Om Namo Bhagvate Vasudevaya - Information and …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41234/6/... · Web viewINTRODUCTION The advanced phase of industrialization in the 20th

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The advanced phase of industrialization in the 20th century brought along

radical socio-economic and life style changes world over. The resultant modern life is

characterized by scarcity of resources and opportunities necessary for maintaining a

fair standard of living for human wellbeing in general. This is projected by the

sporadic reports of socio-economic distress and difficulties arising due to scarcity of

job opportunities and rising unemployment rate which has worsened further after the

advent of global recession. This is substantiated by the recent media reports about

high incidence of cases of suicides committed by farmers due to crop loss and

suicides amongst the general population due to job loss, stock market crash and

repayment defaults on personal loans. There are also reports about the rise in parental

anxiety in the urban centres of India due to their persistant experience of difficulties in

securing admission for their children to schools and colleges. These dismal trends

affecting human wellness are just a mere indication of the highly anxious milieu that

surrounds and compromises the well being of human life in general today. This is

endorsed by Sloan (1996), and Rosen (1998) who have reported that over the last few

decades, people seem to have become more anxious, worrying about safety, social

acceptance and job security more than that was in the past. The perceived trend is so

strong that even well known authors have labeled the twentieth century "the age of

anxiety" (Spielberger & Rickman, 1990, p 69). In this regard, two meta–analyses have

found self-reports of anxiety / neuroticism to have increased substantially from the

1950s to the early 1990s (Twenge, 2000). These illustrations from research studies

clearly authenticate the fact that modern life produces higher levels of anxiety and we

are presently a part of an increasingly anxious prone milieu.

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DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF ANXIETY

Darwin (1965) considered fear (anxiety) and rage (anger) to be universal

characteristics of both humans and animals. Darwin believed that these emotions have

evolved over countless generations through a process of natural selection because

they facilitated successful adaptation and survival. Freud (1936) conceptualized

anxiety as a signal indicating the presence of a danger situation. The perceived

presence of danger, whether from external sources or one’s own repressed thoughts

and feelings, evokes this unpleasant state of anxiety which then serves to warn the

individual that some form of adjustment is necessary. In his emphasis on adaptive

utility of anxiety in motivating behavior that helps an individual either to avoid or to

cope more effectively with danger, Freud’s danger signal theory is quite consistent

with Darwin’s evolutionary perspective. These perspectives emphasize the adaptive

and survival utility of anxiety inherent in the human genetic blueprint.

Seven decades of research on anxiety, since Freud first conceptualized

anxiety, has shown that the term anxiety is a multifaceted and multi-componential

psychobiological concept that comes within the gamut of emotion and personality,

having cognitive, physiological, physical and behavioral connotations.

Of recent, Weinberg and Gould (2007) defined anxiety as “a negative

emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry and apprehension and associated

with activation or arousal of the body.” Thus anxiety has a thought component (e.g.,

worry and apprehension) called cognitive anxiety. It also has a somatic component

which is the degree of activation perceived. In addition to the distinction between

cognitive and somatic anxiety, another important distinction to make is between state

and trait anxiety.

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Anxiety has been consistently conceptualized as having temporary, situational

state components and more permanent trait components (Cattell & Scheier, 1961;

Spielberger, 1966). State anxiety refers to the ever changing mood component. It is

defined more formally as, “an emotional state characterized by subjective,

consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension, accompanied by or

associated with activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system” (Spielberger,

1966, p. 17). Cognitive state anxiety concerns the degree to which one worries or has

negative thoughts, whereas somatic state anxiety concerns the moment-to-moment

changes in perceived physiological activation. Somatic state anxiety is not necessarily

a change in one’s physical activation but rather one’s perception of such a change.

Unlike state anxiety, trait anxiety is part of the personality, an acquired

behavioral tendency or disposition that influences behavior. In particular, trait anxiety

predisposes an individual to perceive as threatening a wide range of circumstances

that objectively are not actually dangerous, physically or psychologically. The person

then responds to these circumstances with state anxiety reactions or levels that are

disproportionate in intensity and magnitude to the objective danger (Spielberger,

1966, p. 17).

Many a times the term anxiety is found to be implied in the constructs of fear,

phobia, stress and threat. However, scientifically in the psychological jargon there

exists a sound difference amongst these constructs in relation to anxiety. Fear is

defined as a response to clearly identifiable danger and the response is proportionate

to the objective danger. On the other hand, anxiety is conceptualized as a response to

an unidentifiable threat or an anticipated danger. Phobia is defined as excessive

anxiety or fear that occurs in response to a particular stimulus. The magnitude of the

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person’s response to the feared stimulus clearly exceeds the objective threat, and

phobias usually have debilitating effect on the person’s life (Kowalski, 2000).

Stress refers to a complex psychobiological process that consists of three

major elements: stressors, perceptions or appraisals of dangers (threats), and

emotional reactions. The stress process is generally initiated by situations or

circumstances (stressors) that are perceived or interpreted (appraised) as dangerous,

potentially harmful or frustrating. If a stressor is perceived as threatening, irrespective

of the presence of an objective danger, an emotional reaction (anxiety) is evoked.

Thoughts or memories that are perceived as threatening can also evoke anxiety

reactions as readily as real dangers in the external world. Since perceived threat

mediates the relationship between a stressor and the intensity of an anxiety reaction,

anxiety states vary in intensity and fluctuate over time as a function of the amount of

perceived threat. Thus, the relationship amongst the three major elements of the stress

process may be conceptualized as consisting of the following temporal sequence of

events:

Stressor Perception and appraisal of threat Anxiety (state)

The term stressor refers to situations or circumstances that are characterized

by some degree of objective physical or psychological danger. The concept of threat

refers to an individual’s perception or appraisal of a situation as potentially dangerous

or harmful. Reactions to a particular stressor will depend on the degree to which it is

seen as threatening. Threat appraisals are influenced by the objective characteristics of

a situation and objectively dangerous stressors are realistically appraised as

threatening by most people. But the thoughts and memories stimulated by a particular

event, along with an individual’s coping skills and previous experience with similar

circumstances, may often have an even greater impact. Consequently, the same

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stimulus may be seen as a threat by one person, a challenge by another and as largely

irrelevant by a third. The experience of threat is essentially a state of mind which has

two main characteristics: it is future oriented, generally involving the anticipation of a

potentially harmful event that has not yet happened; it is mediated by complex mental

processes, that is, perception, thought, memory, and judgment which are involved in

the appraisal process. Threat appraisals of present or future danger serve an important

function in producing emotional reactions that mobilize an individual to take action to

avoid harm. But even when there is no objective danger, the perception or appraisal of

situation as threatening transmits the essential message of stress which results in

arousal of an anxiety state (Spielberger, 1989).

THEORIES OF ANXIETY

Anxiety today is well understood to be a multifaceted phenomenon and no one

theory can satisfactorily explain the mechanism of the factors and elements attributive

to the cause and sustenance of anxiety. A complete understanding of the etiology of

anxiety has remained elusive due to the myriad of factors involved in its precipitation

and maintenance. Human emotions and personality have varied genetic,

environmental, cultural, social and behavioral underpinnings. In the light of this fact,

the diverse theoretical perspectives that emerge can be generally divided into four

paradigms:

Psychodynamic theories trace its origin back to Freud. Psychodynamic

theories of anxiety view anxiety as an unpleasant affective state originating in the

unconscious. Anxiety is a signal or a symptom of an unconscious conflict, usually

stemming from childhood that remains unresolved. To deal with their feelings of

anxiety, people develop psychological defenses that may be either adaptive (i.e.

realistic anxiety) or maladaptive (i.e. neurotic anxiety).

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Expressive-behavioral theories view anxiety as an innate response that has

evolved because of its adaptive value. In an extension of Darwin’s original

formulation, Izard (1977) conceptualized anxiety as composite of a number of discrete

emotions, the most notable of which is fear. Other emotions that most frequently

combine with fear to create anxiety include anger, guilt, shame and interest. Of these,

the emotions that combine with fear to create anxiety depends on the situation in

which anxiety is experienced. These theories focus on the affective or feeling

component of anxiety, deemphasizing cognitive elements of anxiety.

Biological theories have been built on the Harvard physiologist, Walter

Cannon’s assertion earlier in the century that emotions are linked to brain functions.

