercato romeno del software durante gli anni del comunismo

In Romania l’industria del software si concentrava in principale luogo sugli Istituti Statali

per ricerca e sviluppo che sviluppavano ed implementavano il software. Il più grosso ed il più

importante fra gli istituti di ricerca era “l’Istituto per la Tecnica di Calcolo ed Informatica (ICTI) ”

di Bucarest che aveva circa 3000 dipendenti.

Altri istituti presenti sul mercato dell’Informatica erano:

- “Istituto per la Tecnica di Calcolo (CTI) ” fondato nel 1968 che produceva le componenti

hardware ed i sistemi operativi basati sui micro processori;

- “Istituto Centrale dell'Informatica (ICI) ” fondato nel 1970 specializzato nella produzione

software destinata ai grossi clienti. Il più importante software realizzato e’ stato quello per

la gestione ed il funzionamento della Centrale Nucleare della Cernavoda. L’Istituto

esportava prodotti software nei paesi del Patto di Varsavia e nei cosi chiamati “paesi amici”

come L’India e Cina. Il “CTI” aveva 40 centri regionali situati su tutto il territorio della

Romania.

I pacchetti software creati erano indirizzati verso l’esercito e la sicurezza nazionale, che

godevano d’importanti finanziamenti da parte dello stato. Tutti gli altri settori d’attività avevano

software anziano con un’età compresa fra 3-20 anni. Gli Istituti di ricerca proprietà dello stato e le

grosse aziende statali erano i principali consumatori di prodotti IT (la maggior parte utilizzavano il

software destinato alle statistiche e alla contabilità). I linguaggi più utilizzati in pratica erano:

“COBOL”, “Assembler”, “FORTRAN” e “PASCAL”.

2. La situazione attuale della Tecnologia dell’informatica in Romania

Dopo l’anno 1989, a causa dei cambiamenti registrati nella vita sociale, politica ed

economica, la situazione del mercato della tecnologia dell’informazione (IT) e’ migliorata

notevolmente.

2.1. Il mercato del lavoro nel campo dell’IT

La componente più importante nel processo di produzione nell’IT e’ la manodopera

altamente qualificata. Il livello di consumo per i prodotti della tecnologia dell’informazione (IT)

può crescere soltanto se esiste personale qualificato ben preparato che può generare una forte

richiesta per prodotti di questo genere.

Romania e conosciuta per il suo potenziale di manodopera altamente qualificata nel campo

della tecnologia dell’informazione (IT). Lo stato romeno si e’ fortemente coinvolto nella


preparazione degli specialisti per l’industria software, hardware e networking capaci di competere

con gli specialisti che lavorano nei paesi sviluppati.

Verso la meta degli anni ’90 meno del 5% dal totale delle persone che frequentavano il

liceo studiavano l’informatica in scuola, quello che rappresentava all’incirca 40.000 giovani sui

720.000. Questa situazione era generata della mancanza di risorse di tecnologia dell’informazione

(IT) nelle scuole; l’informatica non essendo un corso con la frequenza obbligatoria.

Le Università hanno più risorse hardware e risorse specifiche alla tecnologia

dell’informazione (IT). La responsabilità per la preparazione degli specialisti nel campo

dell’informatica e’ condivisa da: Istituto Politecnico; Facoltà d’Economia; Istituto di Matematica;

attraverso i corsi di lunga e breve durata.

La libertà di movimento all’estero insieme alle conoscenze delle lingue straniere, hanno

fatto si che gli specialisti del mondo della tecnologia dell’informazione (IT) hanno la possibilità di

partecipare a vari seminari e corsi di formazione all’estero, mantenendo le loro conoscenze in linea

con quelle dei loro colleghi stranieri.

Il maggior numero di connessioni all’Interent offre la possibilità al personale IT di mettersi

in contatto con vari gruppi d’interesse nel campo dell’informatica e soprattutto offre la possibilità di

scaricare documentazione di specialità. In più, in Romania esistono versioni in lingua romena delle

riviste di grand’interesse come “PC World”, “Computer World”, “Telecomunicazioni”, “Network

World” etc. avendo un’aria di circolazione abbastanza grande e popolarità. Soltanto l’edizione della

rivista “PC World” circola in più di 15.000 copie mensili.

Ai mezzi d’informazione sopra elencati si aggiunge la possibilità del personale IT di

partecipare alle varie fiere destinate alla tecnologia dell’informazione nelle più grosse cita’ del

paese. Nella loro maggior parte queste fiere sono organizzate e finanziate dalle più grosse

compagnie multinazionali che lavorano nel campo della tecnologia dell’informazione (IT). Lo

scopo di queste fiere e quello d’informare la popolazione e gli specialisti riguardo le ultime

tecnologie. L’organizzazione delle fiere nel campo IT ha come conseguenza la crescita del consumo

dell’hardware e software e da la possibilità agli specialisti di migliorare le loro conoscenze nel

campo.

Un contributo importante alla formazione professionale delle persone che lavorano nel

mondo dell’informatica appartiene ai corsi di formazione. Le aziende private che lavorano nel

campo della tecnologia dell’informazione (IT) scelgono come forma di qualifica, i corsi organizzati

dagli istituti specializzati.

Di solito, la maggior parte delle grosse aziende statali offrono ai loro dipendenti la

possibilità di seguire corsi di formazione che non superano di solito 2-3 giorni nell’arco dell’anno.


Meno costosa sembra ad essere l’assunzione di un a persona qualificata che può organizzare una

formazione interna.

Le piccole aziende non hanno la possibilità di dare ai loro dipendenti l’opportunità di

frequentare corsi di formazione. Di solito queste aziende assumono persone qualificate che

organizzano la formazione all’interno dell’azienda oppure si richiede l’autoformazione.

La strategia di “assumere persone già qualificate” a sfavore della formazione del personale

necessario, e conseguenza dell’alto livello di mobilita’ delle persone sul mercato di lavoro (il “tun-

over” delle persone e’ abbastanza elevato in questo campo d’attività).

2.2. Le telecomunicazioni

Fino all’anno 2004, il mercato delle telecomunicazioni era monopolio di un’unica azienda

“Romtelecom”, in cui lo stato e socio di maggioranza. Questa situazione ha fato si che il prezzo dei

servizi di telefonia e d’Internet erano stabiliti dal Ministero delle Telecomunicazioni essendo assai

elevato. A partire dal 2003 sul mercato delle telecomunicazioni e’ entrato un nuovo operatore

“Astral Telecom”. Nonostante tutto la “Romtelecom” continua fornire la maggior parte dei servizi di

telecomunicazioni in tutte le cita, in regime digitale.

La prima rete di PC di natura pubblica nasceva in Romania nel 1991 e la prima connessione

internazionale e’ stata realizzata nel 1993. Ad oggi in Romania, esistono due reti pubbliche

internazionali, ambedue essendo costruite con finanziamenti dell’Unione Europea:

la rete nazionale dei PC per la ricerca e lo sviluppo in cui sono riuniti più di 200 Istituti

di ricerca romeni. Il nodo centrale e’ presso Istituto Centrale d’Informatica di Bucarest;

la rete degli Istituti d’Insegnamento Universitario – unisce tutte le Università dalla

Romania. Il nodo centrale si trova presso il Politecnico di Bucarest.

A partire dal 1993 sul mercato della tecnologia dell’informazione (IT) sono apparse tante

società che lavorano in collaborazione con le aziende straniere e che offrono macchine e servizi

come qui sotto: servizi di posta elettronica; comunicazione via satellite; connessioni ISDN;

l’accesso alla magistrale Internet.

All’inizio dell’anno 1996 esistevano quasi 10.000 operatori Internet (“Internet Service

Providers – ISP”) nel 1998 il numero era di 50.000, e ad oggi il loro numero e’ di 75.000. Il più

grosso e più importante e’ “Astral Telecom”.

2.3. Il mercato del software

Le società produttrici di software come “Microsoft”, “Novell”, “SCO” e “Oracle” hanno

creato le loro rappresentanze in Romania. Le compagnie produttrici si hardware hanno creato le

loro filiali in Romania e le compagnie produttrici di software hanno utilizzato la rete locale di

distribuzione apogiandosi sulle aziende specializzate nella vendita di questi prodotti.


Questa differenza fra I due settori e conseguenza della dimensione diversa dei due mercati.

Il mercato romeno per le applicazioni software e’ molto più piccolo e meno redditizio in confronto

al mercato dell’hardware Questa situazione e’ stata determinata da due fattori: livello elevato della

pirateria software in Romania ed i costi ridotti del software romeno.

L’introduzione della legge del “copyright” nel 1996 e la costituzione dell’Ufficio Romeno

di Lotta contro la Pirateria Elettronica nel 1997 (socio del “Business Software Alliance –BSA”)

hanno contribuito significativamente alla diminuzione della pirateria e alla crescita del mercato del

software. La maggior parte delle aziende romene scelgono d’acquistare pacchetti software originali

con licenza per il loro funzionamento, quello che li permette di guadagnare un vantaggio

competitivo di fronte alla concorrenza.

Il basso costo dei prodotti software romeni fa si che i pacchetti importati sembrano molto

costosi. I bassi costi dei prodotti software non s’arano possibili se gli stipendi del personale che

lavorano nel mondo della tecnologia dell’informazione (IT) non sarebbero piccoli in confronto con

ai colleghi dall’estero.

Le aziende romene produttrice di software fanno degli sconti importanti al prezzo di vendita

sul mercato romeno per poter vincere contratti con organizzazioni statali oppure contratti molto

importanti da un punto di vista valorico.

Le aziende di software hanno di solito, nella loro maggior parte, piccole dimensioni con un

numero di dipendenti compreso fra 1-2, essendo di solito persone liberate dal mondo della ricerca

oppure neolaureati. Esistono anche aziende di medie dimensioni con un numero di (10-50

dipendenti), pero sono meno presenti sul mercato nazionale, senza parlare delle grosse aziende che

in realtà’ non esistono.

Tutte queste aziende svolgono i seguenti tipi d’attività:

- produzione di software sulla richiesta, per rispondere alle richieste dei clienti domestici

che utilizzano i PC e per le aziende di piccole dimensioni;

- adeguamento dei pacchetti software esistenti per farli corispondere alle richieste un un

certo mercato (per esempio: la costruzione di base dati oppure completamento di fogli

elettronici di calcolo, usando linguaggi di programmazione come: “Visual Basic”,

“C+”, e di realizzare un interfaccia romena per i pacchetti software esistenti);

- commercializzazione pacchetti software importati;

Le richieste per i pacchetti software in lingua romena e la necessita’ d’adempimento delle

norme legale romene, offrono una specie di protezione naturale a favore dei produttori locali di

software. Il processo di transizione verso l’economia di mercato contribuisce al mantenimento di

questa protezione, conseguenza delle modifiche del quadro legislativo, le modifiche delle tasse;


tariffe. In questo modo, i sistemi informazionali devono essere modificati spessissimo per poter far

fronte a tutti i cambiamenti. Le modifiche sopra elencate non possono essere realizzati che dalle

aziende di software locali che conoscono molto bene le caratteristiche e le richieste del mercato

locale.

La presenza delle multinazionali sul mercato romeno di software, ha contribuito

all’applicazione degli standard internazionali nella produzione di software, e all’utilizzo della lingua

inglese in quest’industria. La conseguenza e’ che le aziende romene non sono motivate a produrre

software indirizzati esclusivamente alle medie e piccole aziende bensì nell’adeguamento dei

pacchetti software prodotti all’estero per farli corrispondere alle richieste dei clienti. Dopo il 1989 si

e’ abbandonata la produzione del software operativ, base dati e applicazioni complesse come prima

si faceva. I pacchetti software prodotti localmente sono indirizzati a certe nicchie di mercato e la

commercializzazione e l’adeguamento dei prodotti provenienti dall’estero, quelo che si dimostra ad

essere un’attività più redditizia..

Le applicazioni destinate alla contabilità oppure ai vari sistemi di produzione beneficiano,

come detto sopra, di una protezione naturale determinata dal fato che nessuna compagnia

multinazionale non può conoscere e rispondere alle particolarità del dominio di riferimento. Per

eliminare questo svantaggio i produttori esterni tendono a creare delle aliante con le aziende locali

per poter adeguare il software alle esigenze locali.

I principali prodotti romeni destinati a varie nicchie di mercato sono: software antivirus

(“RAV”, “Bit Defender” –realizzato dalla “ Softwin”) e software per le comunicazioni. Questi

prodotti possono essere utilizzati anche al di fuori dalla Romania quello che fa si che esiste il

pericolo che questi prodotti vengono sostituiti d’altri prodotti stranieri come “Mc Affe”, “Norton

Antivirus”, “Symantec” etc .

La maggior parte delle aziende romene produttrici di software si indirizzano al mercato

romeno, pero c’e’ ne sono anche delle società che lavorano per l’estero. Una di queste e la “Siveco”

(Romania) fondata nel 1992. Il 10% delle azioni e’ rappresentato dal capitale romeno ed il 90%

appartiene alla compagnia “Siveco France”. Ad oggi, il 85% del fatturato della “Siveco Romania”

circa 200.000 USD proviene dall’export.

2.4. Il mercato hardware

Le compagnie multinazionali produttrici di hardware, presente in Romania svolgono di

solito un attività di consulenza nella scelta delle più adatte soluzioni tecniche per i vari clienti, la

vendita delle macchine, l’installazione delle macchine, e la loro manutenzione e anche

l’organizzazione dei corsi di qualifica per il personale che usa queste macchine.


Le più’ grosse vendite sul mercato romeno sono state registrate per i PC marchio:

“Compaq”, “IBM”, “Sun”, “Apple”, “Dell” e per le periferiche “Epson”, “Canon”, “Hewlett-

Packard”, “Genius”. Dal 996 il mercato dei PC in Romania e’ cresciuto del 26 % registrando

50.960 unita’ vendute, ad un valore stimato di 78 milioni di dollari.

Al vertice si trovano un produttore locale ed un brand name: “Sprint” e “IBM”, ognuno

ricoprendo il 8,5% del mercato. I più importanti produttori presenti sul mercato sono: “KT

Technology” (6,7%), “DTK” (6,6%), “Blue Ridge” (6,0%), “Hewlett-Packard” (5,9%), “Salient”

(5,7%), “Flamingo” (5,6%), “Zenith Data Systems” (5,0%), “PGA” (4,4%).

Da un punto di vista monetario, la gerarchia cambia, sulle prime cinque posizioni

trovandosi: “IBM“ con il 11,0% del mercato, seguito a grande distanza da un gruppo formato dai:

“Compaq” con il 6,9% del mercato, “Sprint” con il 6,2% del mercato, “KT Technology” con il

6,1% del mercato e “Hewlett-Packard” con il 5,9% del mercato. I prodotti “brandname” hanno

rappresentato un terzo del mercato e 51% dal valore di mercato

Lo stipendio medio in Romania e’ abbastanza basso in confronto ad altri paesi dell’Europa

Centrale e dell’Est e quindi la popolazione non rappresenta il “target” delle aziende produttrici di

hardware. I principali clienti sul mercato hardware sono le grosse aziende multinazionali.

I produttori romeni di hardware hanno creato e venduto, macchine di piccole capacita’ con

processori meno potenti, che hanno una manutenzione difficile e un consumo elevato d’elettricità

Questi dati hanno fatto si che i prodotti d’origine romena, col passare del tempo non sono più stati

richiesti dal mercato. Hanno guadagnato le grosse aziende straniere che hanno coperto il mercato

romeno partendo dalla popolazione, piccole aziende e grosse aziende, vendendo dei prodotti meno

costosi, facili da utilizzare con delle caratteristiche tecniche superiori.

Bibliografia:

1. „O evoluţie a pieţei de PC-uri peste asteptari” – Computerworld România, nr. 15(85), 1-15

septembrie 1997;

2. „Piaţa de software”- Raportul IDG, Computerworld România nr. 15(86), 1-15 septembrie 1997;

3. http://www.resellerratings.com/price-direct-theinquirer.pl;

4. http://www.ziua.ro/2003/03/14/docs/6886.html;

5. Raportul anual al Ministerului Educaţiei 1994;


LE STRATEGIE DI GUADAGNO DELLA FEDELTA’ DEI CLIENTI

TRAMITE L’INTERNET

Rozalia NISTOR, “Dunărea de Jos” University of Galaţi, ROMANIA

Il guadagno della fedeltà dei clienti (la fidelizzazione) tramite l’Internet (”e-loyalty”) ha

delle caratteristiche diverse della stessa attività realizzata con le strategie classiche di marketing

(”off-line”). Utilizzando l’Internet, ogni azienda deve rispettare il codice etico imposto dall’Web,

quello che vuol dire che, nessuna persona non ha il diritto di trasmettere dei messaggi commerciali

non richiesti (“spam”) senza l’accordo espresso del destinatario. Le offerte promozionali lanciate

per i clienti potenziali oppure i programmi di fidelizzazione dei clienti esistenti, possono essere

spedite soltanto alle persone che hanno accettato in anticipo di essere inclusi in una “data base”

delle aziende che svolgono questo tipo d’attività.

Le strategie classiche di fidelizzazione dei clienti sono focalizzate sui clienti più redditizi,

sfruttando il loro potenziale d’acquisto. Il guadagno della fedeltà con l’aiuto dell’Internet ha

un’aria d’azione più larga; i costi di una campagna di fidelizzazione dei clienti avendo come

supporto l’Internet sono molto più bassi. Le aziende concentrano le loro azioni per la fidelizzazione

dei clienti su tutte le persone che hanno accettato in anticipo di mettere a disposizione i loro

indirizzi mail, indipendentemente del fatto che sono oppure no clienti, oppure che sono oppure no

clienti potenziali. Sull’Web site, una persona che effettua per la prima volta un primo acquisto

viene inclusa in un programma di fedelizzazione e beneficia da subito di una serie di agevolazioni

per gli acquisti futuri.

1. La fidelizzazione tramite l’Internet

Le aziende, tramite i siti commerciali Internet desiderano acquistare più indirizzi mail dei

potenziali clienti (operazione che richiede degli sforzi strategici importanti) con l’obiettivo di creare


tramite questi “store front elettronici” la fidelizzazione dei clienti esistenti, misurata nel numero dei

ritorni ai rispettivi siti Web. Quest’atteggiamento e’ normale. La pratica ha dimostrato che e’ più

costoso (di almeno 5-10 volte) per un’azienda attirare nuovi clienti che fidelizzare quelli già

esistenti.

Nelle condizioni in cui in Romania gli utilizzatori dell’Internet stano crescendo come

numero, le aziende utilizzano di più gli website commerciali, come una modalità efficiente per lo

sviluppo del business nelle condizioni in cui il target vistato accede all’Internet.

I consumatori hanno oggi più possibilità di scegliere fra le varie offerte esistenti sul mercato

e anche più agevolazioni offerte dall’Internet di trovare e di accedere ad un volume immenso

d’informazioni, diventando in questo modo più attenti nella decisione d’acquisto di un prodotto. I

consumatori possono migrare con facilita’ verso i prodotti oppure i servizi dei concorrenti, se più

convenienti. In questo caso le aziende sono obbligate a dover gestire molto attentamente i rapporti

con i lori clienti e di introdurre nella loro politica e strategia dei programmi complessi per

guadagnare la fedeltà dei clienti.

Il processo di fidelizzazione dei clienti tramite l’Internet ha delle caratteristiche diverse dal

processo di fidelizzazione dei clienti tramite le strategie classiche di marketing “off-line”.

Utilizzando lo strumento Internet, qualsiasi azienda deve rispettare il codice etico imposto

dal Web secondo il quale nessuno non ha il diritto di spedire dei messaggi commerciali non richiesti

(i“spami) e neanche’ nessun prospetto senza l’accordo esplicito del destinatario. Le offerte

promozionali lanciate con lo scopo di attirare clientela potenziale oppure di fidelizzazione dei

clienti esistenti possono essere spedite soltanto alle persone che hanno accettato di essere incluse

nelle basi dati delle aziende che iniziano questo tipo d’attività.

Un altro elemento di differenziazione fra l’attività di fidelizzazione dei clienti ”on-line”

(concetto che si ritrova anche con le denominazione di (”e-loyalty”) e l’attività di guadagnare la

fedeltà dei clienti ”off-line”, consiste nella rapidità d’integrazione nelle strategie di marketing delle

aziende.

Le strategie classiche di fidelizzazione dei clienti vengono focalizzate sui clienti più redditizi

esplorando il loro potenziale d’acquisto. La fidelizzazione tramite l’Internet ha un’aria d’azione più

larga. I costi di una campagna di fidelizzazione tramite l’Internet, sono molto più ridotti, le aziende

concentrano le loro azioni sulla fidelizzazione di tutte le persone che hanno accettato in anticipo di

mettere a disposizione i loro indirizzi mail, che sono o che non sono clienti di un certo prodotto, che

sono oppure che non sono clienti potenziali di un certo prodotto.

Sul sito web, una persona che fa un primo acquisto è inclusa nel programma di

fidelizzazione e beneficia immediatamente dai benefici offerti a tutti i clienti.