Biological theories suggest that different emotions result from activation of specific

parts of the brain. An influential biological theory of anxiety was proposed by Gray

(1982), who stated that anxiety stems from activation of the behavioral inhibition

system (BIS). BIS inhibits behavior in response to threatening stimuli. People who

have high trait anxiety have very reactive BIS. Support for biological basis of anxiety

has been found in studies showing that heredity plays a role in the experience of

anxiety. Thus genetic factors create a vulnerability, the manifestation of which is

determined by environmental factors.

Cognitive theories – All prominent cognitive theories of anxiety are appraisal

theories. The appraisal process involves two stages, a primary appraisal in which an

individual determines the threat posed by the environment, and, following a

threatening primary appraisal, a secondary appraisal where the individual evaluates

his or her ability to cope with the demands of the environment. Beck, Emery, and

Greenberg (1985) have suggested that maladaptive anxiety results from distortions in

this appraisal process. People who suffer from chronic anxiety are those who

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misperceive benign situations as threatening. Here they emphasized upon the

influence of trait characteristics in the process, preferentially selecting threat related

information among the wide array of information available to the individual. In an

extension of the cognitive approach, Barlow (1988) suggests that anxiety is a

cognitive-affective phenomenon, at the core of which lies negative affect. Perceptions

of threat are influenced by early experiences with uncontrollability that creates a

psychological vulnerability to anxiety and a biological predisposition to experience

anxiety in the face of negative life events. Specifically, negative life events activate

the biological vulnerability to stress, leading trait anxious people to perceive the

environment as threatening even in the absence of an identifiable stressor. If the

person then perceives that the event is uncontrollable and unpredictable (i.e. it could

happen again) and perceives that he or she lacks the coping resources, anxiety will be

experienced. Disproportionate attention to threatening information, also referred to as

vigilance for threat or threat related attentional bias, has been proposed as central in

the maintenance and development of anxiety states and anxiety disorders. Williams,

Watts, MacLeod, and Mathews (1988) proposed that attentional bias occurs when

there is a discrete change in the direction of a person’s attention, so that they become

aware of a particular part of their environment. They also suggested that this change

in attentional direction (i) could take place in any sensory modality, (ii) is perceived

as being passive or involuntary but can operate autonomously, and (iii) is normally

perceived to be contingent on a discrete change in the internal or external

environment of the person. Beck (1976), and Beck, Rush, Shaw, and Emery (1979)

suggested that irrational anxiety is the emotional consequence of being unrealistic

about threat to self. Beck, Emery, and Greenberg (1985) proposed that vulnerability to

anxiety is the extent to which individuals tend to engage in such unrealistic thinking

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and have cognitive structures that lead to the selective processing of anxiety related

information.

Bower (1981) as well as Bower and Cohen (1982) emphasized the importance

of mood and memory in the anxiety related attentional biases. Bower proposed that

information in the long term memory is stored as nodes in a network and that each

emotion has a specific emotional node. To access information, appropriate nodes are

to be activated. This process leads to a partial activation of related information

through associative connections and make this information disproportionately

available. Bower further suggested that each emotional state (e.g., anxiety) is

represented by a node that shares strong associative connections to other nodes

containing mood congruent information (e.g., rejection). Therefore, the model is

applicable to emotions other than anxiety, but anxiety is considered central, for

survival reasons. Emotions activate their corresponding nodes and this activation then

spreads to partially activated mood congruent information in the network. For

example, the exacerbation of an anxious mood increases activation of danger- relevant

information in memory. Thus, greater attention and more extensive processing occur

for mood-congruent information in comparison to neutral or positive information.

Mathews (1990) proposed that each primary emotion imposed a specific mode of

operation within the cognitive system that serves to determine processing priorities.

His notions are similar to those of Oatley and Johnson-Laird (1987) who suggested

that basic emotional states maintain behavior by setting cognitive processors into

characteristic modes. Mathews also suggested that anxiety is processed through a

hyper vigilant mode where the individual scans the environment for stimuli. This

cognitive mode priorises the initial automatic encoding of threat but not the

subsequent elaboration that biases recall for anxiety related information. He further

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suggested that there are dispositional differences in the tendency for this vigilant

processing mode for threat. This vigilant processing is most likely to be identified in

anxious individuals in stressful life situations.

COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE

The cognitive performance refers to a set of psychological processes

associated with so called higher cognitive or thought processes which corresponds

with adaptive and future oriented behavior unique to humans. In this respect, the

technical jargon of psychology labels these processes as analogous to executive

functions.

Executive functions refer to the higher cognitive processes consisting of

planning, problem solving, cognitive flexibility, initiation of action, self-monitoring,

inhibition of automatic response, and self-regulation. These psychological processes

allow the individual to coordinate the activities required to attain a goal: to formulate

intentions, develop action plans, implement strategies to execute those plans, monitor

performance and evaluate actions (Glosser & Goodglass, 1990; Levin et al., 1991;

Luria, 1973; Stuss, 1992; Stuss & Benson, 1987). In addition to these cognitive

activities, executive skills are also implicated in social-emotional processes such as

the modulation of emotions, personal and social decision making, perspective taking,

affect and social self-awareness (Anderson, Bechara, Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio,

1999; Anderson, Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio, 2000; Barrash, Tranel, & Anderson,

2000; Benton, 1991; Damasio, 1998).

IMPACT OF ANXIETY ON COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE

Recent years have witnessed an explosion in research, underscoring the crucial

role of affect in directing attention to goal relevant stimuli, reinforcing learning and

memory, facilitating decision making and goal selection, and resolving conflict

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(Cahill, 2000; Christianson, 1992; Compton, 2003; Damasio, 1994; Davis & Whalen,

2001; Dolan, 2002; Lowenstein & Lerner, 2003; Rolls, 1999). Existing research

literature on anxiety mostly report of it being detrimental to human performance in

the aforesaid areas which are critical to human adaptation.

Mwamwenda (1994) found that when anxious students are under evaluative

threat, they engage in more negative thinking that may interfere with their task

accomplishment. Sinha and Gupta (2006) suggested that debilitating test anxiety is

positively related with ability doubts and avoidance orientation and negatively related

with importance of ability. Sarason and Stoops (1978) concluded that poor

performance of highly test anxious subjects reflects self-doubts in evaluative

situations. Performance suffers because of the interference which leads to

misdirection away from the task at hand. This notion has been supported by

‘interference model’ which proposes that test-anxiety is largely a problem of self-

preoccupying intrusive thinking which interferes with task focused thinking.

Anxiety is associated with depletion of central executive resources and also

sometimes associated with sub vocal worry and depletion of phonological resources

(Eyesenck & Calvo, 1992; Morris, Davis, & Hutchings, 1981). From the overlapping

of neural substrates of anxious arousal and visuospatial working memory in the right

prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, Shackman, Sarinopoulos, Maxwell,

Pizzagalli, Lavric, and Davidson (2006) observed that threat induced anxiety

selectively attenuated the accuracy of spatial working memory performance. Also, the

individual differences in threat induced anxiety predicted the degree to which spatial

performance was disrupted, providing some evidence that anxious arousal per se, and

not some other consequence in the experimentally induced threat procedure was

specifically responsible for the disruption of spatial working memory. In the recent

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research literature on the subject of anxiety and cognitive performance, Decaro,

Thomas, and Beilock (2008) surmised that students with higher levels of working

memory have superior memory and computational capacity which they use on a

regular basis to excel in the classroom. However, if these resources are compromised,

for example, by worries about the situation and its consequences, the performance of

these high working memory individuals suffers significantly.

The aforementioned description of anxiety apparently shows that optimal

anxiety is necessary for optimum performance; however, the uneven pressures exerted

by the modern life and work scenario leads to the optimal anxiety levels of the human

population in general, pushed beyond its optimal limits more often. The impact of

crossing the optimal limits of anxiety is detrimental to cognitive performance in

humans.

This invokes a significant need for interventions that can be adopted by the

human population in general to control their anxiety within the optimal levels that can

withstand the uneven demands and pressures generated by modern life and thereby

ensure consistently excellent cognitive performance.

INTERVENTIONS

Many interventions have been developed during the last one and half centuries

to control or treat anxiety generally or clinically through medicative or non

medicative techniques.

Medicative techniques involve the use of antidepressants – tricyclic

antidepressants, serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), monoamine oxidase

inhibitors (MAOI), benzodiazepines, buspirone and beta-blockers. Though they are

effective for a wide range of anxiety disorders, their use is coupled with various side

effects like nausea or other gastrointestinal symptoms, sexual dysfunction, headaches

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and apathy. In addition, they are effective only when its use is continued (Shelton &

Hollon, 2000).

Non medicative techniques involve use of various cognitive, behavioral, and

cognitive-behavioral interventions. These include systematic desensitization, behavior

therapy, cognitive behavior therapy, Jacobson relaxation technique, progressive

relaxation and meditation.

The present study is particularly interested in delving into the role of

meditation on anxiety and its concomitant effect on cognitive performance. The

literature on meditation seems to suggest that it is as old as human civilization.

Meditation finds its mention in the old scriptures and religious practices across all

cultures and religions viz. Bhagawata Gita, Puranas and Upanishads and yogic

practices of Hindus; Bible and spiritual retreat in Christianity, torah and kabbalism in

Judaism. This suggests of meditation being a natural, primary and therapeutic

mechanism evolved by mankind to sustain itself with sound mental health to adjust,

adapt and evolve even in the face of demanding and challenging life circumstances

which are normal to a human life cycle. This has infused still greater curiosity

amongst the scientific researchers of today all over the world, to know more about

this mystical phenomenon of meditation.

MEDITATION

Many a times, the word meditation conjures up an image of a yogic saint

sitting under a tree, completely withdrawn into the chanting of the talismanic mantras

and who, as a result is believed and revered for possession of some divine super

natural powers. The curiosity of the scientific world into the mysterious phenomenon

of meditation was aroused by the popularization of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi’s

transcendental meditation (TM) in the west. Maharishi introduced TM in the US in

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the 1960s at a time when its progressively affluent society was marred by hippy

culture. The hippy culture refers to the sub culture of the youths that developed in the

US in the 1960s who subscribed to and practiced an extreme form of liberalism. This

was characterized by liberal uncommitted sexual practices, embracement of

psychedelic (under influence of psychotropic drugs) rock dance and music and use of

psychotropic drugs which was in desperate pursuit of their agitated and anxious

search for experience of happiness. This has ever since clearly projected out a

universal fact that mere possession of colossal wealth does not commensurate with

happiness and simultaneously it brought to the fore the superiority of the eastern

socio-religious and spiritually oriented cultural life. The hippy culture was in fact a

disoriented offshoot of the affluent US society’s desperate search for happiness. TM

proved to be a panacea to this disillusioned and disoriented wealthy society of the US.

People who adopted this reported positive experiences and it became a mass

embraced program. This triggered immense scientific interest into the TM

phenomenon.

In the aftermath of the mass adoption of TM program, researchers observed

that even if one percent of the population in a city or square root of one percent of the

population of a country practiced TM, there occurred significant positive changes in

the society, such as reduction in crime rate, violent deaths (homicide, suicide and

traffic fatalities), and unemployment (Dillbeck, 1990; Dillbeck, Banus, Polanzi, &

Landrith III, 1988) which was termed as Maharishi effect.

TM is found to produce greater relaxation than ordinary rest and its regular

practitioners have been observed scientifically to have greater autonomic stability

than the non meditating controls even outside meditation (Dillbeck & Orme-Johnson,

1987). In addition, research has also shown that where meditators are subjected to

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stressful events, they recover to baseline more quickly than controls (Orme-Johnson,

1973).

The brain wave pattern observed with the practice of TM is increases in EEG

coherence or alpha coherence, which is an indication of heightened alertness (Levine,

1976). Scientists have found that subjects with high levels of alpha EEG coherence

perform better on a number of cognitive and physiological tasks. Further, EEG

coherence is found to be positively correlated with efficiency and flexibility of

concept learning, creativity, fluid intelligence, grade point average, moral reasoning,

and negatively correlated with neuroticism or a tendency to worry unnecessarily

(Dillbeck, Orme-Johnson, & Wallace, 1981; Orme-Johnson & Haynes, 1981). Thus,

there is scientific evidence to support the general belief that practice of meditation

may be associated with decrement in anxiety and increment in cognitive performance.

DEFINING MEDITATION AND ITS FEATURES

Meditation is seen as an adaptive regression in the service of ego (Shafii,

1973) or as “a sort of Royal Road to the unconscious” (Jung, 1958, p. 508). The

purpose of meditation as classically practiced, involves focusing attention on a

particular object, whether on a bodily function such as breathing or on the external

world or on the contents of one's own thoughts, as a means to control the natural

tendency of the mind to wander (Rao, 1989).

From a psycho physiological perspective, meditation is the intentional self

regulation of attention, in the service of self-enquiry, in the here and now (Massion et

al., 1995). Most descriptions of meditation, expressed in behavioral terms, include the

following components: (1) relaxation (2) concentration (3) altered state of awareness

(4) suspension of logical thought processes and (5) maintenance of self-observing

attitude (Craven, 1984).

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Benson (1975) examined the psychological and physiological components of

meditation, and after studying their cultural, religious, philosophical and scientific

underpinnings concluded that various forms of meditation require: focusing one’s

attention on a repetitive word, sound, prayer, phrase, image or physical activity; and

passively returning back to focus when distracted. These two simple steps result in

certain predictable physiological changes both within and outside the central nervous

system, promoting a sense of calm. Benson labeled these effects as the “relaxation

response”, the biological consequence of a wide variety of mental focusing

techniques, just one of which is meditation. Meditation is also envisaged as a

relaxation technique (Greenwood & Benson, 1977; Shapiro & Zifferblatt, 1976).

There are wide varieties of techniques by which relaxation can be induced.

The commonly applied and clinically established methods for body relaxation are

progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, biofeedback and meditative

practices. The cognitive-behavioral model of relaxation (Smith, Amutio, Anderson, &

Aria, 1996) suggests three elements as basic to all forms of relaxation: Focusing, the

ability to maintain concentration on and return attention to simple stimuli (acoustic or

visual) for an extended period of time; Passivity - the ability to refrain from goal-

directed and analytic thoughts; Receptivity - the ability to tolerate and accept unusual

or paradoxical experiences. Benson (1975) proposed that almost all relaxation

techniques elicit a general relaxation response consisting of physiological changes

that are mainly evoked by decreased autonomic nervous system activity such as

slowing of heart rate, slow and shallow breathing, peripheral vasodilation, reduced

oxygen consumption and decrease in spontaneous skin conductance response.

Specifically, these effects are mainly brought about by reduced sympathoadrenergic

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reactivity, but not, as often erroneously believed, by increased parasympathetic

activity.

There are many types of meditation techniques, designed to bring about

relaxation, altered state of consciousness or “enlightenment”. Most have religious or

cultic origins, but there are also non cultic forms developed for therapeutic or

experimental purposes. A recent summary of evidence for therapeutic effectiveness of

meditation included Mindfulness Meditation, Sahaja Meditation, Benson’s Relaxation

Response and Transcendental Meditation (TM); but there are many more (Canter &

Ernst, 2003).

Although there are a multitude of meditative practices, researchers have

generally been able to classify them into three categories - concentrative meditation,

mindfulness meditation and weighted combination of both (Dunn, Hartigan, &

Mikulas, 1999). As noted by Shapiro (1994), the practice of these different techniques

utilizes different attention styles. In concentrative meditation practices such as Raja

Yoga, the practitioner utilizes what Shapiro refers to as ‘zoom-lens attention,’

focusing on a specific object (an event, image, or sound), thus trying to refine all of

his or her attention to a single focal point. In mindfulness meditation practices such as

Zen meditation or Vipassana (Buddhist), the practitioner utilizes ‘wide-angle-lens

attention’. Here one extends their attention to the entire perceptive field. Mindfulness

practitioners try to attain a state of receptivity, becoming aware of any and all

emergent thoughts and sensations without becoming actively involved in them. The

results of EEG studies with reference to both concentrative and mindfulness

meditation have shown that both are qualitatively different from each other (Dunn,

Hartigan, & Mikulas, 1999). One of the most popular and most frequently

investigated meditative practice, Transcendental meditation, integrates features of

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concentrative meditation (i.e. it utilizes a vocal ‘mantra’); however in terms of its

essential cognitive qualities, it can be described as receptive or mindfulness type of

meditation (Roth, 2002).