La fidelizzazione dei clienti tramite l’Internet comincia con l’acquisto della loro fiducia,

seguita da una serie di azioni destinate allo sviluppo di tutte le asse di fidelizzazione:

• la presentazione sul sito web di informazioni che riguardano i prodotti ed i servizi offerti e

anche i programmi d’assistenza nell’utilizzo di certi prodotti che riguarda la fidelizzazione

relazionale;

• la generazione di un punto di vista favorevole dei clienti tramite le presentazioni di prodotti

utilizzando delle informazioni veridiche, che possono essere verificate. Questi punti di vista

favorevoli possono arrivare da parte delle personalità che sono dei modelli oppure che

beneficano della simpatia della maggior parte delle persone che costituiscono il target

vistato;

• l’inserimento sul site web di offerte speciali che hanno lo scopo di aumentare la fedeltà

funzionale stabilita in seguito al primo acquisto;

• la presentazione sul sito web di informazioni sui vantaggi che generano la fidelizzazione

promozionale (per esempio, i clienti che acquistano ”on-line” beneficiano di uno sconto del 10%);

• lo sviluppo di un sentimento di appartenenza alla comunità, in cui tutti i membri

condividono gli stessi valori e che parlano ”on-line” dei marchi preferiti (in questo senso,

un’azienda può creare un gruppo di discussioni ”on-line” con lo scopo di attirare dei

clienti nella formazione di una comunità’ virtuale);

• l’inserimento su un site di banners pubblicitari ”on-line” in cui vengono presentati ai

clienti nuovi prodotti oppure servizi, e che possono essere travati dai clienti fedeli ad un

prezzo promozionale oppure gratuito.

L’interesse delle aziende per una strategia di fidelizzazione dei clienti tramite l’Internet e’

determinata dall’elevato potenziale di redditività. I risultati di una ricerca mostrano che una crescita

del 5% dell’indice della ritenzione die clienti in seguito alle azioni di web-marketing genera in certi

settori d’attività aumenti dell’utile fino al 75% (Reicheld, „The Loyalty Effect”).

In seguito all’attività svolta di visualizzazione e d’analisi di tanti Web siti commerciale

appartenenti alle aziende romene, ho costatato che in Romania, la maggior parte delle aziende

concentrano la maggior parte delle loro risorse di Web marketing verso la prospezione e la

fidelizzazione dei loro clienti. L’aumento del traffico sui Web siti sembra essere in questo momento

la principale preoccupazione delle azioni di Web marketing intraprese dalle aziende romene.

La strategia di fidelizzazione con l’aiuto dell’Internet ha come obbiettivi: la stimolazione e

lo sviluppo della base dati clienti che permettono la rilevazione del loro comportamento;

l’anticipazione dei loro fabbisogni ed il ritrovo delle nuove di aggiungere valore alla relazione coi

clienti tramite i programmi CRM.


2. Tipi di strategia di fidelizzazione dei clienti on-line

L’Internet rappresenta un mezzo ricco da punto di vista delle possibilità di comunicazione. Il

momento della diffusione di una campagna promozionale oppure di fidelizzazione ”on-line” può

essere pianificato molto precisamente. I messaggi trasmessi possono essere personalizzati, possono

includere suoni, immagini, animazioni e possono generare numerose azioni commensurabile

(frequenza delle visite di un certo sito, il numero delle raccomandazioni dello sito fatte ad un

gruppo di amici oppure colleghi; le transazioni realizzate, i legami URL verso vari siti che sono

state visitate e cosi via).

Le principali strategie di fidelizzazione dei clienti con l’aiuto dell’Internet:

• le strategie puntuali di tipo, one-shot legate da un evento specifico, pianificato in anticipo

che necessita’ un coordinamento dei contatti con i clienti tramite i canali multipli: telefono,

fax, pagina Web, VoiP, e cosi via. Esse generano come regola rate di ritenzione elevate pero

sono estremamente costose e sono difficile da gestire;

• le strategie di fidelizzazione ”on-line” tramite l’analisi del comportamento dei clienti si

basano su connessioni di messaggio basati sullo stesso tema. Per esempio, nel processo di

iscrizione su un sito Web, un nuovo abbonato può ricevere una serie di offerte speciali in

una settimana. Il comportamento dell’abbonato sul sito può essere attentamente seguito (il

momento dell’apertura del sito; i numeri di clic sulle offerte spedite e gli acquisti effettuati)

per essere incluso in su a categoria di clienti;

• le strategie di fidelizzazione on-line tramite l’analisi delle preferenze dei clienti sono

abbastanza frequentemente utilizzate e hanno alla base le informazioni sulle preferenze dei

clienti depositate in base dati clienti. Le aziende possono spedire mail di questo tipo in cui

possono presentate le offerte personalizzate, che nella loro maggior parte hanno un grado

elevato di successo;

• le strategie di fidelizzazione on-line basate sulla conoscenza dei dati personali dei cleinti si

materializzano nella spedizione di cartoline via e-mail oppure regali nell’occasione dei

compleanni dei clienti. A parte il fatto che offre dei servizi con valore aggiunto emozionale

elevato, questi eventi rappresentano delle opportunità per fare proposte di nuovi prodotti e di

realizzare vendite incrociate;

• le strategie di fidelizzazione ”on-line” sulla base della trasmissione di lettere con le novità

ai clienti fedeli sono utilizzate quando si desidera la crescita delle vendite addizionale, e

quando le aziende, possono permettersi di allocare parte importante del budget di marketing

nello scopo di creare di offerte attraenti;


• le strategie di attirare e di fidelizzre on-line i clienti utilizzando la tecnica del marketing

virale- si basa sul ruolo degli utilizzatori di siti di determinare la diffusione in un ritmo

esponenziale dei messaggi di marketing ad altri utilizzatori di Web. In questo modo, le

informazioni positive oppure negative riguardo un prodotto oppure un servizio oppure

un’azienda si possono diffondere ad un numero molto grande di persone in un intervallo

breve di tempo.

Le aziende non devono applicare soltanto una di queste strategie, bensì’ tutte le strategie

elencate nei vari momenti della loro vita. I vari tipi di strategie di fidelizzazione dei clienti tramite,

l’Internet, la frequenza del loro utilizzo, gli obiettivi vistati sono pianificati in funzione di ogni

target dei clienti inclusi nella base dati.

L’efficacia’ dei programmi di fidelizzazione tramite l’e-mail deve essere testata

periodicamente. La comunicazione tramite l’Internet ha come caratteristica base che il cliente dei

servizi on-line possono rinunciare in qualsiasi momento a questi servizi, rinunciando

all’abbonamento ai rispettivi siti. Per evitare questi tipi di eventi non piacevoli, le aziende devono

lanciare in modo permanente dei questionari “on-line” con lo scopo di osservare il grado di

soddisfazione dei clienti.

Le campagne promozionali, gli inviti, le lettere con le novità del campo, le conferme

d’acquisto servono a degli obbiettivi diversi da quelli seguiti in una campagna di fidelizzazione

tramite l’Internet. Dobbiamo tener presente che il cliente si trova quasi sempre in uno stato di ante

acquisto oppure post acquisto “on-line”, quindi la preoccupazione delle aziende di capire i suoi

fabbisogni e di offrirli assistenza nell’utilizzo dei prodotti oppure servizi acquistati oppure di

trovare soluzioni e di convincerli di passare all’atto d’acquisto.

Le regolo d‘oro e gli errori che devono essere evitati, in una strategia di fidelizzazione

tramite l’Internet, possono essere sintetizzate nella figura n. 1

Regole d’oro per la fidelizzazione dei clienti on-line

Errori che devono essere evitati nella strategia di fidelizzazione on-line

1. Pensate nello stesso modo in cui pensa il cliente; date al cliente l’importanza dovuta e offriteli i servizi che desidera!

2. Dovete essere creativi! Provate e sviluppate sempre nuove azioni sulla nicchia di mercato scelta;

3. Come manager, create una squadra dedicata alla gestione delle base dati clienti e alle azioni di Web marketing;

4. Pianificate le operazioni e seguite gli indici che fanno riferimento al valore dei clienti.

1. Concentrazione dell’attenzione sul prezzo a sfavore dei servizi;

2. Creazione dei progetti di fidelizzazione non troppo complessi, non troppo ambiziosi che sono difficilmente realizzabili;

3. La mancanza di una strategia coerente; 4. Calcolo non coretto dei costi e dei benefici

di fidelizzazione; 5. La mancanza di non ottenimento dei risultati

ottenuti nella fidelizzazione ”on-line” dei clienti;

Figura n. 1 – Le strategie di fidelizzzione dei clienti tramite l’Internet


3. I fattori che contribuiscono alla fidelizzazione dei clienti

I dieci più importanti fattori che determinano la fidelizzazione dei clienti “on-line”, verso i

siti commerciali, esemplificandoli con degli esempi reali di siti di aziende romene che operano nei

vari campi d’attività sono:.

1. Il contenuto del sito deve fornire informazioni rilevanti sui prodotti oppure sui servizi

offerti, deve essere in continuo attualizzato per poter offrire ai clienti motivi di ritornate in una

navigazione ulteriore. In questo modo, il sito della Banca Romena per lo Sviluppo - Grup Société

Génerale: www.brd.ro offre a qualsiasi cliente fedele di questa banca ed a qualsiasi persona

interessata, informazioni sulle operazioni di finanziamento, consulenza finanziaria e bancaria,

informazioni sui vari tipi di crediti, corsi di cambio del giorno, le offerte di reclutamento della

banca. Questi dati sono analizzati giornalmente dal webmaster del sito;

2. L’inseriment sul site di offerte speciali di prezzo per i clienti “on-line” rappresenta una

modalità efficiente di attirare e fidelizzare i clienti “on-line”, pero e’ molto raramente utilizzata

dalle aziende romene. Come esempio il sito della Compagnia aerea Tarom: www.tarom.ro offre uno

sconto del 15% a tutti coloro che fanno delle prenotazioni via Internet, per qualsiasi viaggio in

aereo che ha come punto di partenza la Romania;

3. Service “on-line” destinato ai clienti nel periodo di post acquisto genera un livello

elevato di fedeltà. Sul sito www.artelecom.ro/support.html il servizio clienti HELP4U di Artelecom

e’ pronto ad offrire assistenza non stop a tutti i suoi clienti. Il servizio e’ disponibile al numero di

telefono verde 08008 oppure al indirizzo [email protected];

4. La creazioni di comunita’ virtuali “on-line” facilita’ le interazioni fra i clienti di un certo

marchio e sviluppa rapporti “on-line” fra un’azienda ed i suoi clienti, tramite la creazione di un

conto gratuito di utilizzatore dello sito www.coca-cola.ro offre a tutte le persone interessate di

parlare “on-line” riguardo ai prodotti marchio „Coca-Cola”, avendo anche la possibilità di

diventare membro di una Comunita’ Virtuale „Coca-Cola” România. I suoi membri possono

discutere “on-line” tramite chat riguardo ai prodotti con il marchio favorito e di partecipare ai vari

giochi e concorsi;

5. L’esistenza di iniziative sullo sito– tutte le aziende devono trattare i suoi clienti “on-line”

con varie iniziative, sorprese piacevoli e varie promozioni per dimostrare che i loro clienti contano

per loro. Sul sito del Gruppo Carrefour România: www.carrefour.ro si auto inserisce una finestra

che rappresenta un’offerta promozionale del tipo: „Fino al 25 dicembre i clienti Carrefour vincono

un milione di lei ad ogni mezz’ora.”;

6. Semplicità e’ una condizione essenziale per far si che un pagina web sia piacevole per i

suoi visitatori. I visitatori non devono confondere un sito con quello della concorrenza. Questa si


può realizzare tramite un design più possibilmente semplice. Sul sito www.pizzahut.ro un piato con

una fetta di pizza presenta sui bordi del piato i bottoni di attivazione dei sotto menu: storia;

promozioni; piati serviti; una rubrica Kids Fun; indirizzi; carriere; e contatto. La navigazione sul

sito e’ veramente facile, quello che può determinare ulteriori ritorni;

7. Securita’ e’ una preoccupazione maggiore di coloro che fanno acquisti “on-line”. Un sito

deve manifestare piu’ attenzione per questa preoccupazione dei clienti. Sul sito dell’azienda

Diverta: www.dol.ro quelli interessati degli acquisti on-line” di libri; CD, casette, filmi, giochi, IT

ed elettronici, devono creare un conto che ha l’accesso sicuro e poi possono trovare le informazioni

sugli acquisti. Nel momento del log, compare il messaggio: „Per poter entrare nel tuo c/c su questo

sito, e necessario che il tuo browse accetti cookies”, per garantire la sicurezza delle tue acquisizioni

sul sito;

8. Interattivita’– le opinioni dei visitatori di un sito sono molto importanti per poter

trasformare i clienti in clienti fedeli. Entrando sul portale www.orange.ro, i clienti del gruppo di

telefonie mobile Orange Romania possono accedere al loro conto di mail “on line” Orange, possono

configurare in ogni momento il servizio Mobile e-mail, possono cambiare la parola del conto

d’Internet Dial-up oppure possono sapere quanti punti hanno acquisito nel programma di

fidelizzazione “Thank You”;

9. Personalizzazione vuol dare la possibilità ai clienti di poter crearsi on-line l’ambiente a

cui sogna. Il portale www.myx.net promosso da Connex, un modello per la Romania per

l’applicazione dei principi del management dei rapporti con in clienti, presenta ai clienti vantaggi

offerti dalla connessione e-mail gratuita, numero non limitato di SMS tramite il servizio WEB2SMS

(3 messaggi/giorno sono gratuiti, il resto sono tassati ad un prezzo promozionale per gli abbonati

Connex oppure quelli che hanno cartelle Connex Go oppure Kamarad), possibilità di ricevere sul

cellulare varie informazioni, scaricare dei giochi;

10. Segmentazione del portafoglio clienţi – un’azienda deve nella sua base dati clienti

informazioni sulle caratteristiche dei clienti, i criteri secondo i quali si realizza la segmentazione. Il

sito www.microsoft.com/Romania della Microsoft vuole raccogliere delle informazioni sui clienti

potenziali che li può utilizzare ulteriormente nella segmentazione della base dati clienti, ogni

segmento ricevendo delle offre specifiche (pacchetti Professional, Educational, etc).

Bibliografia:

1. Keen P., „Business Design through IT”, Harvard Business School Press, 1995;

2. Lucas H. C., „Information Technology for Management”, Harvard Business School Press, 1996;


3. Lungu Ioan şi colectivul, “Sisteme Informatice: Analiza, proiectare si implementare”, Editura

Economica, bucuresti, 2003;

4. Morgan J. N., James O’Brien, „A Multidimensional Model of Information Resource

Management”, IRM Journal, 1991;

5. Nistor R., „Modelarea şi simularea proceselor economice ale firmei asistată de calculator”,

Ed. Academica, Galaţi, 2003;

6. Olaru A., „Management”, Ed. Fundaţiei Universitare Dunărea de Jos, Galaţi, 2002;

7. O’Brien J., „Management Information Systems”, Ed. Mc Graw Hill, 1996;

8. Pateyron E., Salmon R., „Les nouvelles technologies et l’ entreprise”, Ed. Economica, Paris, 1996;

WEBOGRAFIE

www.safari.oreilly.com

www.ecrm2day.com

www.crmassist.com

www.usabilityfirst.com

www.brint.com/ISResearch.htm

www.uis.edu/mis

http://misrc.umn.edu

www.crm_forum.com

www.crmcommunity.com

www.neoint.com

www.elsevier.com

http://dssressources.com

www.emeraldinsight.com

www.paggency.co.at/business/groupware

www.sisg.com

www.internet-magazin.ro

www.softnews.ro

www.pcreport.ro

www.itools.com

www.accenture.fr

www.ifrance.com

www.commentcamarche.net/merise

www.e-marketer.com

www.onlinepublishingnews.com


THE NECESSITY OF MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY

Luminiţa POPESCU, University of Craiova,

Faculty of Economic Sciences Drobeta Turnu Severin, ROMANIA

Abstract: The job of management consultant has appeared on the jobs market due to the

tendencies of management professionalism. Its aim is to offer support and solutions to managers in

order to solve fundamental problems of management, to implement scientific accomplishments or to

generalize their expertise.

Management consulting also represents a means of external support and assistance for

overcoming difficulties which may appear in the managerial activities without taking direct

responsibility in the decisional act or in its application.

The main objective of management consulting is to make the managerial activity more

competitive and efficient.

After the political moment in 1989, Romania had to begin a transition process from a

planned economy and strictly centralized to the market economy. This had determined a

transformation in all aspects of life (political, economical, organizing, juridical, social and

psychological). But, especially, has produced at view regarding its guidance and administration,

giving up the old methods, techniques and guiding instruments which should allow the efficient

fulfillment of the objectives proposed, adapting to market economy on the competitional market and

surviving in time of the organization.

For the time being, joining the European Union represents the strategic priority of

Romania’s politics within the context of globalization, whose succes depends on the concentrated

efforts of the governmental institutions, civil society and business environment and every Romanian

citizen. At the same time, several objectives factors are part of EU, the main commercial partner of

Romania, respectively: the geographical approach, complementarity and economical potential, as


well as the evolution in time of the juridical background.for this it is necessary to have strong

transparent markets, big investments, assimilated by new technologies and productivity increase of

all production factors, a developed infrastructure etc.

Romania’s desire to join the European Union is the natural expression of the ideal’s identity,

values and principles, its vocation as a democrat country, profoundly anchored in its traditions,

culture and civilization, within the European unique space.

Romania’s actual economical development period – characterized trough harsh competition,

displayed at both internal and international level – results into special problems for the firm’s

managers, which need to appeal to management consultants. The appearance of the profession of

management consultant (“conseiller de direction”) is due to the improvement tendencies of the

managerial activity and its aim is to give support to managers for solving some essential problems

and implementing the scientific accomplishment or generalizing the advanced experiences. This

activity was developed a lot after the Second World War.

The managerial consultancy is a specialized activity, done by qualified personnel, that

operates with the aim to analyze and identify the managerial problems of the firm, for formulating

the appropriate solutions to solve them. It is a support and external assistance form for the

difficulties that may appear within the manager’s activity, but which does not have direct

responsibility upon the operational decision and its use. In other words, the responsibility of

adopting decision and its enforcement falls exclusively to the manager.

For the present time, in the business world, the managerial consultants offer solutions related

to a great variety of problems (from re-engineering till electronic commerce, from managerial

changes to system integration) both for corporations and for smaller companies. They analyze from

various angles a problem appeared within the company’s activity, release a preliminary theory

regarding the cause, then find a solution meant to lead to the solution of the problem.

The managerial consultants always have as objective transforming the activity of the one

who appealed to these services into a competitive and efficient one.

That is why the people practicing this profession, must have a high level of managerial

training, rich experience in this field, to be fully familiar to the functioning problems of the

commercial society and its sub units, to have a good capacity for analysis and synthesis, to have

imagination in the economical field and deep thinking but also ability to find a solution for the

practical problems.

From those previously presented, we can detach several components regarding the

managerial consultancy notion:


3. The essential objective of consultancy is to find the directions and the sensitive points

within the managerial activity and to practically make some changes;

4. Even though they appeal to managerial consultancy, the manager is the one responsible

for adopting, implementing and control over executing the decisions;

5. The managerial consultant accomplishes his mission independently, not as an employee

of the company;

6. The efficiency of the managerial consultancy activity implies the understanding of the

roles of consultant and its client, the clear definition of the aim and action ways,

choosing the most appropriate consultant, the correct collaboration among parts and

implementing the solutions proposed and assumed by the beneficiary.

The most significant advantages of using the consultants are: company’s orientation and

dynamism by participating to defining the objectives and its general politics, the introduction of

some new elements in the methods and work style of the managers, saving managers’ time,

improving the managerial activity due to specialty knowledge as well as preparing the necessary

documentation to adopt the decisions.

The managerial consultancy process can last from one hour to several months and implies

several stages to determine the objectives of the society and its components, it is insured the

functioning of the system implied in accomplishing the objectives and its status parameters are

controlled when passing from one state to another.

The development stages of the managerial consultancy process are:

1. Preparing for consultancy;

2. Diagnosis;

3. Elaborating the proposals;

4. Implementing the proposals.

Choosing and hiring the managerial consultant represnts the initial moments of consultancy

process and has major importance because, upon choosing the most appropriate consultant depends

the results of the managerial consultancy action. That is why, it is necessary for the manager to pick

up information as complete as possible about: the specialization field of the consultant, the units he

has previously collaborated, the way the proposals were done, the nature of the consultancy report,

the profit obtained as results of the consultancy, the consultant’s reputation, whether he has been

requested by those that had previously appealed to its services, the consultant’s capacity to insure

confidentiality within the consultancy activity and the cost of this activity.


The field of managerial consultancy is currently populated by big and small companies,

from “Big Five” that unifies the multinational companies KPMG, Prince Waterhouse-Coopers,

Andersen, Deloitte & Touche and Ernst &Young, with a great number of consultants (for example,

Andersen Consulting has 25 000 consultants in the United States of America), at Boston Consulting

Group (which has 500 consultants in U.S.A.).

When the managerial consultant is chosen and hired it has to be taken into account that fact

that both the company and the consultant are unique in their own way and this might influence the

consultancy process and the consultancy technology.

This way, the current state of the company and its future depend on many factors such as:

the concrete way in which the technical part was developed, the human factor, the guiding

personnel and relations with the environment. At the same time, the managerial consultant is

unique, due to his personal character features, professional experience, qualifications and personal

methods to give consultancy.

Taking into account these unique features of the company and the managerial consultant, it

is necessary to respect the general logic of the consultancy process and to take into account the

factors of the situation.

Preparing for consultancy takes place at the first meeting between the manager and the

consultant, when there are mentioned, by mutual agreement between the two of them, the

objectives, the inclusion area, the nature of the project. The managerial consultant will try to know

not only the essential of the problem, but also the details, aspects regarding the organizing structure

of the company and the managerial process, as well as the potential of the company for

implementing his recommendations.

At the first meeting between the manager and the consultant, the following are established as

concrete elements: the period for the preliminary diagnosis, the nature of the information that are to

be at at the disposal of the consultant before and during the diagnosis, the way and order in which

the results of the diagnosis are to be presented, the administrative and financial problems that are to

be solved.

The diagnosis of the commercial society actually represents the identification of the problem

of the company and finding out the causes that have produced the problem.

Representative for this diagnosis process is the analysis of the managerial difficulties that

need to be solved, by gradual browsing of the following stages: investigation of the situations and

the analysis of the manager’s and company’s past activity, distinguishing the positive and negative

parts of the company’s activities, establishing the possible improvement directions and determining

the possible help offered by the management consultant.


After this preliminary diagnosis process, the next phase of the diagnosis process consists of

delimitating the major problems that influence the entire activity of the company.

Elaborating the proposals is done by the consultant, in basis of the conclusions detached

from the diagnosis.

In order to elaborate the proposals, the managerial consultant passes trough the following

steps:

1. choosing the work methods (comparison, interview, the matrix analysis, the factorial

analysis, researching the managerial product etc.);

2. work organization, in case of a consultancy team;

3. knowing the managerial instruments and the concrete conditions to use them;

4. picking up the data and delimitating the problems (that can be of three types: problems

regarding the correction of the situation for reaching some previously accomplished

indicators, problems regarding the progress for improving the currents situation and the

creation problems, that appear when fulfilling a new objective – for eg. a new product

or service);

5. delimitating the causes that lead to the appearance of the problems and their operational

formulation;

6. knowing and emphasizing some similar problems;

7. stating the proposals, their implementation control and the efficiency to introduce them

in the activity of the entire company;

8. presenting the manager’s proposals and his adopting of the implementation decision.

The implementation of the proposal is extremely important for the manager and represents

the last stage of the managerial consultancy.

During this stage, the consultant offers to the manager recommendations to ease the

solutions introduction, brings corrections and trains the personnel that is to implement these

proposals. During the entire implementation of the solutions suggested, the consultant periodically

analyzes the situation of the implementation, explains the potential situations and delimitates the

necessary measures in order to correct the eventual negative consequences.

During the development of the managerial consultancy process, certain relations appear between

the consultant and the manager, which need to be based first of all on honesty from both sides. Also, it is

very important for the manager to be fully convinced that it is necessary to appeal to managerial

consultancy services and that, the one requested for the job has the necessary ability to solve the

company’s problems. A very important role in establishing good relations between client and consultant

goes to the one designed by the manager to keep in touch with the consultant. But these relations are


influenced also by the way the project is being followed, by the personnel chosen to collaborate with the

consultant, by the information regarding the progress of the project etc.

Managerial consultancy is a process whose total efficiency is given by the partial efficiency

obtained in each of the developing stages. The results of the managerial consultancy are expresed in

concrete numbers, with the help of the qualitative and quantitative indicators, named efficiency

indicators of the consultancy.

The main factor to determine the consultancy efficiency are: the correct formulation of the

problem that is to become subject of the consultancy, choosing the most appropriate consultant, the

concrete and correct collaboration between manager and consultant, the way in which the

manager’s tasks are fulfilled and those of this collaborators regarding the appreciation of the project

and taking the necessary measures to implement it.

In conclusion, it can be stated that the appearance of the managerial consultancy is, in fact, a

consequence of the improvement process of the managerial activity, during the actual stage of the

development of the Romanian economy, appealing to the services of the managements consultants

represents a necessity.

The character and content of the managerial consultancy is based upon the following

principles:

• Consultancy independence and the given support

• The solutions offered by the consultant are not mandatory for the manager

• Interdisciplinary treatment of the problems

• Professional competence for the given support

• Contribution to increasing professionalability of the company’s personnel

• Respecting the ethical norms for consultancy, especially in what confidentially is

concerned

Bibliography:

1. Georgescu A. M., Management: Consultanţa, Tribuna economică, 1991, nr. 4, p. 15-16;

2. Petrescu I., Management, Editura Holding Reporter, Bucureşti, 1991;

3. Dobrescu E.M., Integrarea economică, Editura ALL BECK, Bucureşti, 2001.


CONTRIBUTIONS OF MARKETING AND MANAGEMENT APPROACH

ON COMMUNICATION WITH APPLICATIONS IN THE FIELD

OF IMAGE AND PUBLIC RELATIONS

Mircea Aurel NIŢĂ, National School for Political and Public Administration Studies,

Management Department, Communication and Public Relations Faculty Bucharest, ROMANIA

Abstract: The paper deals with a concept of communication market, communication media,

demand and tender of communication. It is used the analogical method, so that it is proposed the

amphitheatre model, communication mix and communication relations. The proposal of a graphic

representation can be useful for the people working in the field of communication, image and public

relations and especially of those specialists that have a socio-human background.

4. INTRODUCTION

Starting with classical approach on marketing about market, demand, tender and

competition, it will be proved that the managerial way of thinking used in economics can be

successfully used in communication, image and public relations; in our opinion, taking into

consideration the practical experience and working style within Romanian communication and

public relations agencies, it is necessary to underline some common mistakes, such as:

- communication strategies and public relations events are designed, nearly well enough,

starting from communication objectives - the main problem is that these objectives are not

related with marketing field, so that the messages are thought by specialists with a socio-

human background;

- the design process is the main attribute of an art director whom background is film and

theatre field, so that in many cases there is no oriented marketing view;


192

- the final spot can be delightful from the artistic point of view, but on the contrary, can be a

disaster from marketing point of view - the spot does not invite or motivate in a specific way

to go for buying;

- the slogan does not touch the targeted segments;

- the impact of the main message from the spot on the receiver is not maximized etc.

Other types of mistakes can influence the result above the audience and, especially, on

consumer segments.

5. CAUSES AND EFFECTS

The paper “Strategies and managerial communication techniques” of M.A.NIŢǍ and R.

OLǍNESCU [1] already spoke about contradictions between message, channels of

communications, types of communications and strategies about managerial communication. Just to

remaind, figures 1 and 2 must be used by the specialists in communications, so that a lot of

contradictions have been developed in the paper above and, as a matter of fact, must be avoided by

designers.

Fig. 1 – Types of communication

VC – verbal communication; PVC – paraverbal communication;

NVC – nonverbal communication; EC – energetically communication

The main causes that will be analysed bellow from the marketing management approach in

communication, image and public relations are listed, as following:

2.1. contradictions;

2.2. dichotomies.

New contradictions will be underlined, as it is following bellow, but must be pointed that

these will complete the contradictions from the paper above1, such as:

1 M.A. NIŢĂ, R. OLĂNESCU – Strategii şi tehnici de comunicare managerială (in English, Strategies and techniques of managerial communication), Editura SNSPA (NSPSA Publishing House), Bucureşti (Bucharest), 2003, ISBN 973-8376-28-9;

Types of communication

VC NVC PVC EC

“Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu-Mureş

193

- the main message or slogan of a TV or radio spot, or from a newspaper or magazine does

not touch the targeted segments due to a contradiction between the eye image, message itself

and consumer NADA – is a Romanian keyword that means by abbreviation BAIT for the

fish. On short, N is coming from Needs (Nevoi in Romanian language), first A is coming

from expectations (Aşteptări in Romanian), D means Desires (Dorinţe in Romanian), A is

coming from Aspirations (Aspiraţii in Romanian). Contradictions can be series of mixed

combinations, such as contradictions between 1-seen image and message, 2-seen image and

consumer NADA, 3-message and consumer NADA, 4-seen image, message and consumer

NADA, as a whole subunit;

Fig. 2 – Channels of communication

SO-sound channel; V – visual channel; S – smelling channel

TC – touching channel; TA – tasting channel; EXS – extra sensorial channel

- other types of contradictions can be not only from the seen image, but from heard sounds,

message and consumer NADA, of course we are talking only about TV or radio. There are 3

new possible combinations in comparison with above, such as: 1 - sounds and message, 2-

sounds and consumer NADA, 3 - sounds, message and consumer NADA;

- other types of combinations can be taken into consideration, as a whole unit between, eye

image, sound, message and consumer NADA, such as: 1 - eye image, sound and message, 2 -

eye image, sound and consumer NADA, 3 – eye image, sound and consumer NADA.

Channels of communication

Measurable Senses

Immeasurable Senses

Mixed Criteria

EXS INTUITIV SO V S TC TA

CRITERIA


Techniques for catching the attention

If we are talking about techniques for catching the attention, we are ready to say that

contradictions can be useful, due to the fact that these ones, as a cause, can produce the effect- to

catch the attention.

We shall point on the following types of techniques which can be structured in five

categories, based on: 1 – sounds, 2 – colours, 3 – motion, 4 – proximity, 5 – narrative structures.

So, we notice:

1.1. sounds or disappearance of the sounds;

1.2. dynamic of the sounds, such as, growing or diminution of the sound intensity;

1.3. sound mixing and/or intensity mixing above, on short, special sound effects;

2.1. black and white versus coloured images;

2.2. dynamic of the colours, for exemple, changing either the type of colours, either the intensity,

the brightness or any kind of mixing above;

3.1. motion of an object, such as a part of a human or animal body, an eye movement etc;

3.2. dynamic of a motion, such as a trajectory described either high speed, either with a lower one;

3.3. mixing of dynamic motion with repose;

4. modifying of conditions from the receiver proximity, such as noise, mechanical vibrations, new

smelling aromas or unpleasant ones etc.- think about a noise that is coming from our neighbour

from the floor above;

5. techniques of designing a narrative structure of a radio or TV spot, such as:

a - the protagonist knows that the receiver knows the action or whole story;

b - the protagonist knows that the receiver does not know what it will follow;

c - the protagonist does not know that the receiver knows the following action;

d - the protagonist does not know that the receiver does not know what it will follow.

All cases were showed in the matrix bellow:

RECEIVER

Knows Does not

PROTAGONIST Knows HOPE MISTER

Does not EXPECTATION FOLLOWER

Fig. 3 – The matrix of possible expectations


By the help of this management matrix, from the beginning of a movie till the end, the

screen player or sceneries designer will catch the attention of the receiver, either a TV watcher or a

radio listener. You can analyze yourself the way you are manipulated by a movie, that in reality is

only a fiction.

This is the way of designing a script, that later on is mixed with retinal images and sound

effects, based on dynamic of motion.

On short, contradictions listed above can influence either positive, either negative.

Advantages of contradictions are:

- on short term, catching the attention by playing with the help of our sensitive

analysers;

- sticking easier the sent message to the receiver.

Disadvantages of contradictions are listed bellow:

- effect of internal tension on the receiver which is not allowed to be maintained above

a long period or a maximum level of intensity;

- effect of physical and physiological tiredness.

6. GRAFICAL REPREZENTATION OF A MARKET – AMPHITEATER MODEL

For soon, Romania knows new faculties and specializations, such as, the new market trend

of communication and public relations specialists who are coming after the already saturated trend

of marketing and management ones – see the great demand after 1989 together with the increased

number of universities in the field of education. J. Lendrevie and others, in the paper Mercator –

Mercator-Theorie et practique du marketing1, proposed a schema for the marketing application –

this graphic representation can be improved today, due to the changing of Romanian market.

The main gates from a football ground are targeted by main actors, such as:

1 – producers PD, manufactures M or importers I; 2 - en detail magazines M; 3 -

consumers C and exporters E on other markets; 4 - intermediates I that can be tangible T or

intangible ones IT, and are structured in intermediates networking IN, such as: 4.1 - distributors

(tangible) D; 4.2 - persons of prescribing opinions (intangible) – we shall call them prescribing

people PP.

Figure 4 shows a football ground full with all these categories of actors.

It is well known that the producers PD establish the tender's volume, the final consumers C

determine the volume of the potential's consume, that means the volume of demand. It is necessary

1 J. Lendrevie, D. Lindon, R. Laufer – Mercator-Theorie et practique du marketing, DALLOZ Gestion Marketing, 1979, (France);


196

to focus on effective demand which is established in a dynamic way taking into consideration

NADA, power of purchasing and final option of the client.

The prescribing people never transport products on a distribution chain, but they influence

the way of thinking and the behaviours, both of the final consumers, distributors and producers, too.

They are recognized as specialists, professionals either because of their background, either because

of their success in the field and, unfortunately, either because of their notoriety (famous name);

this does not mean that a famous name, as a well known name, means a very good specialist too.

Fig. 4 – Graphical representation of a market – marketing approach

SL

E

P

DM

I

L

R

T

S

EC

MM

G

EU

C

DV

TV

IN

PP

PP

D

D

M/IMP PD

EDM CM/EXP


PD-producers; M-manufactures; IMP-importers; EDM-en detail magazines;

C-consumers; EXP-exporters; IN-intermediates network; D-distributors; PP-prescribing people;

TV-tender volume; DV-demand volume; E-economical medium; SL-social medium;

P-political medium; DM-demografical medium; I-institutional medium; L-legislation medium;

C-cultural medium; R-religious medium; T-technological medium; S-scientific medium; EC-

ecological medium;

MM-mass media; EU-European Union medium; G-globalization medium; ED-educational medium

We are speaking about doctors, pharmacists, consultants, counsellors, designing engineers,

universitary teachers and professor of al degrees etc. All of them can influence the way of thinking

from a patient, client, student or pupil – it is enough to point that a type of soft, computer, grit stone

or faience is better then another one. So, the social mechanism starts to function and people accept

easier to be influenced by the other s opinion, I mean leaders' opinion or notoriety's opinions.

On the other hand, according to the collective attitude and behaviour, an individual can be

easy influenced by the behaviour of a group, due to the fact that the association need must be

satisfied – see Abraham Maslow model – other way the non-inclusion feeling and frustration

sensation can appear.

Only strong characters can ration, that not all the time and in all situations, the majority

within a group catch the right attitude. We can talk about consensual true or contextual true, but

this is a topic that will be developed for soon in connection with manipulation of individuals by

democratically model and or by mass media.

That is why, the way of decision for the client and consumer must be in depth analyzed.

If it is taken into consideration all kind of external factors that can influence the game in the

market, a new figure is shown bellow.

Advantages of amphitheatre view

This graphical representation in figure 4 offers:

- a global view, that in strategically way of thinking is called helicopter view;

- all the actors are seen in the market;

- all types of relations are pointed, even the arrows between PP and D, PP and all types of

medium (economical, social, institutional etc.), D and all types of marketing medium have not be

drawn;

- the dynamic of the ratio between demand and tender appears as a necessity and, starting from

this market's situation (condition for identifying the value of the ratio in comparison with 1


value), all the team involved in marketing, management, communication, image and public

relations uses the same global view;

- all the factors that can influence the game of demand and tender in a market are also pointed –

they are interactive stands within a stadium; we consider that 14 factors, named as marketing

medium, can show all types of relations between the market that has to be analyzed;

- it is very easy to identify all types of consumers, all types of target segments, target public and

the difference between them.

From the point of view of their behaviour, these mediums have an interactive role, like

people watching a football game – sometimes, these decision people from the 14 marketing media

can sustain the market game or, on the contrary, can oppose it.

On short, the institutional medium, technological, scientifically and/or mass media etc., can

be either pro, or against the business in the market.

We can generalize, if it is spoken about products and/or services, so that the model can be

useful for non governmental organization, public administration etc.

Any type of product or service that is coming from any type of an external marketing

medium, can be put in the middle of the football arena, so that all the advantages of an external

medium will appear immediately.

Disadvantages of amphitheatre view

The model does not answer to the question HOW should I play in the market-football

ground, WHICH are the strategies and tactics for a marketing war, so that it is necessary a

focusing within the football ground.

Another disadvantage consists in the fact that this model does not point the targeted market

– the targeted segments.

Two solutions are possible:

1- either a new figure that eliminates these disadvantages is designed separately and by the

help of a link is following immediately after figure number 4;

2- either figure number 4 is improved.

The objective of the new innovation process is to eliminate the disadvantages and to

underline the role and the importance of marketing mix, in order to give the right perception not

only to marketers, but to specialists in communication, image and public relations.


Analogy between a table with four legs, in order to give a global view of the marketing mix

meaning can be useful, but, in the same time, is limited, due to the fact that the table's perception is

a static object. Once is put in a dining room or living room, the length of the four legs is fixed.

It is proposed the term dynamical marketing mix and a new comparison with a marine

platform with adjustable or telescopically leg, in order to keep the products, services and the

consumers on the same horizontal platform. You will ask me why to do this?

First of all, because I noticed that few people are able to link inside their mind the 4 P

(Product, Placement or distribution, Promotion and Price); secondly, the market is changing,

exactly like a sea that now is silent and other time is stormy due to a changing situation, that can be:

1 - either a new comer in the market that can produce more or less a stronger vibration, a wave; 2 –

either an atypical situation, such as, ending of a life cycle and following a new NADA, a

catastrophe - earthquake, inundation, war – events that can modify the demand. This new situation

must catch the attention of the manager and adapt immediately the already designed marketing mix.

On short, motion produce changing and the last one must produce adapting of the mix.

Conclusion

Dynamic mix of marketing should be a better concept together with a marine platform (with

telescopically legs), as a better analogy – analogy is also considered a scientific method that can

improve using of the models with all their types of limits.

The radar of a marketer is symbolized like a funnel and its main function is scanning and

monitoring, in real time, the whole market. So, the marketing mix viewed like a part of a cone – see

figure 5 - can be a transformed into a full cone that become a radar symbol and working instrument,

at the same time, for the producers.

The same analogy is useful to transform the Maslow pyramid into a radar symbol by the

help of needs′ mix. The consumer is using his own radar to satisfy not only his needs, but his own

NADA - bait for the fish.

Figures 5 and 6 shows the marketing mix from the perspective of the producers and NADA

mix from the approach of the consumers who are running in the market in order to satisfy their

needs and not only.


200

PRODUCER

Mk mix

P

P P

TS / Profit Aim

P

Fig. 5 – Marketing mix Fig. 6 – NADA mix

TS- target segment. FN-physiological needs; SN-security needs;

BN-belonging needs; EN-esteem needs; SD-

self development needs.

Let us transfer and define the market of the 1 – emitters E, 2 – receivers R, 3 – intermediates

I that can be 3.1 – prescribing people PP and 3.2 – distributors of message DM, with or without the

product itself. What did we get? The same model, very useful in understanding the market of

communication.

As we can see, substitution method is a scientifically one used not only in mathematics, but

in communication field, too – see figure nr. 7.

What about the demand and tender? Communication is a basic need placed by Abraham

Masslow on the third level, but it is any time an instrument for satisfying, direct or indirect, all the

other needs. The demand of communication within open societies and globalization trend does exist

– it is a fact in primary reality. That is why, logical sense tells us that the tender is an effect for the

main cause that is the demand.

CONSUMER

NADA mix

SN

EN FN

Aim – Spiritual Evolution + Material Satisfaction

SD

BN


201

SL

E

P

D

I

L

R

T

S

EC

M

G

EU

C

CD

CT

IN

PP

PP

DM

DM

EMITTER MPD

MC RECEIVER

Fig. 7 – Structural and functional model of communication market MPD-producers'message; MC-consumers' message; IN-intermediates network for messages; DM-distributors

of message; PP-prescribing people of message; CT-tender of communication; CD-communication demand; E-

economical medium; SL-social medium; P-political medium; DM-demographical medium; I-institutional medium; L-

legislation medium; C-cultural medium; R-religious medium; T-technological medium; S-scientific medium; EC-

ecological medium; MM-mass media; EU-European Union medium; G-globalization medium; ED-educational medium

What about the effective demand? Very easy to demonstrate that all three conditions are

satisfied, such as: the NADA exists, the power of purcahasing for a newspaper, a TV or radio

subscription exists, options, too.

Which are the distributors of message? Either press networks that are selling their tangible

product such as newspapers, magazines, television and radio programmes etc, either mass media

itself, seen as an independent business.


202

Now, we can substitute message's distributors with public relations (PR) events or

companies PRC and, as we can see, the market of PR is using the same model of the amphitheatre.

Anytime we must adapt and change marketing objectives in connection with strategically

objectives for the management and, on the other hand, with communication objectives, image and

public relations too.

The model is still functioning.