EFFECTS OF MEDITATION ON ANXIETY

Sharma (2006) commented that meditation may be considered as an antidote

to the mind’s vulnerability to toxic emotions. In this regard, it was also observed that

if destructive emotions mark one extreme in human proclivities, research on

meditation seeks to map their antipode, the extent to which the brain can be trained to

dwell in a constructive range: contentment instead of craving, calm rather than

agitation and compassion in place of hatred. Meditation is also described as a

technique that involves reciprocal inhibition and counter conditioning leading to

desensitization of anxiety evoking thoughts (Berwick & Oziel, 1973; Mikulas, 1981;

Shapiro & Zifferblatt, 1976).

Many studies have found that the practice of meditation significantly reduces

self-rated perceptions of anxiety and stress (Delmonte, 1984; Fling, Thomas, &

Gallaher, 1981; Janowiak & Hackman, 1994; Shapiro, Schwartz, & Bonner, 1998).

Kirsch and Henry (1979) reported that the high rationale credibility associated with

meditation to invoke reduction in anxiety is significantly related to the reduction in

anxiety. Goleman and Schwartz (1976) found that meditators, compared with

controls, showed lower state anxiety after stressor exposure.

From a review of studies on anxiety and meditation, taking a global view of

anxiety by integrating the findings of studies using self-report, physiological,

biochemical and motoric measures; Delmonte (1985) concluded that although

meditation is associated with decrements in both subjective and objective indices of

anxiety, there is no compelling evidence that these reductions are of established

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superiority to those elicited by other interventions except progressive relaxation. The

regular practice of meditation appears to facilitate a reduction in anxiety for subjects

with high or average level of anxiety, provided they meditate regularly. Meditation is

probably less effective in cases where subjects have a relatively long history of

anxiety neurosis. Also, it is evidenced that the anxiety scores of prospective

meditators could be used to predict their response to practice of meditation as the

drop-outs tend to score the highest and the regulars the lowest on pre-initiation

anxiety scores. However, meditation does seem to be effective, for many subjects, in

reducing clinically elevated levels of anxiety. Those who benefit most appear to

demonstrate a capacity for autonomous self-absorbed relaxation and/or to be

relatively hypnotizable. Intervention credibility and expectancy also appear to play a

role in outcome.

Thus it appears that the cognitive set involved in ones purpose of practicing

meditation is central to the effects of meditation on ones emotions.

EFFECTS OF MEDITATION ON COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE

Although a powerful tool for reducing anxiety and inducing relaxation, the

most important function of meditation is to train one’s attention (Goleman, 1988;

Naranjo & Ornstein, 1971). Rani and Rao (2000) have asserted that the essential

element in all meditation is the retraining of attention.

Some investigators have succeeded in using meditative techniques as

therapeutic methods of attention control training for individuals with mental health

problems or attention deficit disorder (Eugene, 1999; Ferguson, 1976; Morris, 1976).

The investigation and application of various techniques of self regulation that can

alter or enhance attention, has powerful implications for both education and mental

health.

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Enhancement in attentional capacity has been found as a result of mindfulness

meditation, concentrative meditation, TM and relaxation; however, the implications of

all of these findings vary (Travis, Tecce, & Guttman, 2000; Valentine & Sweet, 1999;

Yesavage & Rolf, 1984).

Performance on divided-attention tasks has been found to improve both as a

result of TM and relaxation (Travis, Tecce, & Guttman, 2000; Yesavage & Rolf,

1984). Thus, enhanced attentional capacity has generally been found to be a result of

meditation as well as relaxation. However, since certain forms of meditation have also

been recognized as effective relaxation techniques (Eppley, Abrams, & Shear, 1989;

Zipkin, 1985), the question of whether enhanced attentional capacity can be

attributable to special features of meditation or simply to relaxation has not been

empirically answered. Physiological differences found between concentrative

meditation, mindfulness meditation, and relaxation may indicate possible

corresponding attentional differences (Dunn, Hartigan, & Mikulas, 1999). So, a

comparative study on the attentional effects of meditation and relaxation is needed.

In this respect scientific studies generally report that, overall, both meditation

and relaxation leads to enhancements in attention, however it appears that meditation

specifically leads to improvements that relaxation does not. Both techniques do not

appear to differ significantly in their potential for enhancing overall attentional

capacity, however the findings of most studies do suggest that practitioners of

receptive techniques of meditation (mindful) are able to cultivate a more sustained

and flexible attentional style than are individuals who merely relax.

When participants regularly meditate before studies and examinations,

academic scores tend to improve (Fiebert & Mead, 1981; Hall, 1999). Chambers,

Lo, and Allen (2007) found that the mindfulness meditation led to

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significant enhancement in the working memory capacity. This is a

novel finding, and is particularly noteworthy as it suggests that

mindfulness practice may increase working memory capacity. It

may thus have widespread application as an intervention in a broad

range of psychological conditions that are characterized by working

memory deficits, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

(Koschack, Kunert, Derichs, Weniger, & Irle, 2003), borderline personality

disorder (Stevens, Burkhardt, Hautzinger, Schwarz, & Unckel, 2004), post-

traumatic stress disorder (Clark et al., 2003), and schizophrenia

(Silver, Feldman, Bilker, & Gur, 2003).

Most of the scientific studies in recent times have found that

mindfulness training leads to significant decrease in the overall

reaction times (irrespective of affective condition or switch/non-

switch status), indicating an improved capacity for sustained

attention during the task. This improvement was not evident in the

control group, and therefore cannot be attributed to a practice

effect. This finding generally supports the notion that mindfulness

training enhances aspects of executive cognition (Baer, 2003;

Bishop, Lau, Shapiro, Carlson, Anderson, Carmody et al., 2004). The overall

pattern of the results suggest that intensive mindfulness training

may impact less significantly on attention switching than on

sustained attention and working memory capacity. This indicates a

positive relationship between executive cognition and mindfulness,

suggesting that training which improves levels of mindfulness may

also engender enhanced cognitive functioning. Valentine and Sweet

20

(1999) have suggested that this may be because concentrative

attention is developed during the early stages of mindfulness

training and that receptive attention develops in those more

experienced with mindfulness practices.

In the scientific assessment of effect of mindfulness training

(MT) on participants with prior experience and training in

concentrative meditation techniques, Jha, Krompinger, and Baime

(2007) found that it corresponded with greater efficiency in the

functioning of the dorsal attention system, which sub serves

voluntary top-down attentional selection. Greater experience

corresponded to reduced alerting scores, indicating that attention

was in a more readied state when no warning about target onset

was provided. Thus, the results suggest that MT improves

performance on specific conditions of the attentional network test.

However, further research is required to explore exactly which

aspects of executive cognition respond to mindfulness training.

OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The primary objectives of the present study are:

1) To test the effectiveness of the new meditation technique,

‘Performance Enhancement Program’, in reducing anxiety and

enhancing cognitive performance.

2) To understand the effect of meditation on anxiety and

concomitant cognitive performance.

The present study through the proposed aforesaid objectives

purports to understand what changes are brought about in

21

individuals as a result of initiation and thereon regular practice of

meditation (Performance Enhancement Program) in respect to their

specific aspect of personality, that is, anxiety. Further, it also

endeavors to explore the concomitant weekly changes, if any,

resulting from the practice of meditation on the status of cognitive

functions which enlists the higher level cognition or thought

processes pertinent to information processing, psychomotor

efficiency and mental flexibility.

NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The current scenario of competitiveness accompanying

urbanization and modernization has made the lives of people highly

stressful and anxious, in general. In these circumstances, the age

old practice of meditation seems to be the only panacea that can be

adopted by any individual without any complications attached in its

practice to attain solace due to its strong socio-cultural

underpinnings.

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi introduced the TM to emancipate the

American youth society from the malice of disorientation and

aberrations caused by ‘Hippism’. Since then, nearly 500 studies

conducted in about 200 universities and institutions located in 33

countries have probed the physiological, psychological, sociological

and ecological effects of the TM technique (Orme-Johnson,

Zimmerman, & Hawkins, 1997). Most of these studies have reported

22

anxiolytic effects and instances of improvement in cognitive

functions through practice of TM (Canter & Ernst, 2003; Chambers,

Lo, & Allen, 2007; Delmonte, 1985). In spite of this immense amount

of scientific literature available on the subject matter of anxiety and

cognitive performance as an effect of meditation, there are not

much scientific studies that have delved into both the aspects of

anxiety and cognitive performance simultaneously to the practice of

meditation (refer ‘Chapter 2, ‘Literature Review’ of this thesis).

Moreover, the variable cognitive performance has a greater scope

than anxiety; this may be one of the reasons for the short coming of

non availability of enough scientific reports that have dealt with

anxiety and meditation simultaneously. This provides a great

opportunity to probe the realm of cognitive performance enlisting

the wide range of cognitive tests that test various aspects of mental

functions as well as an in-depth probe to understand each of the

mental functions influenced as a concomitant factor to the changes

in anxiety resulting from the practice of meditation.

As we can see in ‘Chapter 2’ of this thesis that not much

studies have been done on the effect of meditation on anxiety and

concomitant cognitive performance in India, especially experimental

studies. Experimental studies have been endeavored very rarely in

India in the realm of social/psychological research, so is the case

with the area of present study, testing the effectiveness of the

practice of meditation on anxiety and concomitant cognitive

performance. Therefore the uniqueness of this study lies in its

23

endeavor to further our understanding of the impact of meditation

on anxiety and concomitant cognitive performance at weekly

intervals over eight weeks of meditative practice using an

experimental design with control group. Most of the earlier

experimental studies on meditation that have been conducted in

scientifically advanced countries are mostly pretest-posttest studies

with the dependent measures taken only twice, that is, once before

and once after the meditation program (Nidich, Seeman, & Dreskin,

1973; Puryear, Cayce, & Thurston, 1976; Lazar, Farwell, & Farrow,

1977; Benson, Dryer, & Hartley, 1978; Raskin, Bali, & Harman,

1980). In contrast to these earlier studies, the present study is a

repeated measures experimental study with replication in control

group involving one pretest and eight weekly

recordings/measurements of changes in the dependent measures of

anxiety and cognitive functions over eight weeks of meditative

practice. It is believed that this probe might generate further

research questions aimed at understanding the relationship

between anxiety and cognitive performance as a resultant to

practice of meditation. It is firmly believed that the findings of the

study may also find applicability in the clinical, educational, and

human resources management realms.

Finally, the study attempts to answer the practical aspect of

purposiveness, that is, the advantages accrued through practice of

meditation which is answered through the mapping of the impact of

meditation on weekly changes in anxiety and the concomitant

24

changes brought on cognitive functions like attention, running

memory, short-term memory, psychomotor efficiency, and mental

flexibility.

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES

The objectives of the present study are proposed to be

achieved through the acceptance or rejection of 20 null hypotheses

(H0) formulated in accordance with the objectives of the present

study. The acceptance or rejection of null hypotheses shall be based

upon the statistical results obtained with respect to the variables

being tested in each of the 20 statement of hypothesis.

Null hypothesis is also known as statistical hypothesis where

the researcher assumes that there exists no statistically significant

relationship between the variables/conditions that are proposed to

be tested. This is to overcome the experimenter’s bias regarding

these variables/conditions and infuse objectivity in the testing of the

variables/conditions under study. The statistical results direct the

course of acceptance or rejection of null hypothesis. Acceptance of

null hypothesis indicates that there is no statistically significant

relationship between the variables/conditions that were tested.

Rejection of null hypothesis indicates that the statistical results

found a significant relationship between the variables or conditions

that were tested. The rejection of null hypothesis endorses the

validity of alternative hypothesis, also known as research

hypothesis. Research hypothesis refers to the relationship between

the variables that the researcher/experimenter expected or

25

hypothesized as the outcome of the study prior to initiation of the

experimentation of the variables of study (McBurney, 2001).

In compliance with the scientific principles of maintaining

objectivity in testing and interpretation of results of the objectives of

the present study, the 20 null hypotheses are proposed and

enumerated as follows.

Hypothesis-1

As a result of practice of meditation for eight weeks there is

no statistically significant difference between the weekly measures

of free floating anxiety and its pretest in experimental group as

shown by IPAT Anxiety Scale.

Hypothesis-2

As a result of weekly response to IPAT Anxiety Scale for eight

weeks out of which the final three weeks are with practice of

meditation finds no statistically significant difference between the

weekly measures of free floating anxiety and its pretest in control

group.

Hypothesis-3

There is no statistically significant difference between the

experimental and control groups on free floating anxiety.

Hypothesis-4



of Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) and its pretest in

experimental group.

26

Hypothesis-5

As a result of weekly response to PASAT for eight weeks out of

which the final three weeks are with practice of meditation finds no

statistically significant difference between the weekly measures of

PASAT and its pretest in control group.

Hypothesis-6


experimental and control groups on PASAT.

Hypothesis-7



of word recognition test (WRT) and its pretest in experimental

group.

Hypothesis-8

As a result of weekly response to WRT for eight weeks out of



WRT and its pretest in control group.

Hypothesis-9


experimental and control groups on WRT.

Hypothesis-10

27



of LDST-1 and its pretest in experimental group.

Hypothesis-11

As a result of weekly response to Letter Digit Substitution Test

Type 1 (LDST-1) for eight weeks out of which the final three weeks

are with practice of meditation finds no statistically significant

difference between the weekly measures of LDST-1 and its pretest

in control group.

Hypothesis-12


experimental and control groups on LDST-1.

Hypothesis-13



of Letter Digit Substitution Test Type 2 (LDST-2) and its pretest in

experimental group.

Hypothesis-14

As a result of weekly response to LDST-2 for eight weeks out

of which the final three weeks are with practice of meditation finds


of LDST-2 and its pretest in control group.

Hypothesis-15

28



Hypothesis-16



of Trail Making Test (TMT) and its pretest in experimental group.

Hypothesis-17

As a result of weekly response to TMT for eight weeks out of



TMT and its pretest in control group.

Hypothesis-18


experimental and control groups on TMT.

Hypothesis-19


comparisons made within versions 1, 2 and 3 of TMT respectively in

experimental group.

Hypothesis-20



control group.

The above null hypotheses shall be individually tested against

the results obtained on the basis of statistical analysis of the data

collected with respect to the objectives of the present study.

29

According to the findings of the statistical analysis, these null

hypotheses shall either be accepted or rejected. In case the null

hypothesis is rejected, the alternative hypothesis indicated by such

rejection shall be stated in the ‘results and discussion’ section of

this thesis.

KEY TERMS

1) Free floating anxiety refers to the measure of anxiety derived

from IPAT Anxiety Scale (Cattel & Scheier, 1963).

2) Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) is a cognitive test of

sustained and divided attention.

3) Word Recognition Test (WRT) is a cognitive test of short term

memory.

4) Letter digit substitution test (LDST-1 and LDST-2) is a cognitive

test that measures the general speed of visual information processing, complex

cognitive speed and cognitive flexibility.

5) Trail Making Test (TMT) is a cognitive test that measures scanning, visuo-

motor tracking, divided attention and cognitive flexibility.

6) Experimental group – refers to the group of volunteer participants

who practiced meditation for eight weeks.

4) Control Group – refers to the group of volunteer participants who

acted as controls for the first five weeks and subsequently practiced

meditation for three weeks.

Chapter 2

30

LITERATURE REVIEW

The scientific literature involving the treatment variable meditation and the

dependent variables anxiety and cognitive performance is enormous. However, most

of these studies have reported the relationship involving the treatment of meditation,

with either anxiety or cognitive performance. Very few scientific studies involving

meditation have dealt with these two dependent variables simultaneously. Moreover

the variable ‘cognitive performance’ has a much wider scope than anxiety. Cognitive

performance includes wide variety of mental test and functions. This provides a great

scope for wider and deeper probe into the effect of meditation on both the dependent

variables.

The literature survey on the area of meditation, anxiety and cognitive

performance was conducted using the conventional library search as well as the latest

electronic search method.

Most of the scientific investigations into the psychological and personality

effects of meditation were initiated in the 1970s with the popularity and mass

embracement of the TM in the late 1960s in US.