Now, is time to speak about communication mix CM, defined by changing the 1P –

Product with Message – this means the 1M - so that this new mix in communication and public

relations is the 1M + 3P: the 3P have the same meaning like in marketing. Price is the cost of the

whole campaign that can be seen as the price to multiply the impact of the message against the

audience. The other 2P are also the same – Promotion of the message and Placement of it, that

means distribution of the message DM, see figure 8 and 7.

Fig. 8 – Communication mix

This means that the amphitheatre model still works in communication, image and public

relation field – see figure nr. 7

The communication mix CM consists in 1M + 3P and it is a better solution from the

management and marketing approach on communication.

EMITTER

COM. mix

P

P M

TP / Image Aim

P


7. SOLUTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Coming back to the consumer, the art director must work within a specialized team

composed from a marketing specialist, a psychologist and a sociologist. Why? Everybody knows

that not only motivations of a consumer must be known, but the way of taking the inside decision is

very important, too.

On short, what is specific to the background of an art director, a psychologist and a

sociologist is good, but not enough, is necessary but not sufficient. All of them have no marketing

and management knowledge, due to the fact that a way of thinking competition in the market is not

developed within the universities.

That is why the objective of the paper was to find a simplified model that must be easy in

use and necessary to link the personal relations within an advertising agency or a marketing one, in

order to eliminate the gap of the specialists background – communication, image and public

relations versus specialists in marketing and management.

8. DIRECTIONS

Another paper, focused on communication mix, strategies mix will be enough innovated, in

my opinion, just to improve the ability of specialists working in interdisciplinary field – see

orientation by the help of a pragmatically linguist, useful and necessary in communication, image

and public relation and negotiations.

Bibliography:

1. M. A. Niţă, R. Olănescu, Strategii şi tehnici de comunicare managerială (in English, Strategies

and techniques of managerial communication), Editura SNSPA (NSPSA Publishing House),

Bucureşti (Bucharest), 2003, ISBN 973-8376-28-9;

2. J. Lendrevie, D. Lindon, R. Laufer, Mercator-Theorie et practique du marketing, DALLOZ

Gestion Marketing, 1979 (France);

3. M. A. NIŢĂ, Ştiinţe economice. Marketing şi management (in English, Economical sciences.

Marketing and management), Editura SNSPA (NSPSA Publishing House), Bucureşti

(Bucharest), 2002, ISBN 973-8376-26-2.


LA POLITIQUE DU PRODUIT TOURISTIQUE

DE TYPE ECO-RELIGIEUX

Silvia MUHCINA and Veronica POPOVICI

L’Université “OVIDIUS” de Constanţa, ROUMANIE

Résumé: L’offre touristique de notre pays est abondante et diverse. Parmi les nombreuses

attractions naturelles et anthropiques on peut remarquer des sites et des monuments d’architecture

religieuse qui ne confèrent une identité spirituelle propre, dans l’espace culturale européen. Avec

les instrumentes du marketing touristique on peut identifier et joindre ces objectifs et, par ce

fondement, on peut construire un produit touristique particulièrement, qui peut être incluse dans le

circuit touristique international.

Au cours des dernières années, on constate une forte expansion du phénomène touristique,

parmi les causes du ce processus pouvant être mentionnes le besoin de s’évader du périmètre des

grandes agglomérations urbaines ou des zones consacrées pour le tourisme, la diversité des besoins

touristique, l’apparition des nouvelles attractions touristiques.

Les zones rurales sont perçues comme des oasis de tranquillité ou se gardent les traditions et

les habitudes, se conservent les valeurs spirituelles, se trouve une nature riche et nonpolluee. Le

tourisme rurale est base sur trois coordonnes (Bran F., Marin D., Simon T., Turismul rural. Modelul

european., Ed. Economica, Bucuresti, 1997, pag. 7,8): l’espace, forme par plusieurs entités, les

hommes, qui offrent l’hospitalité traditionnelle et les produits.

Dans l’opinion des mêmes auteurs, le produit touristique rural est assimile comme

l’habitation a la ferme rurale, ce qui est équivalent avec les vacances et le loisir dans l’espace rural.

La valorisation du potentiel naturel et culturel du l’espace rural permette l’identification

d’un nouveau mode de développement socio-économique, qui suppose une participation active de la


population locale a l’activité touristique, dans une manière unitaire.

Près de ces aspects, dans notre pays, on peut identifier un important élément d’attraction, la

vie spirituelle qui se déroule dans les logis monacaux.

Si la motivation touristique principale dans les zones rurales est, pour première importance,

l’image idyllique de la vie des paysans, déroulée dans un cadre naturel nonaltheree, on pourrait

ajoute - avec les limites de rigueur- une motivation pure spirituelle, les vacances passes près d’une

monastère.

Dans une vision de marketing, le produit touristique est fonde sur l’attraction naturelle ou

anthropique, a qui on ajoute une série des services de base: les logis, l’alimentation, le transport et

l’agrement.

Le produit touristique culturel et pour loisir avec des valences écologique est fonde sur des

cadres naturels différents, sur des traditions nondenatures, sur des objectifs naturels et culturelles,

sur des hommes très hospitaliers.

A tous ces éléments fondamentaux on peut ajouter les traditions spirituelles, qui ont

l’origine dans une vie religieuse déroulée d’une manière pas d’interruptions, identifiée avec

l’histoire d’un certain peuple.

Ainsi, on pourrait dire que le tourisme eco-religieux peut être compris comme le tourisme

qui est fonde sur des attractions naturelles, qui se peuvent trouver près des villages et des attractions

spirituelles, religieuses, par des objectifs de nature religieuse, qui se retrouve dans la proximité des

villages, dans le même cadre naturel.

Le patrimoine spirituel, religieux du notre pays, pourrait être valoriser dans une manière

propre, correctement, avec attention et responsabilité, pour ne détériorer l’équilibre fragile entre

l’isolation spirituelle, qui constitue l’essence de la vie dans les monastères et l’ouverture sur le

monde.

Situes, les plusieurs fois, dans la proximité des villages, beaucoup des monastères

constituent des traditionnelles attractions touristiques (les zones Maramures et Bucovina, ont été

déjà connus dans le tourisme international).

A ces zones on peut ajouter des autres destinations touristiques (Muntenia, Oltenia,

Dobrogea etc.), riches en traditions religieux, qui définissent l’essence spirituelle du notre peuple.

Certainement, la demande touristique de ce type se structure dans une manière différente.

Les personnes qui désirent passer les vacances dans un cadre naturel rural, avec des

paysages naturels nonaltheres, près d’un logis monacal, a la recherche de la source de la vie

traditionnelle, ont un certain profil de l’ame. Peut être qu’ils sont des hommes qui ont une vie

professionnelle très stressante, avec des multiples responsabilités ou, peut être ils sont des hommes


simples, qui ont une croyance très forte, un fondement spirituel nonalthere.

Près de ces hommes, on peut rencontrer des familles qui ont des enfants écoliers, avec une

éducation qui ne pourrait être complète sans connaître et acquérir les grands percepts moraux qui

sont incluses dans notre religion chrétienne, soit qu’elle est catholique ou orthodoxe. Ces produits

touristiques, fondes sur l’attraction rurale et spirituelle, peuvent être offris avec l’habitation dans

une ferme, chez les paysans ou dans les logis des moines ou des nonnes. Ils peuvent manger des

nourritures fraîches, récoltées sur les territoires qui appartiennent aux paysans ou aux monastères.

Les touristes peuvent arriver ici soit avec leur propre automobile, soit avec un transport organise par

une agence du tourisme.

Les visitateurs peuvent travailler avec les paysans, dans les activités liées d’une vie a la

ferme, ayant la satisfaction de leur travaille.

En même temps, ils peuvent vivre la vie spirituelle, en participant à la messe, sans troubler

l’usage de la vie des monastères.

Pour assurer la réussite des vacances, il faut exister une bonne collaboration entre les

organisateurs, les communautés locaux, les paysans, les responsables des monastères et,

évidemment, les touristes.

Bibliographie selective:

1. Balaure V. (coord.), Marketing, Ed. Uranus, Bucuresti, 2000;

2. Bran F., Marin D., Simon T., Turismul rural. Modelul european, Ed. Economica, Bucuresti, 1997;

3. Gherasim T., Gherasim D., Marketing turistic, Ed. Economica, Bucuresti, 1999.


LA POLITIQUE PROMOTIONNELLE POUR LE TOURISME DE TYPE

ECO-RELIGIEUX

Silvia MUHCINA, L’Université “OVIDIUS” de Constanţa, ROUMANIE

Résumé: Le processus d’intégration du notre pays dans les structures européennes mets

ainsi des problèmes liés de la difficulté de réaliser cette démarche, aussi que des opportunités qui

peut être fructifies. Parmi les chemins qui peuvent contribuer à l’enrichissement du patrimoine

cultural européen, on peut consolider une politique du marketing touristique qui promeuve le

tourisme de type eco-religieux, fonde par les traditions spirituelles du notre peuple et qui ne

confèrent une identité propre dans l’espace européen.

Dans une vision de marketing, le produit touristique est forme par des attractions touristique

naturelles ou anthropiques, auxquelles on s’ajoute une série des services de base: les logis,

l’alimentation, le transport et l’agrément, services qui concrétisent le produit.

Dans son cas particulièrement, le produit touristique eco-religieuse peut être comprit comme

le produit qui se forme par une attraction d’espace rurale, avec des valences écologiques et qui est

complete ou enrichi par des attractions, des objectifs de nature spirituelle, religieuse. Ces dernières

attractions correspondent à des besoins qui peuvent être satisfaite dans une ambiance typique,

spécialement liées des certains monuments ou sites avec des profondes semnifications religieuses.

Ce produit est, dans sa façon, unique. Il responde a une demande touristique spéciale et

satisfait des besoins spécifiques, pour les hommes qui sont fatigues de tant civilisation, d’un rythme

alerte de la vie, d’aliénation.

En même temps, doit être offrire avec des limites qui dérivent justement de son spécifique;

on ne doit pas deteriorer l’equilibre, la fragilite de la vie d’un monastere qui peut etre perturbee par

les visites des touristes.


Les touristes peuvent arriver dans les villages soit avec leur propre moyen de transport, soit

dans une manière organise par du tour-opérateurs, agents de tourisme, mairies ou représentants des

monastères.

Ils peuvent dormir soit dans les villages, aux maisons des paysans, soit dans les monastères.

Dans notre pays, le produit touristique de type eco-religieux peut être rencontrer en diverses

zones géographiques. L’une de plus connue zone c’est Bucovine, territoire riche tant en paysages

naturels et traditions culturelle, que dans une vie spirituelle, religieuse très forte, qui se déroule dans

et prêt des vieux monastères orthodoxes.

Le processus de valorisation du patrimoine naturel, culturel et spirituelle du notre pays est

complexe et suppose une série des étapes qui doivent être suivi.

Par la constitution de l’organisation ANTREC (Association Nationale pour le Tourisme

Rural, Ecologique et Cultural) et par la Loi 145/1994 concernant les facilites qui s’accordent pour

développer le système de tourisme rural dans les zones montagnes, Delta du Danube et le littoral de

la Mer Noir, se sont fait les premières passes.

La politique promotionnelle pour le produit touristique eco-rural et religieux contient des

séries d’activités différentes et vise la communication du ce produit en plan national et

international, avec des moyens spécifiques.

La publicité pour ce produit peut être réalise avec préséance par des brochures et des

catalogues qui pressentent l’offre touristique des villages, des gîtes qui sont situent près des

monuments et objectifs religieux.

Parmi les moyennes de publicité directe, l’Internet constitue l’un de plus efficace. On peut

réaliser un site avec la présentation des ces attractions, accompagne par des adresses de contact pour

réserver les places désires.

Une autre possibilité de présenter ces offres touristiques c’est la participation aux foires

touristiques thématiques, en plan national et international.

Ici, la présentation -réalise par des catalogues et brochures- peut être accomplie par des

démonstrations diverses.

Les matériaux publicitaires doivent être réalises dans les meilleures conditions avec

suffisamment temps, pour être connus par les distributeurs du tourisme.

Ces produits touristiques peuvent être offrîtes par des prix convenables, y compris le

transport jusqu'à destination ou des circuits qui inclussent la visitation des diverses objectives

culturelles, religieux ou architecturalement.

Pour une identification meilleure des ces produits, il faut construire une marque forte, qui les

identifie et qui garantie la qualité de cette offre.


Par des diverses activités de relations publiques (des rencontres avec la presse, avec des

spécialistes du tourisme, des autorités locaux ou centraux etc.) on peut réaliser une bonne

identification, une image favorable a ce genre de tourisme, valorisant les riches naturels, les

traditions spirituelles et culturelles, sans dégrader la nature, contribuant a une developpment

durable.

Bibliographie selective:

1. Bran F., Marin D., Simon T., Turismul rural. Modelul european, Ed. Economica, Bucuresti, 1997;

2. Gherasim T., Gherasim D., Marketing turistic, Ed. Economica, Bucuresti, 1999;

3. Olteanu V., Cetina I., Marketingul serviciilor, CoEd. Marketer-Expert, Bucuresti, 1994.


PARTICULAR ASPECTS CONCERNING ETHICS

IN THE FIELD OF TOURISM

Claudia PĂTRUŢ, “1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia, ROMANIA

Abstract: Tourism as such cannot be considered as “good” or “bad”, or “positive” or

“negative” action. But its wide range of effects can be considered from such a point of view. Both

economic and social effects of tourism depend on the behaviour of all those involved as well as of

respect for certain ethical rules.

During the lasts years, it became more and more clear that ethics should be considered

when discussing tourism development. Thus, in 1992, a proposal was made for the establishment of

a committee to deal with ethic aspects in tourism, and in 1999, World Tourism Organization issued

a code of ethics in tourism.

The real reasons for all negative consequences are people’s attitude towards tourism,

attitude not once in conflict with ethical rules. Real profits in tourism (economic, social, cultural)

would have been bigger if ethical rules had been better preserved.

1. NEED OF ETHICS IN TOURISM

First and foremost, tourism is a form of human behaviour. Man is the major subject of

tourism and there is no understanding of aspects concerning tourism, unless there is good

understanding of human aspects.

Contemporary tourism is a social process, part of the contemporary life-style. Before

modern times, social relations were functions of social proximity. Local communities, including

local sets of values, local culture established links between individuals generating cohesion to social

groups generally characterized by stability.


Urbanization process generated a major change. Mass migration from rural areas to towns

and rapid development of towns determined dissolution of traditional local communities and a

decay of friendship relations, the feeling that an individual belonged to a stable social group. In a

big city, distance between family and nation is huge and only partially covered by professional

relations. In a “mass culture” society, all values are mixed; an individual is just another single one

among a “mob of singles”.

Thus, a third stage is reached, i.e. a “tourism based” world. This process takes place in

different parts of the world, starting with the most developed but gradually spreading all over the

world. Tourism is quite frequently associated to the concept of “new colonialism”, due to the fact

that the developed countries impose all aspects of the trend.

Furthermore, tourism is no longer just a way to spend your holiday, although most holidays

are leisure – oriented. It is also a means to reach different other goals, such as increasing

knowledge, developing social relations, going on a pilgrimage etc. That is the reason why

international tourism is considered to be able to determine social and cultural changes, due to

economic, social and cultural contacts between people coming from different parts of the world.

But scientists do not highlight only positive effects. Tourism is also responsible for negative

effects, such as decline of tradition, bigger interest in material values, increased criminality, drug

consumption, social conflicts, more crowded places, negative impact on environment, bigger

dependency of poor country to industrialized countries (which are the main financiers due to

investments in tourism and citizens travelling). All these aspects were identified as “social negative

costs” of tourism in the countries of destination. Till the end, they can even affect the image of that

country as a tourism destination.

Tourism as such cannot be considered as “good” or “bad”, or “positive” or “negative” action.

But its wide range of effects can be considered from such a point of view. Both economic and social

effects of tourism depend on the behaviour of all those involved as well as of respect for certain ethical

rules.

During the lasts years, it became more and more clear that ethics should be considered when

discussing tourism development. Thus, in 1992, a proposal was made for the establishment of a

committee to deal with ethic aspects in tourism, and in 1999, World Tourism Organization issued a

code of ethics in tourism.

The real reasons for all negative consequences are people’s attitude towards tourism,

attitude not once in conflict with ethical rules. Real profits in tourism (economic, social, cultural)

would have been bigger if ethical rules had been better preserved.


2. BEHAVIOUR OF PEOPLE INVOLVED IN TOURISM

There are three categories of people involved in tourism:

• The tourist, whose behaviour can be evaluated as compared to him or herself, to the other

tourists or towards the local inhabitants

• The local inhabitants

• The tourism agent as a company.

An ethical evaluation of each category is to be carried out while trying to define tourism

deontology.

2.1. Tourist’s Behaviour

Travelling enables tourists to get in touch with other people, with different culture or

environment, but also to know themselves better. Tourists should make efforts to know

from the very beginning what is really important and to understand people living at the

destination, their culture, life –style or mentality. He or she should avoid looking only for

those aspects suggested by advertisements. Usually ads are focused only on some

attractions, which are not always relevant. Such an effort should be considered as a moral

obligation even before leaving.

Another aspect concerns the idea of freedom. Tourists are free of any professional or

family obligation, they can travel where they want, they can do what they want, and they

can live any adventures, with no day-to-day moral constraints. This is freedom, but it should

not be denying of ethical principles. As tourist, we have the obligation to respect the set of

values we share at home, as the local people perceive us as representatives of our

communities. And that situation implies responsibility.

Towards other tourist, each tourist is to be tolerant, respectful and helpful in case of

need. If there is a group of tourists, each one should try to adapt to the group, to follow the

common programme and rules, as a sign of respect towards the others.

Last but not least, native people should be considered properly, not treated as

objects, whatever their level of education or colour of skin they have. Manipulation,

humiliation or unfair treatment should not be allowed. Tourist attitude towards local people

should be tolerant, accepting any differences of race, education, religion, and life standard.

It is important to respect values significant to the natives, for example to behave properly in

a place with religious relevance.

From another point of view, at destination places, tourist get in touch with people

working in tourism industry. Sometimes, these people try to follow the habits of their


customers, although the level of their income is smaller. Sometimes they become alcohol or

even drug addicted. Thus, tourist should be more responsible in this respect.

2.2. Behaviour of Local People

In most cases, impact of tourism is felt at a local scale. Host communities are affected by

an increased number of people, by pressure on resources and by challenges to local cultural

patterns. Intensity of the impact depends on a series of factors, such as type of tourism and

growth rate, growth rate of tourist number, season, etc. These types of effects are less resented in

those communities where economic and financial benefits are significant. In other cases, host

communities may try to put pressure or may be hostile against tourists.

Local people’s attitude towards guest tourists should be of hospitality and good will. Tourists

have the right to be well informed, to take full advantage of the services provided at reasonable

prices. Although it is against ethical rules to cheat or to steal from tourists it still happens. Greed to

get higher profits is also a reason for corruption of true cultural values. Sometimes true value become

rather “commercial”, even fake, sold to naïve tourists.

Tourists are entitled to medical care, proper hygienic conditions and high standard services,

according to ethical rules of the community, without disregarding the local inhabitants. Tourists’

security should be provided. They should also have the right to practice their own faith and to have

access to religious places of their denomination.

No discrimination of tourists for reasons concerning race, religion, nationality or handicap

should be allowed. People with handicap should have equal access to any tourism facilities and

attractions as anyone else.

Tourism should become a key element for the economic development of society but also for

the social and cultural development. It is a means to reduce unemployment, to widen cultural horizon

of local people and to improve their mentality. It might help a more tolerant attitude, being “an open

window worldwide”. It is a means of education, but it shouldn’t affect moral standards. Local people

should preserve local values and stand against turning tradition into something pure commercial.

They should preserve respect for sacred places and for national and cultural identity.

2.3. Tourism Agents’ Behaviour

Tourism agents include all companies involved in preparing a trip, transport, providing

accommodation and any other services or goods supplied at the destination (accommodation, meals,

leisure activities, local transport). Local authorities and governments have also their role.


The most important tasks of tour-operators or travel agents are to provide safe and comfortable

transport, as well as security and protection of tourists’ rights. They should respect the conditions

stipulated in contracts and fulfil all obligations towards tourists. More than that, they should provide

enough information before tourists make a buying decision.

Hotels should as well ensure security of tourists, comfort according to classification, good rest

and hygiene conditions, high standard services. Special needs of people with handicap should be also

considered. Ethical principles impose a certain attitude of employees. They should be and act fair. No

immoral practices, such as prostitution should be allowed.

Investors in tourism, whatsoever their field of activity, should take into consideration when

making development plans the rights of local people, their interests. Development projects should not

affect natural and cultural heritage. Local people should have a right to be employed in the new tourism

facilities. They should be properly informed about work or training opportunities as well as about the

impact of tourism activities in the area. More than that, host communities are to be invited during the

decision – making process. Tourism should contribute to decrease of unemployment but it shouldn’t put

any over-pressure on local resources, such as water, energy etc.

Local or national tourism administration is responsible for tourism policy, planning and providing

conditions for tourism development. From an ethical point of view, it is important to consider all effects

of tourism either economic, social, cultural or educational. It is also important that planning does not

generate disparities between different areas. It is authorities’ task to both to develop infrastructure and to

provide proper information about tourism facilities and destinations.