MEDITATION AND ANXIETY

Nidich, Seeman, and Dreskin (1973) administered the State-Trait Anxiety

Inventory on eight experimental subjects and nine control subjects two days before

the experimental subjects began the practice of TM. Six weeks later the subjects were

asked to carry out a demanding task, after which the control group was instructed to

sit with eyes closed and the experimental group was instructed to meditate for fifteen

minutes. The anxiety scale was then re-administered. Mean anxiety scores for the two

groups were not significantly different on the first administration of the test. The

reduction in anxiety between the two tests was significantly greater for the meditators

31

than for the non meditators. Since both groups were exposed to knowledge about the

TM program but only the experimental group was instructed in the technique, it

appeared that the reduced anxiety in the meditators was due to the experience of TM

rather than knowledge about it.

Puryear, Cayce, and Thurston (1976) randomly assigned one hundred fifty-

nine Association of Research and Enlightenment members either to a treatment or

control group, with the former learning a new meditation technique (Edgar Cayce's

approach) and the latter continuing their customary daily pattern. Analysis of variance

was used to compare group means of the scale scores yielded by the IPAT Anxiety

Scale and the Mooney Problem Check List (MPCL). Unlike the control group, the

treatment group reported highly significant reductions on the IPAT Anxiety Scale

scores after twenty-eight days of meditation with the new approach. No significant

differences were found on MPCL for either the treatment or control group.

Goleman and Schwartz (1976) compared meditation and relaxation for their

ability to reduce stress reactions in a laboratory threat situation. Thirty experienced

meditators and thirty controls meditated or relaxed, with eyes closed or with eyes

open, then watched a stressor film. Stress response was assessed by phasic skin

conductance, heart rate, self-report, and personality scales. Meditators habituated

heart rate and phasic skin-conductance responses more quickly to the stressor impacts

and experienced less subjective anxiety (as indicated by the Activity Preference

Questionnaire, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Eysenck Personality Inventory).

Davies (1977) administered Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and

Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory on three groups of undergraduates. A

group of twenty-five was taught TM, a group of forty was taught progressive

relaxation, and a group of twenty-seven acted as controls. Seven weeks later, both

32

inventories were re-administered to all groups. Only the subjects who regularly

practiced TM showed a significant reduction in trait-anxiety scores compared with

controls.

Stern (1977) administered the Trait Anxiety Scale of Spielberger's State-Trait

Anxiety Inventory to an experimental group of thirty-seven subjects practicing the

TM technique and to a control group of fifteen subjects not practicing TM. The

meditators were found to be significantly less anxious than the non meditators.

Lazar, Farwell, and Farrow (1977) reported that eleven subjects showed a

significant decrease in mean anxiety scores on Campbell and Stanley's Recurrent

Institutional Cycle Design and the IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire four weeks

after learning the TM technique. Similar results were obtained in a second

experiment.

Benson, Dryer, and Hartley (1978) explored the efficacy of two non

pharmacological techniques for therapy of anxiety: a simple meditation relaxation

technique and a self-hypnosis technique. Thirty-two patients were divided into two

groups and instructed to practice the assigned technique daily for eight weeks. Change

in anxiety was determined by psychiatric assessment, physiological testing, and self-

assessment. There was essentially no difference between the two techniques in

therapeutic efficacy according to these evaluations. Psychiatric assessment revealed

overall improvement in 34% of the patients, while self-rating assessment indicated

improvement in 63% of them.

Kirsch and Henry (1979) examined the effect of self-desensitization and

meditation in the reduction of public speaking anxiety. Thirty-eight speech-anxious

students were assigned to a control group or one of the following self-administered

treatment conditions: systematic desensitization, desensitization with meditation

33

replacing progressive relaxation, or meditation only. The results indicated that the

three treatments were equally effective in reducing anxiety, and all of them produced

a greater reduction in self-reported (but not behavioral) anxiety than that found in

untreated subjects. Reliable changes in physiological manifestations of anxiety were

found only in those subjects who rated the treatment rationale as highly credible. High

credibility ratings were also associated with significantly greater reductions in self-

reported anxiety.

Lehrer, Schoicket, Carrington, and Woolfolk (1980) assigned thirty-six

volunteer participants to a progressive relaxation group, a clinically standardized

meditation group, or a waiting-list control group asked to relax daily without specific

instructions. Subjects were given the state and trait scales of the State-Trait Anxiety

Inventory and the IPAT Anxiety Inventory two times, separated by five weeks, during

which the two treatment groups received four weekly sessions of group training. At

the end of the five-week period all subjects were tested in a psychophysiology

laboratory where they were exposed to five very loud tones. Using the techniques

they had learned while anticipating the loud tones in the psychophysiology laboratory,

the meditation group exhibited higher heart rates and higher integrated frontalis EMG

activity. However, they also showed greater cardiac decelerations following each

tone, more frontal alpha, and fewer symptoms of cognitive anxiety than the other two

groups, according to the two inventories.

Raskin, Bali, and Harman (1980) studied thirty-one chronically anxious

subjects to compare their responses to muscle biofeedback, TM, and relaxation

therapy. The study consisted of a six-week baseline period, six weeks of treatment, a

six-week post treatment observation period and later follow-up. Each subject was

ranked according to the degree of improvement on five anxiety variables: Taylor

34

Manifest Anxiety Scale Score, Mean Current Mood Checklist score, situational

anxiety, symptomatic distress, and sleep disturbance. The results indicated that neither

EMG feedback nor TM was more effective in alleviating the symptoms of chronically

anxious patients than relaxation therapy. Additionally, the three treatments were

similar with respect to both the time course for obtaining therapeutic results and the

subjects' ability to maintain these results once they were obtained.

Fling, Thomas, and Gallaher (1981) randomly assigned sixty-one

undergraduate volunteers to clinically standardized meditation, quiet sitting or

waiting-list groups. Nineteen others were assigned either to a group practicing "open

focus," a technique that begins with awareness exercises focusing on bodily spaces

and continue to an expanded awareness of space permeating everything or to a

waiting list. All subjects were tested before training and again eight weeks later. All

groups except the waiting list decreased significantly on Spielberger's Trait Anxiety.

Throll (1981) administered the Eysenck Personality Inventory, the State-Trait

Anxiety Inventory and two questionnaires on health and drug usage to thirty-nine

subjects before they learned TM or progressive relaxation. All subjects were tested

immediately after they had learned either technique and then retested five, ten, and

fifteen weeks later. There were no significant differences between groups for any of

the psychological variables at pretest. However, at posttest the TM group displayed

more significant and comprehensive results (decreases in Neuroticism/Stability,

Extraversion /Introversion and drug use) than did the progressive relaxation group.

Both groups demonstrated significant decreases in State and Trait Anxiety. The more

pronounced results for meditators were explained primarily in terms of the greater

amount of time that they spent on their technique, plus the differences between the

two techniques themselves.

35

DeBerry (1982) enlisted the participation of thirty-six female volunteers

ranging in age from sixty-three to seventy-nine years in a twenty-week study designed

to evaluate the effects of meditation/relaxation on symptoms of anxiety and

depression. Amongst the participants, 83% were widows who were selected because

of complaints of anxiety, nervousness, tension, fatigue, insomnia, sadness and somatic

complaints. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (I)

relaxation/meditation, (II) relaxation/meditation with a ten-week follow-up consisting

of practice on a daily basis using relaxation/meditation tapes, and (III) a pseudo

relaxation control group (N =12 per group). The treatment groups received one week

of baseline evaluation, ten weeks of weekly thirty-minute training sessions, and a ten-

week follow-up, with taped relaxation sessions for group II. The control group

followed an identical schedule for ten weeks but did not participate in the follow-up.

The Spielberger Self-Evaluation Questionnaire and the Zung Self-Rating Depression

Scale were administered before treatment, at the end of the ten weeks of training and

again at the end of the follow-up period (for the treatment groups). In comparison to

the control group, the treatment groups manifested a significant pre- to post treatment

decrement for both state and trait anxiety. When the treatment groups were compared

as to the efficacy of the follow-up practice sessions, it was found that the practice

group continued to show a decrement in state anxiety while the no practice group

exhibited a return toward baseline levels. However, trait anxiety continued to decrease

for both groups. In terms of depression, there was a tendency toward a decrease in

mean symptom scores that failed to reach significance. Yet, when questions that

correlated highly with anxiety and somatic symptoms were removed and analyzed

separately, a significant pre- to post treatment decrement was noted.

36

Woolfolk, Lehrer, McCann, and Rooney (1982) recruited thirty-four subjects

from advertisements in local newspapers and imparted them with training in

meditation or progressive relaxation or were assigned to a control group. The

participants were tested using the SCL-90, IPAT Anxiety Inventory and the Lehrer-

Woolfolk Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire. Their behavior was also rated weekly by

a spouse or roommate. The Progressive Relaxation and meditation treatments resulted

in a significant reduction of stress symptomatology over time.

Lehrer, Woolfolk, and Rooney (1983) collected physiological and self-report

data from sixty-one anxious subjects who were recruited from newspaper ads and

randomly assigned to a progressive relaxation, mantra meditation or control group.

Both progressive relaxation and meditation generated positive expectancies and

produced decreases in a variety of self-reported symptoms and on EMG

(Electromyogram), but no skin conductance or frontal EEG (Electroencephalogram)

effects were observed. Progressive relaxation produced bigger decreases in forearm

EMG responsiveness to stressful stimulation and a generally more powerful

therapeutic effect than meditation. Meditation produced greater cardiac-orienting

responses to stressful stimuli, greater absorption in the task and better motivation to

practice than Progressive Relaxation but it also produced more reports of increased

transient anxiety.

Kindlon (1983) randomly assigned thirty-five undergraduate volunteers to

either a meditation group or a sleep/rest control group balanced for expectancy to

compare the function of these treatments in the alleviation of test anxiety. Self-report,

performance, and physiological indices were assessed, as moderated by gender,

Scholastic Aptitude Test score and frequency of practice, repression, and expectancy

of relief. The treatments were equally effective in reducing test anxiety.

37

Davidson and Schwartz (1984) suggested that different relaxation techniques

(progressive relaxation, hypnotic suggestion, autogenic training, and meditation)

activate different major modes or systems and that the effects of a particular

relaxation technique can be meaningfully understood only after determining the type

of dependent variable employed. For example, progressive relaxation (a somatic

technique) was significantly superior to hypnotic relaxation, a cognitive technique on

a number of somatic measures; while the results on a cognitive measure yielded no

significant differences. They demonstrated that the cognitive and somatic

contributions to anxiety can be meaningfully separated and they stated two general

principles pertaining to relaxation and anxiety reduction that apply: first, the self-

regulation of behavior (including voluntary focusing of attention) in a given mode

will reduce (or inhibit) unwanted activity in that specific mode and second, the self-

regulation of behavior in a given mode may, to a lesser degree, reduce unwanted

activity in other modes. These researchers hypothesized that forms of Zen meditation

that require that the person count his breaths or say a mantra in synchrony with

breathing are particularly effective because they simultaneously attenuate both

cognitive and somatic anxiety. They suggested that meditation involving the

generation of cognitive events (TM's mantra) should elicit greater changes on

measures of cognitive processing than meditation on somatic events (breathing),

which would result in greater changes on measures of somatic activation.

Steptoe and Kearsley (1990) evaluated the influence of meditation and

physical exercise on cognitive and somatic anxiety using 340 meditators, competitive

athletes, recreational exercisers and sedentary controls. Results did not confirm that

meditation is associated with reduced cognitive anxiety or that exercise is linked with

lower somatic anxiety.

38

Edwards (1991) conducted a meta-analysis to determine the effects of

meditation and hypnosis techniques on psychometric measures of anxiety. The chief

measure employed was Spielberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. The analysis

included twenty-one hypnosis studies and fifty-four meditation studies. Both

techniques were effective in reducing measures of state anxiety. However, for

measures of trait anxiety, meditation was more effective.

Kabat-Zinn et al. (1992) screened twenty-two study participants with a

structured clinical interview who were found to meet the DSM-III-R criteria for

generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder with or without agoraphobia. These

subjects participated in an eight-week meditation-based stress reduction and

relaxation program with a three-month follow-up period. The study found significant

reductions in anxiety and depression scores and a reduction in panic symptoms after

treatment for twenty of the subjects—changes that were maintained at follow-up.

Chamber, Lo, and Allen (2007) found that mindfulness meditation may not

necessarily lead to increased positive affect, but may rather result in a more moderate,

balanced emotional demeanor characterized by low levels of negative affect. Also the

increased self-reported mindfulness was found to be significantly correlated with

decreases in self-reported depressive symptoms and anxiety but increased self-

reported positive affect. This was consistent with the literature which suggests an

inverse relationship between rumination and psychopathology (Davidson et al., 2003;

Shapiro, Schwartz, & Bonner, 1998). However, decreases in anxiety are found to be

positively related to frequency of practice (Fling, Thomas, & Gallagher, 1981; Tjoa,

1975; Williams, Francis, & Durham, 1976). Peters, Benson, and Porter (1977) found

that less than three practice periods per week produced little change, whereas two

daily sessions appeared to be more practice than was necessary for many individuals

39

to achieve positive changes. Recent research has suggested that mindfulness is a more

effective remedy for coping with dysphoric mood than either rumination or distraction

(Broderick, 2005).

MEDITATION AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE

As stated earlier the variable cognitive performance has a wide scope which

includes cognitive/information processing efficiency, psychomotor efficiency,

working memory capacity and mental flexibility which enlists different mental

functions or resources. Therefore the ensuing literature review on the variable

cognitive performance includes studies dealing with perceptual and cognitive abilities

(field independence); reaction time and perceptual motor skills; concentration,

attention and memory.

Pelletier (1974) in the experimental testing of regular practitioners of TM and

non-meditating controls on several measures used to test field independence

(Autokinetic Test, Rod-and-Frame Test and the Embedded-Figures Test), found that

TM practitioners had a more increased perceptual acuity and better field

independence. Witkin (1977) refers to field dependence as an undifferentiated, global

style of perceiving things, whereas field independence is the ability to experience

items as distinct or independent of their background. An enhancement in the ability to

differentiate between different sets of stimuli and to appropriate attention among

different tasks demanding different attentional styles can be seen as one corollary of

field independence. Pelletier’s findings have been supported by other researchers

(e.g., Rani & Rao, 2000). Nolly (1975) found that meditating subjects perceived a

greater number of objects on a stimulus slide than the non meditating controls.

Martinetti (1976) concluded that practitioners of TM may have learned to

focus their attention to a level at which thresholds for pertinent perceptual cues such

40

as binocular disparity may be lowered. He stated that the concomitant increase in

response sensitivity would account for the superiority of meditators at signal detection

in the Ames Trapezoid Illusion where meditators were twice as sensitive as controls.

Dillbeck (1977) investigated the effects of the regular practice of TM on

habitual patterns of visual perception and verbal problem solving. He hypothesized

that two weeks of TM practice would tend to free the subjects from inhibitory effects

of those patterns while allowing an improvement in their efficient use when

appropriate. The subjects in this study were sixty-nine university students who either

practiced TM, relaxed or added nothing to their daily schedule for two-week periods.

The general hypothesis was supported for tasks involving a tachistoscopic

identification of card-and-letter sequence stimuli but not for a verbal problem-solving

task involving anagram solutions.

Pagano and Frumkin (1977) reported that TM meditators demonstrated

enhanced ability to remember and discriminate musical tones. Udupa (1973), and

Shaw and Kolb (1977), also reported that meditators seemed to have better auditory

receptivity and perceptual discrimination than controls. Walsh (1978) reported that

meditation reduced perceptual noise. Blasdell (1977), Orme-Johnson (1973), and

Orme-Johnson, Clements, and Haynes (1977) found that TM increased perceptual

motor performance. Linden (1973) found that regular practice of meditation is

associated with a significant enhancement of attentive ability, as assessed by the

Embedded Figures Test and the Rod and Frame Tests. Williams and Herbert (1976),

however, conducted a study that found no differences in perceptual motor ability

within subjects practicing meditation.

Shapiro (1980), and Shapiro and Giber (1978) reported enhanced perceptual

sensitivity. Domitor (1978) found no support for the hypothesis that meditation

41

favorably affects perceptual change as measured by the Holtzman Inkblot Test and the

Embedded Figures Test.