Governments are involved in fighting negative phenomena, such as prostitution or promoting

sexual tourism. For example, American laws stipulate harsh punishment for travel agents selling such

tourism programmes.

Schools and teachers have an important role. It is their responsibility to educate young people as

future tourists, teaching them to respect other people’s values, to respect nature, their own culture, as well

as culture of other nations.

As a conclusion, the whole activity in tourism should respect moral principles alongside with

requirements of sustainable development. Even if breaking a moral rule is not always followed by

punishment, all people involved in tourism should act in a responsible way fully respecting the others.

3. ETHICAL CODES IN TOURISM

Many organizations, companies and governments understood the need for ethics in tourism.

They started promoting moral principles in tourism activities and even drafted ethical codes. Quite

often the objectives are not different from those of sustainable tourism or eco-tourism, but they are


important because they help raising awareness on moral aspects in development and promotion of

tourism as well as increasing tourism actors’ responsibilities.

Examples of codes drafted by organizations, public administration or companies will be

given below in order to have an image about ethical codes in tourism and to underline aspects

concerning professional deontology.

3.1. Ethical Codes on a Macro-Economic Scale

These types of codes are drafted at a central level. They are included in the politics of a

country, a tourism area or a branch of tourism activity. They are adapted to the features and culture of

a particular area. All of them include general moral principles that can guide anyone involved in

tourism.

A. Ethical Code of Eco-Tourism Professional Association in Quebec

This code is according to principles promoted by the Canadian Government and is

structured in five chapters.

1. Responsibilities and Obligations Towards Clients

In general, there are provisions concerning:

- proper information of clients: before booking, they should be provided with all

data concerning services but also their obligation such as not to damage

environment etc.;

- supply of all services paid by clients and, if not possible, offering them alternative

services or paying them back;

- communication facilities (phone, facsimile, etc.).

2. Responsibilities and Obligations Concerning Clients and Employees’ Safety

- proper concern for people’s safety and security;

- training for the staff;

- existence of enough staff so that the clients feel safe and properly guided;

- drawing attention of the clients about weather conditions, specific transport,

compulsory equipment etc.;

- proper treatment of any animals.

3. Responsibilities and Obligations Towards Members of Eco-Tourism Organizations

- respect for believes and principles of local associations

- co-operation to promote tourism in Quebec area

- common values and standards

- no group should be favoured


- no non-loyal practices against other member organizations.

4. Responsibilities and Obligations Towards Local Inhabitants

- be aware of your own responsibilities and do not get involved in non-loyal activities;

- indirect methods to lure clients or local inhabitants are forbidden;

- co-operate with local authorities;

- assume your responsibilities whenever people or goods are in danger;

- manage your activity according to government’s ethical codes.

5. Responsibilities and Obligations Towards Environment

- awareness of the need to preserve and use resources in rational way;

- respect for the property rights of the local inhabitants;

- co-operation with local manufacturers and managers in order to improve

management models;

- no destructive action against fauna and vegetation.

This is a general code. Canada is a country with a wide range of opportunities for eco –

tourism. Eco – tourism is considered to be an important activity, but the need to protect resources is

highlighted. On the other hand, is rather an enumeration of ideal concepts with no sanctions for

those breaking the rules.

B. Ethical Code for Sustainable Activity in Costa Rica

The Code was drafted by The Institute for Central American Studies – Travel Department. It is

adapted after the ethical code of the World Tourism Organization. Each chapter takes into account

features of the country. Some ideas are listed below.

• Tourism should take into account cultural aspects. Tourists should have an opportunity to learn

about a country’s culture. Tourists should create links between different cultures on the globe.

• Tourism is to have a positive impact on local communities. Tour-operators should facilitate access

of local communities members to the opportunities given by tourism activity by hiring local

guides, developing HORECA activities with local owners, buying souvenirs from local

manufacturers, etc.

• Tourism should be sustainable. Tour-operators and tourists should encourage local decision –

makers to develop and implement long-term management plans able to prevent over-crowding,

pollution, threatening of eco-systems.

• Waste should be recycled.

• Natural habitats should not be disturbed. Tourists will keep distance and should not intervene.

Costa Rica has many eco-systems that are to be better protected, such as coral reefs and caves.


• Trade with artifacts should be banned. International laws ban trade with relics but this is still

present in under developed countries. The code establishes harsh sanctions for breaking this rule.

A national campaign to stop smuggling is carried on.

• Tourists should develop a better understanding for environment protection. Specialized guides and

biologists should advise them and answer any of their questions.

These are but some of the aspects dealt with by the ethical code. There are a lot of detailed

explanations concerning the existing resources but establishing limits in using them, keeping in

mind the negative effects of chaotic tourism activities in some South American countries. Some

tourism objects were completely destroyed by such activities. Specific sanctions are established

for every break of the rules.

C. Ethical Code of the American Travel Agents Association

It is a general document and starting point for individual ethical codes of travel agents in the

USA. Each member of the association is to comply with this minimum set of principles otherwise being

expelled from the organization.

Responsibilities of the Members

• Exactness – obligation to provide exact information about services provided by them

• Disclosure – full detailed information about terms of contracts, including cancellation and fees

• Instant notification about any changes concerning services, price etc.

• Supply of all services mentioned in brochures

• Responsibilities – prompt answer to any claims from the customers

• Co-operation – quick answer to any questions raised by the clients

• Trust – no misuse of data concerning clients or employees

• Confidentiality – no details of transactions with clients or information to be disclosed without

client’s prior agreement

• No association between a client’s name and the company without the client’s agreement

• No recommendation letters are to be issued for money or other benefits to any person who does

not have expertise to work in the field of tourism

• Conflict of interests – rules concerning relations with suppliers

• All members of the association should comply with all national laws.


The code is rather strict but being a member of such an association proves integrity,

expertise and fair business conduct. The code includes general values of the American society such

as fair business conduct and respect for citizens’ rights. Breaking the rules determines different

sanctions including losing the license of the travel agent.

3.2. Ethical Codes of Tourism Companies

Usually, these types of codes are drafted for the internal ethical and administrative needs of

organizations. More or less in detail, they are rules to be obeyed by the employees of tourism

companies. Employees can use them as reference models for their behavior and as guidelines for

professional deontology.

Some examples belonging to worldwide known organizations are presented below.

A. Ethical Code of ACCOR Group

ACCOR Group is one of the biggest hotel groups in the world. There 14 brands (hotel chains):

SOFITEL, NOVOLTEL, LES JARDINS DE PARIS, MERCURE, ETAP, FORMULE 1, IBIS etc.

The group operates its own hotels or affiliated hotels by management, rent or franchise contracts.

ACCOR Group has more than 2,500 hotels in 72 different countries.

Taking into account the size of the company, it is obvious that a certain common standard

should be as far as staff behavior is concerned. The ethical code presents the Group’s set of values and

the principles they believe in, foster and use in their activity: quality, innovation, decentralization, profit,

expertise, communication, growth, participation.

A selection of the principles is presented below.

Rules of Behavior

For the Employees:

- economic and effective use of resources;

- protection of people and goods under their responsibility against accidents, thefts, illegal

use;

- no money or gifts, excepting the regular or symbolic ones, can be taken in order to take a

certain decision;

- no use of information got at work place in personal interest;

- all business information are confidential;

- training is an important part of activity;

- awareness that there are no “life-long” positions.


With Respect to Suppliers:

- suppliers are to be informed that company’s policy is not to accept gifts and to encourage

them to complain about any unfair treatment from the company’s staff

- selection and long-term relations with suppliers based on the quality/price ratio and

portfolio of services

- honest and respectful relations with suppliers.

With Respect to Clients:

- terms of contracts should be complied with as far as products, quality or services are

concerned

- over-bookings are to be avoided

- no bribing is accepted in order to get a contract and no commission fee from the client

- to be able and willing to admit your own mistakes

- no preferential behaviour is admitted.

With Respect to the Others:

- all people are worth of respect and no discrimination or exclusion according racial, sexual

or religious aspects is admitted

- relations with colleagues and people with higher or lower hierarchic positions should be

characterized by loyalty and co-operation.

With Respect to Tourism Industry:

- no arrogant attitude

- no non-loyal activities with respect to competition

- constant interest for the brand’s image.

The code establishes also rules concerning relations with authorities, shareholders, and

mass media. In case of conflict of interest situations, recommendation is to inform management.

As there are no sanctions in the code, it is management’s role to promote a strong organizational

culture and a common set of values shared by all employees. The final provisions of the Code are:

“Ethics is possible only if there is free will.”

“Ethics is part of the possibility to choose.”

B. Ethical Code of Hotel SOFITEL Bucharest

SOFITEL Hotels is the brand that brought the now-a-days recognition to the ACCOR

Group. They became part of the group in 1980, when ACCOR became the major shareholder.


SOFITEL is the most important network of European luxury hotels. Most of the customers are

managers traveling for business purposes or on holiday.

SOFITEL Bucharest is the result of a management contract between ACCOR and World Trade

center Bucharest. It is a four-star hotel with 203 rooms. Even if SOFITEL belongs to the ACCOR

Group, a code of ethics was created for the hotel in Bucharest taking into account local features. It is a

detailed document explaining in five chapters the responsibilities and professional obligations of the

employees.

There are some of the stipulations below:

Chapter I – General Stipulations

This code is a guide for the employees of SOFITEL to help them comply with the ethical

standards of the ACCOR Group. There are several rules to be obeyed by everyone while dealing with

administrative aspects, time of work, absences, leave – offs, sanctions.

Chapter II – Responsibility towards the Employees

- constant respect;

- decisions concerning employment will take into account only professional reasons such

as qualification, expertise, work record;

- no abuse or harassment is to be tolerated;

- safety and health: healthy and safe work environment by complying with rules and

regulations.

Chapter III – Responsibility towards Clients and Consumers

- quality and safety of products;

- sales and marketing:;

- developing long term relations with clients by proving honesty and integrity;

- legal and ethical driven business;

- no blackmail or bribing;

- it is completely forbidden to use any confidential data about clients;

- constant interest for the brand’s image.

Chapter IV – Responsibilities towards Community, Governments

- services for the community;

- personal activities for the community: our employees are free to support community, charities

or political organizations according to their free will, as long as they do not claim that their

position is the official position of Sofitel;


- we’ll protect environment by complying with all legal stipulations;

- we’ll respect all rules and regulations of the countries where we carry on activities;

- Sofitel is to obey any anti-corruption or similar regulations.

Chapter V – General Rules of Discipline, Awards and Sanctions

- awards are to be given only to those who work motivated, thoroughly and according to quality

standards;

- promotion of employees is made only according to expertise;

- all members of the staff should prove proper behaviour towards clients treating them in a polite

manner;

- it is completely forbidden any deed able to disturb order and discipline such as:

o drinking of alcoholic beverages during work time;

o use of rooms or areas for customers’ use;

o use of un – proper language towards customers or colleagues;

o selling or buying any goods from or to customers or clients;

o leaving the place of work for long periods of time during working hours.

Providing any of the above mentioned deeds happen, management is free to implement any of the

following sanctions: verbal or written warning, a 10 – 15 % cut of wages for one to three months, change

to a lower position for one to three months, dismissal. Providing sanctions are taken against people that

can prove they are innocent, rewards are to be granted.

All these stipulations are to be known when getting a job with the hotel. The new employee is to

give written acknowledgment.

Biblyography:

1. Lupu, N., Economie şi management (Economy and Management), 3rd edition, All Beck,

Bucharest, 2002;

2. Minciu, R., Economia turismului (Economy of Tourism), Uranus, Bucharest, 2000;

3. Moussé, J., Fondements d’une étique professionelle, Les Editions d’Organisation, Paris, 1989;

4. Snack, O., (coord.), Economia turismului (Economy of Tourism), Expert, Bucharest, 2001;

5. Stănciulescu, G., Managementul operaţiunilor de turism (Management of Tourism Activities),

2nd edition, All Beck, Bucharest, 2003;

6. Ţigu, G., Etica afacerilor în turism (Ethics of Tourism Business), Uranus, Bucharest, 2003.


LEADERSHIP DIMENSIONS IN QUALITY ASSURANCE

Ioan MIHUŢ1, Angela ON2 and Adrian PETELEAN2

1„Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University of Bucureşti,

Faculty of Economic Sciences, Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA 2„Petru Maior” University of Târgu-Mureş, ROMANIA

Abstract: The organisation is made up of groups of people, therefore coordinating and

directing the efforts of their members towards reaching the goals and objectives of the

organisations is an essential part of the management. In quality assurance (see the eight quality

management principles from ISO 9000:2000 and ISO 9004:2000) to choose an appropriate form of

behaviour is a major factor for managers. The managers must understand the nature of leadership

and the factors that determine the effectiveness of the leadership relationships.

Understanding the leadership

The success for the implementation of quality management systems relies on several factors,

yet not less important is the impact of leadership. A polysemantic word that cannot be translated

into Romanian by only one word comprising the real meanings of the notion, leadership is still

climbing the career leader in the management literature. When it comes to communication strategies

in an organisation, the notion of leadership is mentioned again. The development of amiable

interpersonal relationships based on trust and co-operation is connected to leadership, and the

starting point in formulating different politics for motivating the subordinates is leadership, too.

Inevitably the question arises: What is leadership? A synthesis made by Andrew J. DuBrin (1995)

presents the most representative definitions of leadership as it follows: interpersonal relation based

on direct and sincere communication for meeting the goals; the art of influencing people by

persuading or by personal example; the main dynamic force that motivates and co-ordinates the

organisation for accomplishing its mission.


Out of other over 100 definitions preserved for the concept of leadership, G. A. Cole (1997)

presents leadership as a dynamic process of group work, belonging to a person over a certain period

of time, within an organisational context, by means of which other members of the group are

convinced to get involved in the fulfilment of the group’s tasks or of its objectives. Any member of

the organisation can have a certain influence, therefore each can be employed in a leadership

process, especially when there are imposed the problems of improving the quality of goods offered

to the market. Actually these arguments caused the coming out of quality circles which exploit

interpersonal relationships at the work place to get innovative ideas with a high potential of

redefining the parameters of quality for products and services. The quality circles form, according

to our opinion, a social dimension of quality, because these teams include not only specialists in

quality but also employees form all organisational subdivisions, employees who should think,

discuss and change. Thus the objectives of quality centres are the contribution of the employees to

the organisation’s development the creation of a relaxing atmosphere for work, respect for the

others and the will to do their best within the company.

Of all points of view that have been presented so far, a common characteristic for all

definitions results: leadership is a complex process that is defined in group terms, refers to the

participation got by non-coercive measures and has as a finality the objectives’ achievement. After

consulting several bibliographical references (Bennis, W., 1984; Catană, D., 1994; Covey, S. R.,

1996; Ilieş, L., 2003; Johns, G., 1998; Likert, R., 1964; Mihuţ, I., 2003; Napier, R. W. &

Gershenfeld, M. K., 1993; Tichy, N. M. & Cohen, E., 2000) we can conclude that at least for these

elements of leadership there are no controversies. The basic characteristic is that leadership is the

ability to inspire and stimulate the members of the group to acknowledge the fact that achieving

quality, namely success is worth doing. The meanings of quality are translated through leadership’s

perspective in: (Rusu, C. & Voicu, M., 2001): increasing the level of customers’ satisfaction,

making products that are asked on the market, maintaining and developing the competitive

advantages in front of the competition and achieving performing financial results. Therefore we can

appreciate that leadership is a social phenomenon that requires a total participation to the life of the

group. The quality cannot be obtained without the contribution of all employees. It is leadership

that changes the perception of quality; it is an extremely labile process because over time the

exigencies and the needs of the group are changing. At the same time, leadership is conquered and

maintained by the power of interactions that are born inside the organisation.

The results of a research concerning leadership and quality assurance


The transport’s development in our country has caused the coming out of new enterprises

whose object of activity is fixing means of transport. Within this context we have to consider the

setting up of the business firm S.C. ISEOM S.A.1 of Tg.-Mureş, in 1990, having as profile of

activity fixing motor vehicles and being based on the structure of an enterprise established in 1948.

The old motor workshop has gradually turned into a middle-sized enterprise, with a share capital of

5.8 billion lei and a turnover of more than 80 billion lei, about 200 employees and a continuously

expanding domain of activity. Two surveys have been made to identify the dimension of leadership

at S.C. ISEOM S.A. The first one was based on questionnaires applied on a sample of 56 people

(workers, foremen, department heads), a simple sampling being made randomly, where each

employee had an equal chance to be selected. The other survey included the eight managers of that

business firm. Direct observation has been used for picking up realities and this has offered further

data for supporting the conclusions.

Leadership is performed first of all by mechanisms of decision making at the level of the

firm and that of the places of work. Work’s satisfaction or non-satisfaction can be caused by the

very involvement of employees in decision making. The percentage of almost 60% of employees

who haven’t taken part to the decision-making concerning their work is alarming. If one is to

establish a correlation between the number of those who didn’t take part to decision making and the

importance of the participation, there can be concluded that for 75% of the employees who didn’t

take part to this decision making, their involvement would be very important and important.

Therefore the employees are frustrated because haven’t fulfilled this wish.

010203040506070

not at all littleimportant

Important veryimportant

Fig. 1. The importance of taking part to decision making

If leadership, as a basic principle of quality management means motivation and

participation, the perpetuation of this situation won’t be beneficial for the enterprise. This fact has

negative effects on the activity’s improvement at the workplace, an affirmation supported also by

1 The name of the company is not real because of confidentiality reasons.


the answers given to the question “To what extent have you improved the activity in your

department?” 60% of the employees answered with little or not at all, because they hadn’t actually

been involved in the decision processes that regard them directly at the workplace. This aspect is

considerably serious from the point of view of quality assurance. Organisational practice

demonstrates that leaders (if there are any in the leading position) get efficiency and effectiveness in

their actions through a close collaboration with their subordinates. Even if they have organisational

capacities and well-designed methods for control, when the subordinates don’t perform the required

activities or they do this without showing interest, the measures taken by the managers have no

consequences. The survey performed indicates that the share of the types of decisions made in the

managerial activity is as it follows:

1. Individual decisions without special explications 13,6%

2. Individual decisions with special explications 32,2%

3. Decisions made after consulting the subordinates 36,8%

4. Subordinates participation to decision making 11,0%

5. Delegating subordinates to make decisions 6,4%

Contrary to the general opinion of the employees, managers indicate that decisions are made

36.8% by consulting the subordinates. The shares presented so far confirm the fact that employees’

share in decision making is low – almost 46% of decisions made by managers are individual. We

can conclude that the style is rather consulting than participating and it can be a launch for doing a

real leadership at S.C. ISEOM S.A. Nevertheless we have to notice that if a large proportion of the

employees aren’t asked about the activity they develop and, more that this, they don’t take part to

decision making, it is hard to believe that the developed work can follow the way of a continuously

improvement of quality. Our research has also tried to identify the dimensions of organisational

climate, another variable of leadership. The leading team noted on a scale from 1 (to a little extent)

to 5(to a great extent) several coordinates of organisational climate.

Following the forming on the hierarchical system in table 1, we can conclude that the

managerial team considers that obeying firm’s regulations is of major importance. This has a fully

justification because regulations indicate department’s duties, tasks and responsibilities for different

positions, the extent of authority and the relationships between workers on different hierarchical

levels, including the domain of quality assurance. Very close to the score given to this attribute is

the interest of the board to favour satisfaction and freedom of action through the organisational

structure. It is favourable to combine these two coordinates as this will remove the rigid formalism

still met in many enterprises comparable as size and activity to S.C. ISEOM.

Table 1


Coordinates of Organisational Climate Score

1. The firm would have a better position if interpersonal conflicts were

solved

1,5

2. Good bosses give the subordinates complete and detailed information

on tasks

3,37

3. Employees should be involved more in decision making process 2,62

4. Regulations should not be broken, even if for the interest of the firm 3,75

5. Organisational structure should give way to satisfaction and freedom of

action

3,5

6. Employees should be provided flexibility when contacting different

hierarchical levels, without taking into account formal rules

2,62

Another less positive aspect is represented by the fact that the managerial team doesn’t give

the importance, at least on a medium level, to a basic element of the organisational environment:

interpersonal conflicts. The board doesn’t consider that the firm would improve its performances

considerably if interpersonal conflicts were to be solved.

The destructive character of these conflicts is problematical. No longer under control, they

cannot be solved on time, either because the involved parties don’t show a real interest, or because

there is no culture of conflicts’ settlement. Henceforward there are repercussions including on the

quality of the performed activities, indicating what the employees of the firm have stated. The same

way as with many other enterprises, at S.C. ISEOM S.A. leadership is of a vital importance in

quality assurance. Nevertheless, the idea that the leader-manager can heal all illnesses of the system

he is running is a myth because quality is got in the interaction between leader-manager and

employee. At the investigated enterprises the premises of change are partially favourable.

The presented results confirm that quality assurance is connected to leadership only if those

who are competent display availability to share resources (knowledge, power etc.) with the other

employees of the firm, a thing that is perceived as a contribution to achieve general performances.

These stated premises could be fulfilled through the active participation of the personnel to

everything that involves decisional mechanisms for quality assurance.

Conclusions

We hope that the research made in a Romanian business firm was relevant to demonstrate

that the managers of tomorrow will have to be also real leaders who are supposed to make

compatible the expectations of the employees they are running and the characteristics of the offered


goods with the situations given by the dynamics of the quality parameters imposed by the market,

respectively to assume the risk of passing from the traditional administration to the supple

organisation where people represent the most important fortune.

From the descriptive point of view, leadership involves relationship behaviours which

ameliorate interpersonal relationship within the firm and work behaviours that help the human

resources to accomplish the politics and the objectives in the quality area. Thus leadership is one of

the basic principles on which a performing system for achieving quality is built. Numerous shocks

and radical changes that cannot be avoided mark the beginning of the new millennium. They are

caused by transformations in the economic and knowledge universe. The galloping computing

development and globalisation penetrate the logic of economy in all spheres, offering a larger

spectre of responsibilities and the assuming of more attributions than in the past.

The entire paper has been written with the faith that behind the organisations that are

preoccupied with quality management systems there is leadership - a process that leads us to a new

way of reading the management mechanisms for putting into practice the quality principles. The

new paradigm, to which also the standards of quality assurance make reference, will change the

position of the leader from a simple administrator of resources to the status of a leader-manager that

is permanently concerned with the systems of quality management.

References:

1. Bennis, W., On Becoming a Leader, Addison-Wasley, 1984, p. 44;

2. Cole, G. A., Personnel Management, Letts Educational, London, 1997, p. 49;

3. Covey, S. R., Eficienţa în 7 trepte, Editura All, Bucureşti, 1996, p. 86;

4. DuBrin, A. J., Leadership. Research Findings Practice, Houghton Mifflin, 1995, p. 2;

5. Foti, R. K. & Miner, J. B., “Individual differences and organizational forms in the leadership

process”, The Leadership Quarterly, 14/2003, p. 83-112;

6. Ilieş, L., Managementul calităţii totale, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, p. 163;

7. Katz, D. & Khan, R., The Social Psychology of Organization, New York, 1978 after Catană, D.,

Management general, Editura Tipomur, Tg.-Mureş, 1994, p. 223;

8. Kotter, J. P., The General Managers, The Free Press, New York, 1982 after Johns, G.,

Comportament organizaţional, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 1998, p. 16;

9. Likert, R., The Human Organizations: Its Management and Value, McGraw-Hill Book Comp.,

New York, 1967, p. 4;

10. Mihuţ, I., coord., Management general, Editura Carpatica, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, p. 261;


11. Napier, R. W. & Gershenfeld, M. K., Groups. Theory and Experience, Houghton Mifflin

Comp., Boston, 1993, p. 231-233;

12. On, A., Rolurile leadership-ului. Satisfacţii şi frustrări ale liderilor, referat de doctorat,

Universitatea „Babeş-Bolyai”, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, p. 7-8;

13. Osborn, R., Hunt, J., Jauch, L., “Toward a contextual theory of leadership”, The Leadership

Quarterly, 13/2002, p. 797-837;

14. Pastor, I. & Petelean, A., Principiile managementului modern, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca,

2004, p. 240-245;

15. Rusu, C. & Voicu, M., Managementul resurselor umane în asigurarea calităţii, Editura

Economică, Bucureşti, 2001, p. 91-94;

16. Sternberg, R. J. & Vroom, V., „The person versus situation in leadership”, The Leadership

Quarterly, 13/2002, p. 301-323;

17. Tichy, N. M. & Cohen, E., Liderul sau arta de a conduce, Editura Teora, Bucureşti, 2000, p. 8;

18. Zaccaro, St.& Zackary, N. J., “Leadership theory and practice: Fostering an effective

symbiosis”, The Leadership Quarterly, 14/2003, p. 451-483.


INNOVATIVE ASPECTS OF THE ACTIVITIES IN A TRAINING AND

IMPROVEMENT CENTER

Avram TRIPON, „Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu-Mureş, ROMANIA

Abstract: There are presented innovative aspects of the activities in a training and

improvement center. A special interest is shown for: natural laws, the change of perception

concerning possible success, giving up to unwished habits, general development of society, the

main purpose of a dynamic politics for innovation in organisations, innovation management,

communication and cooperation. There are presented, too, the results obtained within the training

and improvement center within the “Petru Maior” University after 15 months of running.

The training and improvement center promotes the equilibrium, amends the tendencies of

the parties to consider themselves as units, permits a relevant feedback concerning the results

obtained – in conditions of maximum transparency, of reducing the informational asymmetries and

of providing the maximum access to information through continuing learning.

It is preferable to lead yourself the changing than being lead by it-

• It initiates the evolutionist processes generating controlled

• It is necessary to promote a new logic and a new type of knowledge – the usage, along with the

logic of inductive and deductive type, of the abductive logic (induction and deduction at the

same time – it is the third way in logic, balance on a long term or the durable development)

• The solutions are always in problems.

1. Developing a creative center for training and improvement imposes the presence of a creative

and innovative team capable of organizing and developing activities of continuous formation at

a level requested by the participants

2. The practical stages developed in this direction include:


- the participation of the basis team’s members at creative applications

- developing interdisciplinary creative teams, which have the necessary availability for

innovative programms which use the local synergies.

- involving the participants in creative programms focused on the professional and humane

priorities

3. The results of the activities in the creative center for training and improvement include the

acknowledgement – by the participants - of the personal and group progresses, which are

registered in:

- evaluation and self-evaluation charts

- individual or group projects develope during the programmes of continuous formation

- advertising materials

The results obtained by the team of the training and improvement center University

„Petru Maior” in the past 15 months are described below

409 persons have been trained on workshops.

1103 persons have participated in symposia.

10 x 100 = 1.000 CDs on managerial training have been distributed.

6 x 500 book have been published.

The web site: www.ea.upm/cip

THE RESULTS

Implementation indexes total achievements 15 months

name U.M SYMPOSIUM 40

WORK-SHOPS 20

BOOKS 5

CDs 10

FILMS 2

WEB PAGE 1

VIRTUAL TRAINING

20

An great emphasis was put on each participats’ obtaining and improving its skills of

changing his perception on the exterior reality – according to his own wish.

Perception


• Process through which the perceived stimuli are structured to give a conscious meaning.

• The result of some sensorial information (what is perceived by our senses), of intellectual

information (the meaning we give to the image), of social and cultural references modelled by

education, culture, tastes and context.

• We measure our perception, sometime unwillingly, according to the interest level. In this we

build a meaning.

We can stimulate perception, when we search for original solutions, approaching a phenomenon

differently.

The development of the perception capacity lies in measuring our attention when examining a

phenomenon. We’ll find that there are differences between “to see” and “to look at”, between “to listen to”

and “to understand”, between “to touch” and “to feel”.

Habit is often an obstacle in reaching a superior level of our own perception because it “puts to

sleep” our attention. Perception is conditioned by the repetition of our experiences, formulas and ideas that

consolidate the organisation of our representations. Frequently, our habits slow down our capacity of

appreciating positively the new things.

Language conditions the perception: even if it helps us to give a meaning to what we perceive, at

the same time it materialises the perception and prevent us from perceiving spontaneously the fineness of

what we observe.

It is important to know how to look, consider and study the situations differently – perceiving first

the aspects that can be improved.

Laws applied in innovation process

There are natural laws that are applied automatically, whether we want it or not, whether we

know about them or not. Among them we should mention the following:

5. Novelty is a rule, is a permanent presence in the way of seeing and feeling this world.

Everything evolves and is being transformed continuously, each entity passes through an

infinite number of innovations- from all points of view- we become aware that evolution is

made through repetitive changes- continuous or by leaps or that the present phase is “new”,

different from the previous one or from the others or it seems different because the context is

being changed.

6. We always choose the way to answer to life’s requests. We live with the consequences. Setting

the real priorities is part of life’s essence. We can say that life offers us a good turn when it

places obstacles on our way. Because of these obstacles we can grow and develop


permanently, we can live new experiences, we can live in a total new, innovative way, we

can transform ourselves in what we would like to be.

7. Between what is going on to us – stimulus- and our answer, there is our liberty, the power to

choose this answer. Choice liberty involves endowments like: imagination ( the ability to

create in our mind beyond present reality), moral conscience (a feeling of good and bad, of

principles that govern behaviour), automatic willingness ( the capacity of acting according to

our conscience, free from any other influence)

8. Evolution lies in our new ideas about who we are. We can be those who replace “good”

with “better”. Someone may not approve the others’ model about life, their ethic and

moral thinking, together with their understandings or decisions – but these “others”

agree with them relying on their own value criteria – that evolve at the same time with the

individuals and with the society.

9. Our perceptions and interpretations influence our emotions, deny or don’t deny

responsibility and bring up accusations. Accepting responsibility, we will accept our

selfishness, dependences and failures, leaving way for generosity, kindness and the right to

decide what is right and ethic and what is not. Each of us can make a conscious decision,

changing our interpretations- to change our world, to feel more mature and more

understanding. We cannot do something, being completely aware- we can be only

completely aware and to act as a consequence.

Perception change for possible success

1. The way we see a problem influences a lot its solving. We ca become aware of the fact that

some see a problem where others see only a possible solving, an opportunity.

2. Surpassing the type thinking becomes critical for our society. We can overpass the phase of

competition with ourselves if we enrich with a mentality of abundance, if we consider

seriously all our roles and see them all as sides of a whole in a strong interdependence. We can

create synergy and equilibrium in during in life if our roles become springs from which we live.

3. We live in an environment dominated by the verb to do and not to be; it is easy to be

caught in a whirlpool that doesn’t have anything in common with our creed and principles,

and instead of being governed by our mission, to be dragged by emergencies.

Possibilities for giving up to unwanted habits and the creation of others, new and wanted


1. There are powerful forces of opposition that act for counterattacking any new initiative. We can

inventory the moments, places and situations when we can break our own decisions. We can

avoid these obstacles and can add other elements that help us to progress and to fulfil our

decisions.

2. To end some tendencies such as to postpone, to criticize, to surpass self-imposed norms means

for several times a deep reorientation and transformation. We often need the transforming force

of an alliance with other people that have assumed similar obligations, of relationships where

we are obliged to do something.

The development of the society we belong to, where we are a part

2. Each of us can decide the rhythm and the direction of our development. When many members

of an organisation become aware of the fact that interdependence is a value much more useful

than independence, then we will know what to do, and- if we are mature enough- we will do.

3. There isn’t an easy and fast way of securing life’s quality in organisations- personal efficiency,

strong and fruitful relationships with the others- without following the natural process of

continuous transformation and growing. Life means stages, phases of growing and

developing. Each step has its own importance and asks for a certain time. The

phenomenon of causality in the physics domain functions also in the sphere of emotions, of

human relationships and of our own character. It is impossible to violate, ignore or to

frustrate the gradual process of individuals and society development. It’s against nature

and any attempt to shorten the way leads to disappointment and frustration. The more we

resort to temporary solutions for solving problems and severe troubles, the more chronic and

underground conditions and consequences get aggravated. Real maturation is characterized by

a step by step process of development.

4. If planning is based on a purpose or an all-inclusive vision and on the fidelity for a set of

principles, then those who are closest to the action and have to orient on the spot, can use

their own knowledge and judgement to make decisions and judge. Everyone can be

authorized to set objectives and to make plans according to natural universal principles.

An active politics of innovation contains:

• Promoting of persons and groups for innovation, creative and competent;

• Creation of a positive innovating environment;

• Devising innovation purposes that are according to the objectives of organisation

program.


Important activities:

• Creating and initiating innovating option in relation to changing processes, to those

of innovation in one’s own organisation;

• Initiation of gradual innovating phases with a clear devised objective;

• Correlation of innovations in a strategic system of the organisation.

Coordinates/ aspects of innovation in a training and improvement center

• Innovations of educational product (new products or services);

• Innovation of methods, as well as modifications in the process of combining the

influencing factors;

• Innovations of structure, as well as changes in the coordination of self-imposed tasks

of the participants; changes in the reports of authority or of the involvement systems;

• Social innovations – that are connected to behaviour change by means of

motivational systems etc.

Innovation strategy – basic questions:

• Where are we? (situation analysis)

• Where do we want to get to? (purpose setting)

• How can we get there? (strategy setting)

There are:

• Basic strategies

• Execution, fulfilment strategies etc.

Forming groups in a training and improvement center

Different results according to professional experience and intellectual aptitudes (training,

studies) of groups members.

1. Heterogeneous teams from the professional experience point of view, but homogenous as

intellectual training are superior to the other types of teams.

2. Teams which are homogenous as experience and heterogeneous as intellectual training

get the poorest results.

3. It is necessary and useful the creation of teams of members belonging to more domains.

Behaviour characteristics and their interdependence with programs functions


Program functions Behaviour characteristics of people Orientation to purpose and action Orientation to risk Orientation to relation Orientation to feelings, sensibility Orientation to structure and speciality/ domain

Orientation to rational

Orientation to order and method Orientation to order

Structural model - Behaviour characteristics of people

Characteristics/ description

Orientation to order

Orientation to risk

Orientation to rational

Orientation to feelings, sensibility

Certainty/ security

Through rules, Phase objectives, traditions

Demolishing barriers/ limits with “cheers”

Through technical tasks and logics

Through acceptance, own opinion, group opinion - adopts

Conflict Searches of experience, examples, steadiness

Searches of the others’ mistakes, sudden landings -resigns, breaking relationships

Solving in the objective/ real plan, inclination to cynicism

Conciliatory, mediator

Specific potential of career

Orientation after rules, progresses through scrupulous fulfilment of methods

Surpassing borders, traditions, rapidity, visions

Realist, lucid worker that acts in a logic, analytic environment

Contact, concluding together with the team, identification with the common purposes

Selective bibliography:

1. Avram Tripon, Innovation Management. Synthesis and applications, “Petru Maior” University

Printing House, 2002;

2. Avram Tripon, Communication in organisations, “Petru Maior” University Printing House, 2002;

3. Virgil Popa, ERC and quality management, Valahia Printing House, Târgovişte, 2001;

4. Liviu Druguş, Health Management, Sedcom Libris Press, Iaşi, 2002.


ADVANTAGES OF USING JOHNSON’S RULES IN JOB SHOP

SCHEDULLING

Liviu MARIAN and HERMANOVSKI Laszló

“Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu-Mureş, ROMANIA

Abstract: Operations control concerns meeting the short-term, specific plans. Its principal

activities, therefore, are to authorize instructions to complete the tasks necessary to meet

customer’s orders, to ensure that all requirements to make the products are available as and when

they are needed.

An operational control system has three phases: loading – the initial assignment of a job to

a part of the process (e.g. work center or person), sequencing – determining the best order in which

a set of jobs will be completed at each stage in the process and scheduling – involves the allocation

of a start and finish time to each particular order.

To produce schedules, an organization may start from the capacity and aggregate plans,

and produce detailed instructions on the sequence and times for each operation it intend to carry

out. Having to optimize many factors simultaneously makes scheduling a complex job. Operations

scheduling in jobbing and batch production (intermittent systems) is different from that in mass and

process production (repetitive production). Separate processes that can produce a wide range of

items either individually or in batches characterize Job shops. Managers have to focus their

attention on these processes and on the orders that have to be moved through them. The job shop

has the highest variety and the more ad hoc procedure.

One particular scheduling problem is called the m x n machine-scheduling problem, where

m is the number of machines and n is the number of jobs. The m x n machine-scheduling problem

has been solved for m = 1, 2 and arbitrary values of n. However, Johnson’s rule for two stations it


is designed to minimize both processing and idle time. Efficient optimal algorithms have not been

developed for m = 3 because of the extremely large number of possible sequences.

Although Johnson’s sequencing rules has a great deal of theoretical interest, it has not been applied

much in practice. This is because real sequencing problems involve a great deal of variability in

processing times, multiple objectives, and other complicating factors. Nevertheless, the rule is

useful for gaining insight into scheduling problems and for suggesting approaches that might be of

value in practice.


MANAGING CHANGE - THE PEOPLE DIMENSION OF CHANGE

Lia Codrina CONŢIU, „Petru Maior” University of Târgu-Mureş, ROMANIA

Abstract: Our paper is an overview of change management, pointing out a few things about

its history. We also draw a distinction between the organizational and the individual change

management focusing on the people dimension. As changes in organizations have become more

frequent and a necessity for survival, we consider that change management is essential for every

business organization. Failing to manage the human side of change results in inefficient and

unsuccessful change projects and an inability to realize new business strategies and objectives.

Change management along the history

Change management is the application of many different ideas from the engineering,

business and psychology fields. But during the years the tem ‘change management’ has developed

and now it encompasses more skills and knowledge from each of these fields of study than before.

Since Frederick Taylor’s work in the late 19th century, we understood change management

as making changes to the operations of a business seen as a mechanical system. The managers

focused on observable, measurable business elements that can be changed or improved, including

business strategy, processes, systems, organizational structures and job roles.

The change can be progressive as in the continuous process improvement methods such as

Total Quality Management, or radical, as in business process reengineering – which started with

Michael Hammer’s book Reengineering the Corporation by Michael Hammer in the 1990’s.

The psychologists were concerned about how humans react to their environment and how an

individual thinks and behaves in a particular situation. As humans are often exposed to change,

many thinkers have studied how they react to change.


Contributions from both the engineering and psychology fields are producing a convergence

of thought that is crucial for successful design and implementation of business change. In other

words, a business must constantly examine its performance, strategy, processes and systems to

understand what changes need to be made. Increasing external and internal factors have made this

strategy essential for survival. However, an organization must also understand the implications of a

new business change on its employees that ultimately execute the new day-to-day activities and

make the new processes and systems come to life in the business.

In the 60’s, the values of control, consistency and predictability created an environment

where change was simply a plan to implement or an adjustment to a mechanical system. Although

helpful, change management was not a required competency in this environment.

Time passed and business improvement initiatives – including Edward Deming’s teachings

post World –War II, the earliest quality circles from Toyota, Six Sigma from Motorola, Total

Quality Management (TQM) from AT & T and Ford, empowered teams, and many others initiatives

– came to the forefront. Business leaders embraced, if at least for some period of time, one or more

of these business initiatives.

A new culture has evolved in many of today’s businesses where a new generation of

employees:

• Take ownership and responsibility for their work (accountability);

• Have pride in workmanship and look to improve their work processes;

• Feel empowered to make decisions that improve their product and the level of

customer service.

With the introduction of these new values, employee resistance to change should be

expected. So, failing to manage the human side of change results in inefficient and unsuccessful

change projects and an inability to realize new business strategies and objectives.

Different perspectives on change management

Change management can be viewed from two perspectives – from those implementing the

change and from the recipients of change.

The managers’ perspective on change is results oriented. They are very aware of the

business issues facing the organization and are accountable for the financial performance of the

company. In many cases, executives or senior business leaders must weigh the return on investment

of this change as compared to other strategic initiatives in the company.


Front-line employees do not have a day-to-day view of the business issues. Day-to-day

operations are their focus. Serving customers, processing orders, getting the job done – these are the

primary areas of interest. When changes are made, many employees lack the broader context or

knowledge base of why the change is being made. They also do not share the same accountability as

managers. They question, therefore, how the change will impact them personally.

Even more, the consultant or project team, who is responsible to design and implement the

change, has its own agenda acting on behalf of the business leaders who charted the change. The

result is a potentially dangerous mix of different priorities, different knowledge sets and different

driving forces. If the change is not managed properly, these different values and driving forces clash

resulting in unfortunate outcomes for the business:

• Employees resist the change;

• Valued personnel leave the organization;

• Critical projects are delayed;

• Customers feel the impact indirectly through upset employees;

• Productivity declines.

So, change management must start at the beginning of the project and be integrated into all

facets. Both perspectives of change management must be addressed: the managers and the

employees.

Jeff Hiatt, author of Employee’s Survival Guide to Change, says, “change management is

the effective management of a business change such that executive leaders, managers and front line

employees work in concert to successfully implement the needed process, technology or

organizational changes”.

The goal of management is to implement these business changes quickly to:

• Minimize the impact on productivity;

• Avoid unnecessary turnover or loss of valued employees;

• Eliminate any adverse impact on your customers;

• Achieve the desired business outcomes as soon as possible.

Organizational change management

Organizational change management is the management of change from the perspective of a

manager or project team. It is the perspective of business leadership from the top looking down into

the organization. The focus is around broad change management practices and skills that will help

the organization understand, accept and support the needed business change. The primary focus is


around change management strategies, communication plans and training programs. The involved

parties include project team members, human resources and key business leaders that sponsor the

change.

For organizational change management there is a need to build knowledge and abilities in

the following areas:

• Change management team structures;

• Change management roles;

• Critical barriers to implementing change;

• Change management planning and strategies;

• Managing employee resistance;

• Organizational change management methodologies;

• Building executive sponsorship;

• Creating communication plans;

• Creating training and educational programs;

• Incentive and recognition programs.

Individual change management

Individual change management is the management of change from the perspective of the

employees. They are the ones who ultimately must implement the change. The focus here is around

the tools and techniques to help an employee transition through the change process. The primary

concerns are the coaching required to help individuals understand their role and the decisions they

make in the change process.

For individual change management there is a need to build knowledge in the following

areas:

• Diagnosing resistance to change;

• Models for managing individual change;

• Decisions and consequences around supporting change that face employees;

• Coaching tools and techniques for helping employees navigate the change process;


242

• Activities and exercises for supervisors to use with their employees to manage

change.

Two dimensions of change

Change happens on two dimensions: the business dimension and the people dimension (see

fig. 1)

Source: “ADKAR” – a model for change management, Change Management Tutorial Series, PROSCI Change Management Learning Center 2004 (www.change-management.com)

The business dimension of change includes the typical project elements:

• Business need or opportunity is identified;

• Project is defined (scope and objectives);

• Business solution is designed (new processes, systems and organizational structure);

• New processes and systems are developed;

• Solution is implemented into the organization.

The people dimension of change is how employees experience the change process. In a study

with 248 companies, made by Prosci – Change Management Learning Center, effective change

management with employees was listed as one of the top-three overall success factor for the project.

Helping managers be effective sponsors of change was considered the most critical success factor

overall.


243

Effective management of the people dimension of change requires managing five key phases

that form the basis of the ADKAR model:

PROSCI Change Management Learning Center, 2004 (www.change-management.com)

• Awareness of the need to change – lack of it will bring up resistance

• Desire to participate and support the change – negative or positive consequences

• Knowledge of how to change (and what the change looks like) – role models or training

education

• Ability to implement the change on a day-to-day basis – it needs time and ongoing support &

coaching

• Reinforcement to keep the change in place – rewards, positive encouragement

If we are deploying a major change in our organization then a critical step in change

management is organizational awareness of the reason for change. Desire to change at the

Source: Using ADKAR to manage change, The power of knowledge,


employee level must be addressed as resistance will be a natural reaction to change. As the

change moves into implementation, we will need to develop knowledge about the change and

the ability to implement new skills and behaviors. Once the change is in place, we will need to

reinforce the change to avoid moving backwards to old behaviors.

Conclusions:

Change management is a required competency in business today. The shift in the core values

of employees to empowerment, and accountability has created a work force that will embrace

change as long as they are part of the process.

So, how do we manage change? Fred Nickols answers that “we manage it pretty much the

same way we would manage anything else of a turbulent, messy, chaotic nature. It is more a matter

of leadership ability than management skill. The task of change management is to bring order to a

messy situation, not pretend that it is already well organized and disciplined.”

References:

1. Jeff Hiatt, Tim Creasey, The definition and history of change management, Change

management tutorial series, 2004, (Change Management Learning Center at www.change-

management.com);

2. Jeff Hiatt, Tim Creasey, An overview of change management, Change management tutorial

series, 2004;

3. Tim Creasey, “ADKAR” – a model for change management, Change Management Tutorial

Series, 2004;

4. PROSCI - Change Management Learning Center , Best Practices in Change Management, 2003;

5. Fred Nickols, Change Management 101, A Primer, 2004;

6. Warren G. Bennis, Kenneth D. Benne, and Robert Chin (Eds.)., The Planning of Change

(2nd edition), Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1969;

7. Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon, Human Problem Solving, Prentice Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, 1972.


INCREASING QUALITY OF DECISION USING INFORMATICAL

PRODUCTS

Ioan RUS, „Petru Maior” University of Târgu-Mureş, ROMANIA

Abstract: Economical informatics is the most spread component of informatics, with the

greatest number of implementations as compared to other domains, in my opinion. As component of

economical informatics, managerial informatics has a wider spreading. This is a consequence of

the fact that data volume a manager gestions or consults is harder and harder to control without

computer’s help.

What is actually the problem?

In decisional activity, quality depends on two requests that must be satisfied:

- to supply information necessary for the analysis of the deviations

from target;

- to chose the proper decision from the various possibilities,

according to the followed purpose;

The problem is how can we satisfy these demands with software products, or more exactly

how can we increase quality of decision, using software products, especially in the obvious

situation of Romanian economy ? I underlined Romanian economy because from this point of view

too, our economy, in its long transition period, has to clarify what should be done and also how?

Paper’s objective

The paper wishes to identify a problem whose solving would open ways and means to

increase quality of the decisional act, by informatical means.

I analyze the problem in two ways:

Part I: Organizational Development:


Step 1: we see where we are

Step 2: we decide towards where we want to go

Step 3: we show what we have to do

Part II: a SWOT analysis

Step 1: analysis of strengths

Step 2: analysis of weaknesses

Step 3: analysis of opportunities

Step 4: analysis of threats.

PART I: Organizational Development (OD), a strategy for major changes:

Step 1: Where do we stand?

Managerial Informatics is that part of it is used in the decisional process at different

hierarchical levels. As compared to regular characteristics of economical Informatics, managerial

Informatics operates with aggregated pieces of information at different levels of synthesis. These

pieces of information can indicate phenomena, tendencies, characteristics, causes and effects that

could be extremely important for the organization’s management, for the internal climate of it or for

concurrence. Due to these special characteristics, informatical processes for organization's

management has to respect some specific requests. I identified few of these characteristics:

Typical requests for managerial informatics:

1. information should refer to the process in development

2. information should be relevant for management

3. work with data has to be very exact and accurate

4. algorithms, processing methods, the way information is being

presented have to be easy to understand for the managerial stuff

5. data has to be kept in the form it had been processed to ensure

modulation, simulation, self-teaching and artificial intelligence

support

6. the circuit and security of data have to be well defined, ensured

and controlled

Managerial Informatics contains the most important pieces of information a company has,

necessary for the leaders in order to take decisions.

Efficiency of the leaders is reflected in the economical efficiency of the company, being a

condition for it. Management supervises the evolution of the process in development according to

the international system, analyzing deviations from the established objectives and taking measures


in order to reduce them. Lack of information – the base for the entire informatical system leads to

the impossibility to take right decisions. Efficiency of the leaders is, undoubtedly influenced by the

nature of the information used and by its quality.

A personal point of view:

In my opinion, pieces of information used in the decisional process are of two kinds:

1. quantity information, which measures in various ways the grade of accomplishments and

deviations from the established target.

2. quality information, multiples positive effects of the decision, defining more variants

and choosing from these the most beneficial for the accomplishment of the established objective

As the basic information for a decision has been delimitated into two parts, specific software

products can also be delimitated in the same manner. Managerial informatics can be regarded as

having two components: quantity and quality components

Quantity component contains all techniques, programs and equipment that contribute to the

increase of the quantity and quality used as a decisional support.

From the quantity component are part all informatical applications or gestion systems,

financial sphere, economical gestion sphere, operative or even statistical evidence. Informatical

products in this category influence the quality of the decisional act through the quality of the

information and reports they offer to management.

These software products deal with high volume data and are used in repetitive cycles of

high frequency.

The quality component contains all techniques, programs and equipment that contribute to

the increase of the quality and efficiency of decisional act, creating decisional variants for a proper

use of resources and choosing from these the one that fits best to the followed objective.

I consider that quality component contains all informatical applications and systems that

implement mathematical methods at decisional level also methods and algorithms of operational

researches category. These informatical products influence quality of decisional act allocating in a

proper manner resources and mathematically correlating the decisional variant and the established

objective.

Analyzing economical and financial effects that managerial Informatics’ components

produce upon companies’ results, I think that “Pareto’s law” (Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923)-

sociologist and economist), can make a correct appreciation of the balance between projection of

effort/implementation and the obtained effects. More specific this law would be formulated like

this: 80% of the effort used in order to produce and implement programs in the quantity component

of software products, can produce 20% of the effects, meanwhile, for the quality component of


248

software products for management, 20% of the effort can produce 80% of the effects. In figure

number 1 this idea is graphically reflected. We could explain these in the case of a construction

company too:

implementation of a preferment financial system needs big resources (will note

this with R) and has few effects upon economical results of the company (will

mark this with E). This system ensures a proper wave of information for

management so that its quality increases. All in all, the effect of every managerial

measure is reflected in value and money (supplementary profit). Based on the

above reasoning , economical effect produced would be E=R/4.

implementation of a leading system based on projects concerning papers’

programs for a proper use of resources brings the followings effects: the exact

definition of tasks and adequate motivation for employees; exact decision upon

necessary resources and terms for every project (objective) and phase; use of all

resources in all steps, elaboration of a supplying program with the minimum from

the stock, respecting the terms to hand in the papers to the clients, operative

reallocation of the resources in case program errors occur, etc.

Based on the above reasoning, economical effect that this system produces would be E=4R,

where R is the use of resources for projection/implementation.

QU

Figure number 1- the balance Effort(R)/Effect(E), according to “Pareto’s law”

Despite what I said above, my idea wasn’t to diminish the role and necessity to implement

informatical products of economical gestation, but only to emphasize the huge amount of resources

created by the implementation of the models belonging to operational researches sphere in

management’s.

ANTITY QUALITY

component component

Effort(R) (80%)

Effect (E) 20%

Effort(R) 20%

Effect (E) 80%

MANAGERIAL INFORMATICS


I consider this a special modality to increase competition among Romanian companies,

emerging economical effects produced by decision in the companies’ activities.

Due to the invasion of personal computers (so-called PCs) on our market, after the 90’s,

took place a revolution of the entire informatics, with consequent benefits, that can be the topic of a

separate analysis. In what concerns our problem it is important to realize that in this period

economical gestion systems (economical administration, salaries, employees, etc.), recording results

systems (gestion of stocked products and of services) and clients’, suppliers’, sells’ administration

developed mostly.

In our country, in mot cases, managers in almost all levels use informatics as a source of

information. They consult different reports or analyze situations obtained through quantity data

elaboration used as a base for decisions. These pieces of information are gathered in different

ways:

- systematic access on the INTERNET;

- use of internal computer networks (INTANET)

- use of program packages or informatics systems for the gestion

- use of specific board spreadsheets

All I said above are considered very good things, sometimes this way of taking decisions is

used in 80-90% of the cases. Extraordinary, only that decisions taken according to this information

don’t lead to the improvement of conducted systems, but to their guiding towards the

accomplishment of the task. This is realized with an improper consume of resources.

I think I have already answered the question “where are we?” along with the image of the

clock after twelve.

Step 2: What do we want to accomplish?

As the economical effects that the implementation of informatical products can produce

from the quality component is about 16 time bigger (from R/4 to 4R) it is obvious that we have to

find means, methods and necessary resources for the implementation of this component of

managerial informatics too.

As a middle time objective would be equalizing the balance between two components in

what concerns the use of informatical applications in the decisional process. If we manage to do this

we’ll be heading towards relaxation in the activity of taking decisions, less time to gather

information and analyze data, less stress, more free time ( even for golf , if we take a look at the

symbolic image)


Step 3: What is to be done to reach the target?

To define what should actually be done we’ll have to underline several steps:

⇒ we analyze the problematic area from the quality component zone

⇒ we specify ways and models for the solving

⇒ we study the situation on the international market

⇒ we decide upon the action methods

Specialized literature identifies usually the following senses of action that are considered the

most important in the quality component sphere of managerial informatics:

1. introducing leading based on projects

2. proper schedule of activities: PERT method, critical way

3. reducing costs using proper resources: improvement of stocks, transport,

networks, multi-criteria, mathematical modulations, enterprising games,

simulations, etc.

4. reducing decisional effort using informatics

POSSIBILITIES TO IMPLEMENT QUALITY COMPONENTS:

Companies’ managers with private capital are searching for means to increase performance

and activities they are dealing with. Hardly do managers invest in any component of informatics

whose effect can not be predicted as sure. They can not make requests, won’t assume the risk to

allocate resources, first of all because most of them don’t have basic knowledge in this domain.

Specialists in informatics offer a small range programs in this category, and when they do it,

their prices are very high.

Which can be the solution?

In the given condition, I identified the following solutions:

1. to organize courses (even post - universitary) to present program packages from

this domain.

2. to simulate assimilation and promotion of these informatical products, by the

effort of specialized companies.

3. to give money from the budget in order to have a detailed study of these products

in specialized schools: informatical colleges, economical sciences, management

and engineering.

4. to contact supply companies in order to identify ways of promoting these

informatical products.


I consider that all the ways to promote the implementation of these products will be

successful as long as specialists in informatics will unite forces with economists’ and managers’

solutions. In fact, this is what the image near the question suggests.

Part II: SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats)

If we start from the necessity to implement informatical products from quality components,

meaning those that deal with models of operational researches, we can analyze this using the

technique known as “ SWOT analysis”.

This technique is about analyzing and clarifying for aspects concerning weaknesses,

strengths, opportunities and threats. Figure 2 presents the essential elements of SWOT analysis [1].

Step 1: Analysis of strengths

By “ strengths “ we understand those aspects of the analyzed problem that give superiority

to it. Among our problems’ strengths I identified the followings:

- a very good balance between effort and performance ( from R/4 to 4R)

- increase of the probability to take correct and proper decisions

- less stress caused by the decisional act

- less work volume

- opportunity to rebuild forces in free time, bigger trust in the decisional act

STRENGHTS

WEAKNESSES

OPPORTUNITIES

THREATS

Fig. 2: Elements of SWOT analysis

Step 2: Analysis of weaknesses

By “weaknesses” we understand those negative aspects of the analyzed problem that can

lead to measures that would raise performance, by analysis. Among weaknesses I identified the

followings:

- lack of knowledge in the management’s sphere

- informatical products from this category are harder accessible as products prepared

for unprofessional users


- to be used they need minimal knowledge in operational researches and the use of

computer.

Step 3: Analysis of opportunities

By opportunities we understand the necessity and advantages to implement such program

products. Among opportunities I identified the followings:

- the use of informatics in project’s management or improvement’s is little talked

about

- implementation of this program offers a chance of business at where informatics ,

management, lead processes meet

- effects that this implementation produce, can improve the balance between effort

and effect, in favor of the second one.

Step 4: Analysis of threats

By threats we understand obstacles or dangers that stand in the solving of the analyzed

problem. Among threats I identified the followings:

- an economical environment that doesn’t work properly

- positive effects obtained with the help of these implementation can also be obtained

by other means located at the edge between legal and illegal ( auctions and prices

above normal values, financial engineerings, use of black work forces)

- users’, managers’, specialists’ fear of unknown

- because of the things mentioned above, implementation of these programs supposes

taking risks and can determine performers’ oppositions and resistance.

Some Conclusions:

1. I considered useful and necessary to present a personal point of view

referring to the classification of informatical products from the

managerial informatics sphere

2. for the analysis of the studied problems I used two recent methods of

analysis, known in specialized literature: Organizational Development

(OD)- for the implementation of changes and SWOT analysis- for

problems’ analysis

3. implementation of informatical products from the sphere of operation

researches can influence positively the balance between the necessary

effort and the effect produced.


4. There are premises and opportunities for the implementation of these

informatical products.

5. teaching can have important tasks and responsibilities in this domain.

6. delimitation of program products from managerial informatics sphere in

two groups, quantity and quality components offer the author the

possibility to make a clear analysis of the balance between the effort

necessary for implementation and the effects obtained.

7. the paper analyzes the discussed problem at global level but

with clear methods, elements and conclusions.

Bibliography:

1. [CODECS01] - Course BZT751, Managementul schimbării, Open University Business School,

U.K., 1993;

2. [CODECS02] - Management de proiect, after Dennis Lock, Romanian version, Codecs,

Bucharest 2000 ;

3. [Court97] - Court A.W.- The relationship Between Information and Personal Knowledge in New

Product Development, in “International Journal of Information Management”, vol. 17, No. 2, 1997;

4. [Rus2000c] - Rus Ioan – Studiu comparativ Oracle-Informix-Sybase in „PC Report magazine”

number 84, september 1999, Tg. Mures or http:/pcreport.ro/pcrep84/053.shtml.


INCREASING EFFECTIVENESS THROUGH ELECTRONIC

BRAINSTORMING

HERMANOVSKI Laszlo, “Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu Mureş, ROMANIA

Abstract: There are several reasons why brainstorming sessions are not very effective:

production blocking, evaluation anxiety, free riding. This paper shows that electronic

brainstorming through anonymity, parallel entry of ideas, innovation, size of the group and

proximity can overcome some of these barriers and can lead to more effective meetings.

No good idea should ever be lost!

Everyone has thousands of good ideas within them just waiting to come out. The problem is

creating an environment where those ideas can come out without feeling the fear of making

mistakes.

In raw nature, mistakes can mean injury, dying, or being eaten by predators. In the human

jungle, mistakes usually lead to mental pain rather than physical pain. And yet mental pain can

seem much more frightening to many people than the fear of physical pain. The fear of making

mistakes at work can be the greatest fear of all because it can lead to the destruction of an

individual's vision of their future. Some people see the smallest of mistakes at work leading to lack

of promotion, reduced salary, and even unemployment - and all of the social problems associated

with this. And now you put these people in a room and tell them to put forward crazy ideas that may

not work!

Brainstorming is a method for developing creative solutions to problems. Since its birth in

1941, brainstorming has spread throughout the world. The technique is known to most educated

managers but, sadly, is often applied inefficiently because of poor training and lack of access to

quality training material.


Brainstorming works in a freethinking environment by focusing on a problem. Using a set of

specific rules and techniques, which remove inhibitions, people are encouraged to think more freely

and build on the ideas raised by others. Only when the brainstorming session is over, the ideas are

evaluated. Out of the many ideas suggested there would always be some of great value.

There are several reasons why traditional brainstorming may not be very effective:

1. Production blocking. Only one member of the group can communicate at a given

moment so participants have to compete for time to speak; the result is that waiting members may

forget or suppress their ideas, thus blocking their “production”. While they listen, they may think

of relevant ideas but by the time it is their turn to contribute, the ideas may be forgotten. However,

these unexpressed ideas - if they would have been offered - might have stimulated someone else to

build upon them, perhaps leading to a better solution to the problem.

2. Evaluation apprehension. One of the main reasons why some individuals may withhold

ideas is because of the fear that others will criticize it, or criticize them for forwarding the idea.

While criticism is not allowed in a brainstorming session, unspoken-criticism it may occur after the

meeting among participants. Also, a lower-level participant may feel uncomfortable speaking out

on an idea that he or she believes the supervisor would not support, or an idea that may be openly

ridiculed after the meeting. Higher-ranking members often dominate the meeting in comparison

with lower-ranking members and there is of course the pressure on the lower ranking member to

conform to higher-ranking members viewpoint.

3. Free riding. Individuals have a tendency to put less effort into a group project than they

would if they were working independently. For instance, some people feel more comfortable

offering an idea only after they have had the time to think it through. Meetings usually have the

pressure of time, as a result, certain ideas, thought up during the meeting, will not be helpful.

3. Size. Group size seems to be a limiting factor. There is a limit to how many people can

effectively work in a group. The more people in a group, the less of a chance there is for each

member to speak because the members have to wait their turns in traditional brainstorming sessions.

In addition, meeting schedules are constantly rearranged owing to conflicts in schedules among the

members.

It is well known that managers spend from 30 to 80 % of their time in meetings; half of that

time is considered to be useless. Electronic brainstorming (EBS) can change the behavior of the

group, improve effectiveness of meetings and overcome some of the above-mentioned barriers.

Organizations should look at EBS as a means to enhance the quality and quantity of ideas and as a

way to reduce time spent in traditional meetings.


Electronic brainstorming is a new technique compared with traditional brainstorming, which

reduce problems associated with group work. Specifically, EBS gives participants the opportunity

to silently and anonymously gather ideas efficiently on a specific question or issue by typing them

into a computer, which quickly displays them on everyone’s monitor. There is no need to wait for

your turn because the technology eliminates the problem of “talking over one another.” Idea

generation continues until the group has exhausted all of its ideas. A brainstorming software allows

the ideas that were generated in the meeting to be recorded for later use, helps reduce redundant

ideas, provides participants with periodic feedback about the number and types of ideas and assists

the team with the discussion and consolidation of its ideas.

With regard to whether EBS can improve group effectiveness, the answer is yes.

Investigations that have been conducted show that electronic brainstorming groups generate more

ideas than do verbal brainstorming groups, particularly for larger group sizes, it speeds up the

meeting process at which it is used, increases productivity, and allows the focus to remain on the

ideas rather than on the people who generate them. EBS can improve group work because it allows

members to work simultaneously.

Through an examination of the process gains and losses inherent to different brainstorming

approaches, researchers conclude that the process gain versus the process loss advantages of

electronic brainstorming technologies may not be large enough to enable electronic brainstorming

groups to outperform nominal groups. Electronic brainstorming is not superior in all circumstances,

but it has consistently performed better than traditional brainstorming when the number of

participants is large. Studies performed demonstrate that the electronic brainstorming groups of nine

or larger consistently outperform the verbal brainstorming groups.

There are many reasons for management to consider whether their company should institute

the use of electronic brainstorming.

1. Proximity. Many times, it’s difficult to set up a meeting. One or more of the desired

participants may not be able to attend. Using EBS group members do not need to be present in the

same place as long as they have computer-linked workstations and the appropriate software. When

a creativity session involves people from various sites and localities, the electronic mechanism

becomes even more valuable as it eliminates travel time and expense. Furthermore, the time spent

in the meeting is clearly reduced.

2. Anonymity: The non-face-to-face environment allows everyone to focus more on the

creativity task at hand, and less on the personal and social aspects of interaction. The anonymity

shields them from personal comments; comments are directed at ideas and not at the persons

voicing them. “Half-baked ideas don’t get laughed at. They become catalysts for discussion, and


people take them and run with them. It’s unique.” The ideas, by themselves, are considered more

important than the person who stated them. Anonymity eliminates evaluation apprehension.

Anonymity encourages a more open and honest environment. It seems that, with anonymity, group

members will generate more analytical comments than they would in traditional groups. Anonymity

it is important, particularly in cases where there is a power and status difference in the group. In a

research that studied 800 people, productivity ranged from 25 to 50 per cent for four-person groups

and to about 200 per cent for 12-person groups. The same research showed that the quality of ideas

generated with EBS was higher than that in traditional brainstorming groups.

3. Equality With EBS, no individual can dominate another person through rank, status, or

raised voice to exercise power. Since members can input ideas at the same time, no individual can

dominate an EBS session. This is a way to ensure equality to the participants. Lower level

individuals, who may not be respected because of their jobs or minority status and normally not

given a voice, become, enabled to voice their opinions with this technology. Since everyone feels

equal and can suggest their ideas, the quantity of ideas may be increased and the variety of

suggestions enhanced. With equality, when all hierarchical levels are involved in the decision-

making, the group may get quicker approval for decisions. Equality among members tends to

reduce feelings of guilt and embarrassment. When members feel more equal, they may be more

efficient.

4. Parallel entry of ideas. Since all participants enter work at the same time, individuals can

immediately generate ideas without interrupting anyone. The participants are able to enter ideas at

any time. EBS renders all the participants an equal opportunity to express their views and ideas.

Because EBS members feel that they can express their thoughts freely, and there is no need to

suppress their feelings, upper management can obtain more ideas than in the regular meeting

sessions. In this way, there is more equality. In addition EBS may allow meetings to take half the

time or less time than they used to take without the electronic aids.

5. Size: The size of the group affects the structure of the session: smaller groups (seven or

fewer individuals) tend to complete tasks more quickly and reduce the potential for group

domination or social loafing; on the other hand, larger groups (twelve or more individuals) are

better problem solvers and idea generators because there are more individuals thinking.

Sometimes the number of participants is restricted by the size of the room. When planning

face-to-face meetings, there’s always a tendency to keep the group to a reasonable size by

eliminating some people. However such "outsiders" often make major contributions and bring new

insights. When it comes to the size of the group, EBS has no limit. It can easily accommodate

brainstorming meetings of groups of 12 members or more. When the group is larger, more people


from different levels of the organization may participate. As more levels are presented in the

decision-making, more of the entire organization becomes involved. Thus, there is a contribution to

the meeting from a wider experience, knowledge, and skills “bank”. In comparison, traditional

brainstorming works best with groups of only five to 12 members.

6. Novelty: EBS is considered by most to be a new technology. In any case, because it is a

novel mechanism, it tends to generate interest and curiosity. It has been found that peoples who

apply EBS develop a sense of achievement with it. The members frequently work harder and

produce more ideas because it seems there is more participation within the group. Information is

processed faster using EBS than with verbal information channels. Individuals seem to be more

concise when working with the keyboard than when talking or writing.

7. Ideas can be recorded for future sessions. Suppose all members cannot meet at the same

time, but they would still like to know what had occurred in a meeting. With EBS, they have the

option of “viewing” the session. Since the session messages are automatically saved, the group no

longer needs to use a person to write down a singular version of the result of the meeting. The result

is more accurate records than were available previously when other means of brainstorming were

used. In traditional brainstorming ideas often got unused because they cannot be retrieved easily.

Members who cannot attend a meeting and who still need to be informed of what had occurred in

the meeting, can do so with this technology.

Of course, there are disadvantages to electronic brainstorming. One of the most obvious is

the loss of social interaction; while face-to-face teams are often less efficient, the nonverbal signs

present in such settings help build trust and collegiality among team members. Because electronic

brainstorming allows for idea generation and sharing in an anonymous environment, individuals

may not receive the credit they feel they are due. Consequently, some group members will feel that

there is no motivation to participate.

The study of electronic brainstorming has reached a crossroad: there is a reasonably large

body of often-positive research that shows clear benefits from use, and yet adoption by practitioners

has been minimal. Most of the researchers have focused primarily on the number of ideas

generated. But is the number of ideas the primary concern of the individuals in a brainstorming

session? Perhaps other outcomes are equally, if not more, important.

The evidence is conclusive that verbal brainstorming is the least effective technique for

generating ideas. However, despite all of the evidence pointing to the disadvantages of verbal

brainstorming, it is still more widely used. One immediately plausible possibility is that verbal

brainstorming is used because it is less expensive than electronic brainstorming. After all, electronic

brainstorming requires the use of computer hardware and software that may not be available to


participants without the purchase of additional hardware and software. In addition, there are the

setup and configuration costs of the software and hardware to support these activities. An

alternative for small companies may be to lease time from organizations that have EBS already

installed for applicable situations in which larger groups may be involved.

Unlike verbal brainstorming, electronic brainstorming cannot “just happen;” the

infrastructure must be in place first and the users must be familiar with its operation. Thus, we must

look more deeply.

One widely used theory that examines the adoption of technology (Technology Acceptance

Model) argues that the adoption of a new technology - or a new technique - depends upon the

perceived ease-of-use and the perceived usefulness of the technology or technique. While it is

plausible that verbal brainstorming could be perceived as easier to use than electronic

brainstorming, it is hard to believe that ease-of-use is the primary reason that verbal brainstorming

is more popular than electronic brainstorming. This leaves us with the second possibility: perceived

usefulness. Users perceive that nominal group brainstorming and electronic brainstorming are not as

useful as verbal brainstorming. As it is noted above, overwhelming empirical evidence suggests

that verbal brainstorming is not as effective as electronic brainstorming. While it is possible that the

perceptions of participants are distorted so that they fail to believe that verbal brainstorming

produces fewer ideas, is also possible that, to participants, perceived usefulness is not measured

solely by the number of ideas produced; perceived usefulness includes other aspects that are at least

as important as the number of ideas. In this event, the question becomes: what other outcomes are

important to the users?

Groups are an important social structure in many organizations. When group members work

together verbally, the group and its members have a strong ability to reinforce preferred behaviors

and discourage less preferred behaviors. This includes the ability to use non-verbal cues to

influence group behavior, which is significantly more difficult under the other methods. In

electronic brainstorming, it is significantly more difficult to reinforce the group culture, particularly

when contributions are anonymous. The ability for group members to socialize and develop

relationships is also another important way in which members promote group well being.

Participants in verbal brainstorming sometimes view the brainstorming sessions as “fun” and “a

vacation” that provide a chance to relax with their co-workers, eat, and to apply a wide variety of

skills and knowledge to the solution of extremely difficult problems. Electronic brainstorming

reduces such socializing because it eliminates the interaction among group members. Although

electronic brainstorming does provide interaction, it tends to be more task-oriented. Finally, culture

and habitual norms may also play a key role in explaining why electronic brainstorming has not


been widely adopted. In many organizations today, the culture for group interaction is inherently

verbal; meetings are driven by the spoken word, not the written or typed word. While culture is

changeable, it often constrains action in the near term. Thus this reinforcement of existing culture

may be a constraint on the adoption of new techniques such as electronic brainstorming. As

organizations move to adopt the Internet and virtual teams become more common, we may see a

shift in culture and norms, so that electronic interaction becomes more routinized, and the use of

electronic brainstorming no longer seems alien.

With regard to the future, electronic brainstorming has just begun to penetrate organizations.

We are entering a world where we depend on technological resources. EBS allows participants to

work simultaneously, without being criticized, discourages anyone from dominating the meeting,

does not require real time interactions, provides an equal opportunity for everyone to participate,

allows no-limits group size and helps in recording ideas for future sessions. As more businesses

realize the potential of electronic brainstorming, its popularity will rise.

References:

1. Dennis, A.R., Aronson, J.E., Heninger, W.G. and Walker, E., Structuring time and task in

electronic brainstorming. MIS Quarterly 23, 1999;

2. Denis, A.R. and Valacich, J.S., “Computer brainstorms: more heads are better than one”,

Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 78, 1993;

3. Diehl, M. and Stroebe, W., Productivity loss in idea-generating groups: Tracking down the

blocking effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 1991;

4. Gallupe, R.B.; Dennis, A.R.; Cooper, W H.; Valacich, J.S.; Bastianutti L.M.; and

Nunamaker, J.F., Jc Electronic brainstorming and group size. Academy of Management

Journal, 35, 1992;

5. Gallupe, R.B., “Electronic brainstorming and group size”, Academy of Management Journal,

Vol. 35, 1992;

6. Stroebe, W. and Diehl, M., "Why groups are less effective than their members: On productivity

loss in idea generating groups.", European Review of Social Psychology, 1994;

7. Pinnsonneault, A. and Barki, H., "The Illusion of Electronic Brainstorming Productivity:

Theoretical and Empirical Issues.", Information Systems Research, 1999.



SERVICE MANAGEMENT – A GENDER APROACH

Angela ON and Adrian PETELEAN

“Petru Maior” University of Târgu-Mureş, ROMANIA

Abstract: Appreciating diversity is considered the next phase in academic development and

human resources practices but living this out in practice is a permanent challenge. Research in the

area of gender, as a dimension of diversity, is revealing new facets, becoming more complex and

gaining new forms. Debates about gender-related issues are played out continually on a socially

based discussion, and recently, with concerns on power, management, leadership, politics etc.

In this paper I present some aspects of the gender-related debates with connection to

general management studies and service management in particular.

The term „gender” is gaining popularity. Once, its meaning was assumed to be relatively

clear: it was used to refer to the social expectations and roles attributed to or experienced by people

based on their biological sex. Now gender is taking on a much broader and diffuse set of meanings,

becoming a general label for talking about women, men, the relationships between them, related

aspects of organizing, processes through which gender differentiated behaviour patterns are

enacted, and associated issues of power distribution. It encourages potentially non-partisan

analyses, although the emphasis of researches is still on women.

There is a general consensus on the issue that today both masculine and feminine approach

to leadership is equal in efficiency. To make stronger statements, „knowing that a particular

individual is female or male would not be a reliable indicator of the person’s leadership style”1.

1 Vecchio R., In Search of Leadership Advantage, The Leadership Quarterly 14 (2003), p.847;


Claims of „gender advantage” made by different scholars or journalists are often critiqued for their

lack of objectivity and lack of empirical rigor.2

Yet, there are a number of characteristics that are increasing in the importance to the future

success of organizations and their leaders. These characteristics are: concern for people,

interpersonal skills, intuitive management and creative problem solving.

There appears to be evidence that leadership talent is in short supply and becoming more

critical every day. Yet a potential source of creativity and talent that could fill this voids remains

dramatically untapped – namely women.

There is a controversial issue that concerns the organizational life, whether men and women

have different leadership styles. Many researchers argue that women have certain traits and

behaviors that conduct them to a relations-oriented leadership, which means that women leaders

exhibit a cooperative, empowering style3. From the same perspective, men are inclined toward

command-and-control, militaristic leadership style. Women find participative management more

natural than do men because they feel more comfortable interacting with people. Furthermore, it is

argued that women’s natural sensitivity to people gives them an advantage over men in encouraging

group members to participate in decision making.

This perspective shows that women managers may be better prepared to use these tools of

decision making than their male counterparts. Perhaps the most significant premise on which the

feminine leadership concept rests is the legitimacy accorded to emotional as well as rational approach.

Marilyn Loden, in her book Feminine Leadership: or How to Succeed in Business without Being One of

the Boys4 argued that feminine leaders “see the world through two different lenses concurrently and, as

a result, respond to situations on both the thinking and the feeling levels”.

The same idea is emerging from a psychological research (2001), which investigated the

relationship between the leadership style (human relations oriented and task oriented leadership

style) and the Psychological Type, in order to anticipate the most frequent managerial type in case

of women and men (as managers) and also the relations between the dimensions of these types and

the leadership style5. The research (which includes 60 subjects, Romanian women and men

managers) found a relative balanced leadership style exerted by women (a more complex and

complete one, with both relations-oriented and task-oriented behaviors), compared with men’s style,

2 Marshal J., Gender and Management. A Critical Review of Research, British Journal of Management, 1995, 6, S53-S62; 3 Paloş R., Diversitatea în organizaţii: tineri, vârstnici, femei, persoane cu nevoi speciale, în Manual de psihologia muncii şi organizaţională, Editura Polirom, 2004, p.304; 4 Loden Marilyn, Feminine Leadershiop: Or how to Succeed in Business Without Being One of the Boys, Times Books, New York, 1985; 5 Mihai Alice, Relaţia dintre leadership şi personalitate din perspectiva psihologiei organizaţionale, Revista de psihologie organizaţională, vol.I, nr.2, aprilie-iunie 2001, p.61-71.


which is exclusively task-oriented one (according to the mentioned study). The balanced style of

women managers is found to be determined by the intern pattern of the personality structure, which

allows a bidimensional orientation of the subject in a management situation.

On the other hand, many researchers concluded that there are apparently few, if any,

personality or behavioral differences between men and women managers. This is partially the result

of the fact that yet as women move up to corporate ladder, their identification with the male model

of managerial success becomes important; sometimes they consequently reject even the few

managerial feminine traits they may have earlier.

Whether male and female differences in leadership style do exist, they must be placed in

proper perspective. Both men and women leaders differ among themselves in leadership style.

“There are many more differences among members of the same sex than between men and women

in general” (Papalexandris, Bourantas, 1989). Accordingly, plenty of male leaders are relations-

oriented, and plenty of women practice command and control (the extreme task orientation). A new

term emerged to describe this situation – the androgynous leadership (Berdahl, 1996), which is

neither masculine nor feminine. It is based on personality traits and it is considered “healthier, since

it is most flexible to respond in appropriate ways across a variety of contexts”6

Considering the fact that leadership is situational, there isn’t a most effective or best

leadership style. The leader examines certain forces to determine which style best fits the situation.

The most effective leaders, men or women, appear to have high degree of versatility and flexibility

that enables them to adapt their behavior to the changing and contradictory demands made on them.

There remains however a major problem of low representation of women at the top level of

the management scales. The ratio for women managers seems to be lower as we move higher up in

the hierarchy and this is the situation even for particular industries (e.g. services), employing a large

number of women (banks, health services, personnel departments), where the percentage of

managerial positions held by men are disproportionately high.

There are many explanations for the weak representation of women in power positions that

makes the subject for different kind of researches: in sociology, anthropology, law, psychology and

so on. But from the management point of view, probably one of a woman’s most important obstacle

is her own doubts about her ability and competence. Women do not necessarily have a lower

achievement need, nor do they lack the desire to achieve – but their achievements gets channeled in

socially acceptable ways.


Service management in a complex environment

Until recently, there were some rules well defined regarding the business’s success. Those

rules were established by analyzing a great number of entrepreneurs, business individuals, most of

them men. The new century brings into the light a real explosive growth of the number of business

lead by women, in a diverse and turbulent environment. For management this means some changing

aspects: from control to self-control; from individual achievements to team leading for success;

from decision making only to motivating actions and decisions; from using power influence to

limitation of power in leading.

The feminine leadership approach seams to be more appropriate for those new accents, due

to the marriage of rational and intuitive problem solving style, compared with the masculine model

which relies on a rational view of the world. The area where feminine leaders may excel is the

service sector, because the most important skills requested in services is the concern for the others,

the capacity for expressing feelings, developing a personal rapport with customers through

empathy, sensitivity and willingness to expose them emotionally.

Either a result of evolution or because they have a lot more things to do at the same time

than men, there appears that women think in a more complex, multidimensional way. A woman

manager has to cope with professional and domestic problems using an impartial manner so that

anyone has to suffer. This certainly implies a lot of creativity for managing time effectively.

For some time it has been recognized that managers from a wide variety of industries are

rethinking performance measurement systems. This process – which includes the development of a

range of new performance measurement frameworks – is focused on enabling organizations to more

effectively meet the sophisticated, changing demands and challenges of their competitive

environment.

In service industry measuring performance is a permanent challenge for managers because it

has to do with customer satisfaction. This implies a more sensitive approach and instruments for an

accurate result of the satisfaction evaluation. The dimensions take into account for measuring

services performance usually are as shown in table 1.

It is well-known that many service organizations place an emphasis on financial and past

oriented dimensions instead of toward determinants of future success as the most valuable criteria

for satisfaction.

To the extent that women are overrepresented in the service industries, there is a gendered

aspect to such exploitation to which women are disproportionately subject.

6 Bem, S.L., Gender Schema Theory and the Romantic Tradition (1987), în Berdahl J., Gender and Leadership in


Table 1. The Dimensions of Service Performance

Performance dimensions Types of measures

Competitiveness Relative market share and position

Sales growth

Measures of the customer base

Financial performance Profitability

Liquidity

Capital structure

Market ratios

Quality of service Reliability/Responsiveness

Aesthetics/appearance

Cleanliness/tidiness

Comfort Friendliness

Communication, Courtesy, Competence

Access, Availability, Security

Flexibility Volume flexibility

Delivery speed flexibility

Specification flexibility

Resource utilization Productivity

Efficiency

Innovation Performance of the innovation process

Performance of individual innovators

Source: Fitzgerald et al. (1991) in Fitzimmons J., Fitzimmons M., Service Management for Competitive

Advantage, McGRAW-HILL International Editions, 1994;

The dimensions of service quality, as shown above, are usually judged by customers and

reflect the compared perceptions of service received with expectations of service desired. These

dimensions – reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy and tangibles.

On the other hand, there are concepts that define a relationship between specific service

activities and the gendered nature of the workplace. In her 1983 text, The Managed Heart, Arlie

Russell Hochschild powerfully dissects the dynamics of emotional labor7. The contrast is between

traditional, Marxist-inspired conception of labor and exploitation, according to which workers give

Work Groups, 1996. 7 Cranny-Francis et al., Gender Studies. Terms and Debates, Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2003, p.228;


their time and energy, but not necessarily their feelings, with the contemporary, less obvious,

requirements of workers that they manage their feelings in the interests of the workplace which

employs them. The management of the feelings requires stringent self-surveillance, and it comprises

work, involving possible insidious exploitative elements.

Consequently, emotional labor is the work of controlling and managing feelings in the

workplace. It may mean enhancing emotional expression or suppressing that expression, but in both

cases is aimed at constructing a positive image of the company and maximizing company profit.

It is Hochschild’s contribution in claiming about “the commercialization of human feeling”,

particularly because this is related to women. She speaks about a businessman who requested “a

smile” from the female attendant of an American Airline Company. The association of women with

caring and nurturance is persistent. Hochschild’s achievement is to show the relationship between

economic and emotional (hospitality) organizations, and the important role of gender in their

constant interplay.

Measuring satisfaction in the service industry is a challenge because customer satisfaction is

determined by many intangible factors. The quality often extends beyond the immediate encounter

having an impact on the future quality of life of the customer.

The managers of a for-profit service organization have an interest in delivering service as

efficiently as possible to remain price-competitive. Many successful service organizations have

established a set of values and expectations that encourages their employees to focus on delivering

exceptional services. They developed a specific culture by selecting and training contact personnel.

Conclusions. Increasingly our work and private environments are characterized by diverse

people, needs, demands and choices. Women are capable at managing such characteristically diverse

environments because of their interaction with modern values, tolerance of differences, and questioning of

social traditions.

Women’s leadership is often invisible, because it is characterized by “behind the scene”

activities, in contrast to highly visible action and personal promotion. Thus, a significant challenge

for many women is to make their achievements visible, promote their values and seek recognition

of such work.

References:

1. Berdahl L. Jennifer, Gender and Leadership in Work Groups, Leadership Quarterly, 7(1),

1996, p.21-40;


268

2. Cranny-Francis A., Warning W., Stavropoulos P., Kirkby J., – Gender Studies. Terms and

Debates, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2003;

3. Gerardi Silvia, Poggio Barbara, Creating and Recreating Gender in Organizations, Journal of

World Business, 36(3), p.245-259;

4. Marshall Judi, Gender and Management: A Critical Review of Research, British Journal of

Management, 1995, 6, p. 53-62;

5. Mihai Alice, Relaţia dintre leadership şi personalitate din perspectiva psihologiei

organizaţionale, Revista de psihologie organizaţională, vol.I, nr.2/2001, p.61-71;

6. Papalexandris Nancy, Burantas Dimitris, Atitudes Towards Women as Managers: the Case of

Greece; 1989;

7. Pasti Vladimir, Ultima inegalitate. Relaţiile de gen în România, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2003;

8. Vecchio R., In Search of Leadership Advantage, The Leadership Quarterly 14 (2003), p. 835-850;

9. Wirth Linda, Breaking through the Glass Ceiling. Women in Management, publicaţie a

Organizaţiei Internationale a Muncii (ILO), Biroul pentru Egalitatea Genurilor, 2002.

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