Verma, Jayashankarappa, and Palani (1982) gave twenty-three TM

practitioners and fifteen controls ten cognitive psychological tests. Statistically

significant improvements were noted in the coding, time factor and Raven standard

progressive matrices tests, with improvement in the arithmetic test falling just short of

significance. On the other tests, which measured less complicated mental functions,

such as number 9 cancellations and digit span, the influence of TM on performance

was negligible.

Wandhofer and Plattig (1973), Appelle and Oswald (1974), Blackwell et al.

(1976), and Shaw and Kolb (1977) concluded that the increased alertness developed

through meditation resulted in improvement of reaction time.

Williams and Vickerman (1976) gave forty-six college female volunteers

sixty-six ten-second trials on the pursuit rotor task in three practice sessions (eighteen,

thirty, and eighteen trials per session). After the first eighteen trials, the twenty-three

subjects who were practiced Transcendental Meditators meditated for a twenty-

minute period followed by a five-minute waking phase prior to performing a further

thirty trials on the rotor. A four-minute rest was taken before resuming practice for

the final eighteen trials. The other twenty-three subjects, who were not meditators,

followed the same procedures, except instead of meditating they sat quietly with

closed eyes. In terms of performance, learning, reminiscence, and intra-individual

variability, the two groups were similar. These results were not in accordance with

the expectations that these parameters would reflect the facilitative effects of

Transcendental Meditation on alertness, awareness, consistency, and resistance to

stress. While Williams and Vickerman concluded that the practice of Transcendental

42

Meditation does not appear to benefit acquisition of fine perceptual motor skill, they

suggested that more investigation might produce a better understanding of

meditation's effects on perceptual motor behavior.

Holt, Caruso, and Riley (1978) reported that TM increased the speed of visual-

choice reaction time. Sinha, Prasad, and Sharma (1978) found a consistent decline in

reaction time following vipashyana meditation for three groups of police officers.

Warshall (1980) found a significant reduction in reflex latency and reflex

motor time in TM practitioners, indicating increased peripheral neurological

efficiency. Heil (1983) concluded that the practice of meditation enhances visual

imagery ability. Robertson (1983) assessed fractionated reaction time for fourteen

subjects to determine the short- and long-term effects of TM on neuromuscular

integration. Results indicated no significant immediate pre- to post treatment effect,

but a significant cumulative effect over days. Faster total reaction time was noted due

to a decrease in premotor time, although an increase in motor time was also observed.

Jedrczak, Toomey, and Clements (1986) found that the number of months of

practice of the TM-Sidha program significantly predicted higher performance on two

measures of perceptual motor speed.

Kindler (1979) studied 230 subjects in forty-six five-person teams in group

problem-solving effectiveness, and found that meditation teams improved more from

pretest to posttest than control teams and that meditators felt less tense and had a

greater sense of effective teamwork than control teams.

Sabel (1980) assigned sixty practitioners of TM to two treatment groups. One

group meditated for twenty minutes while the other read a text quietly. Both groups

were tested before and after treatment to measure their concentration ability.

43

Meditation had no measurable short-term effect on concentration and the subjects'

experience of meditation was not correlated with their concentration score.

Yuille and Sereda (1980) studied sixty-six females and seventy males who

responded to ads in a university newspaper. All subjects were given pretests and

posttests of short- and long-term memory, attention, reading skills, and intelligence.

After the pretest, each subject was given individual training in TM, Shavasana yoga

or pseudo meditation and was asked to practice meditation twice a day, monitoring his

or her practice with individual diaries. The practice of meditation had no systematic

effect on the variables assessed.

Fiebert and Mead (1981) randomly assigned twenty students in an

introductory psychology class to an experimental group that was taught "actualism"

meditation and asked to practice before studying and before exams, and a control

group that was taught the technique but asked to practice at other times. There were

no differences between the groups in mean weekly study time, but the experimental

group performed significantly better on examinations than the control group.

Valentine and Sweet (1999) found that both concentrative and mindfulness

practitioners had improved sustained attention on a continuous performance task

(Wilkin’s counting test) in contrast to control participants. However, mindfulness

practitioners displayed less distraction to unexpected stimuli. The emphasis of

mindfulness practice on the present moment potentially enhances the capacity for

sustained attention, attention switching and inhibition of elaborative processing

(Bishop et al., 2004).

Travis, Tecce, and Guttman (2000) related performance on an auditory-

response/letter-recall task of TM practitioners to self-reported levels of transcendence

experienced during meditation. They found that participants who had reported more

44

transcendent experiences showed quicker reaction times, reduced effects of distraction

and according to EEG and EMG measurements, a heightened physiological

preparedness for response.

MEDITATION, ANXIETY AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE

Davidson, Goleman, and Schwartz (1976), and Davidson, Schwartz, and

Rothman (1976) mapped the attentional absorption and trait anxiety in fifty-eight

subjects divided into four groups: controls who were interested in but did not practice

meditation; beginners who had meditated for one month or less; short-term meditators

who had practiced regularly for one to twenty-four months; meditators who had

practiced for more than two years. Subjects were administered the Shor Personal

Experiences Questionnaire, the Tellegen Absorption Scale, and the Spielberger State-

Trait Anxiety Inventory. The results indicated reliable increases in measures of

attentional absorption, in conjunction with a reliable decrement in trait anxiety across

groups as a function of length of time meditating. They also reported that meditators

seemed to have better auditory receptivity and perceptual discrimination than

controls.

Yesavage and Rolf (1984) implemented two divided-attention tasks involving

auditory-response and letter-recall tasks on a group of elderly people and found that a

reduction in anxiety through relaxation techniques improved their reaction times on

both the tasks.

Alexander, Swanson, Rainforth, Carlisle, Todd, and Oates Jr. (1993)

conducted an experimental study where employees who learned TM were compared

to controls similar in worksite, job position, demographic and pretest characteristics.

The results showed that regular meditators improved significantly more than controls

(with irregular meditators scoring in between) on multiple measures of stress and

45

employee development, including reduced physiological arousal (measured by skin

conductance levels) during and outside TM practice - decreased trait anxiety, job

tension, insomnia and fatigue, cigarette and hard liquor use; improved general health

(and fewer health complaints) and enhanced employee effectiveness, job satisfaction

and work/personal relationships.

Shapiro and Schwartz (2000), Teasdale (1999), and Teasdale, Segal, and

Williams (1995, 2003) found that working together with the processes of mindfulness

training, amplify one’s potential for self-regulation and allow attention to be

redirected from depressive or anxious rumination back to the experience of the

present moment. This may result in decreased negative affect and improved

psychological health (Davidson et al., 2003; Shapiro, Schwartz, & Bonner, 1998).

OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW

The foregoing survey of literature deduces the following characteristics of the

literature surveyed. Most of the studies that have probed the relationship between

meditation and anxiety have focused on the effect of meditation on anxiety amongst

non clinical participants. These studies have assessed the effectiveness of meditation

including other relaxation strategies like systematic desensitization and progressive

relaxation. In these assessments, the participants who practiced meditation showed

greater anxiolytic response than progressive relaxation and controls. Amongst the

clinically anxious subjects, meditation was found to be equally effective as the

technique of self-hypnosis.

The findings of the studies that tested the relationship between meditation and

cognitive performance consistently indicated the effectiveness of meditation in

improving attention, field independence and reaction time. However, the findings of

these studies that tested this relationship show inconsistencies regarding the impact of

46

meditation on perceptual acuity and perceptual motor ability. These studies have also

suggested the need for further investigations to probe the overall status of meditation

regarding these indices of cognitive performance (perceptual acuity and perceptual

motor ability).

The studies that probed the impact of meditation on both anxiety and cognitive

performance indicate the effectiveness of meditation in reducing anxiety and

improving the cognitive performance indices of attention, reaction time, perceptual

acuity and mental health.

The studies reviewed here in general point to the need for further studies that

probe the prolonged impact of meditation on the variables of anxiety as well as

cognitive performance for greater than six weeks. They also explicitly call for studies

involving multiple posttests or repeated measures of these variables to understand the

long term impact of meditation on them. The present study proposes to contribute

towards covering some of these existing lacunas.

Chapter 3

47

METHOD

This chapter gives a description of the sample, tools and materials employed,

design of the study, procedure and statistical analysis.

SAMPLE

The sample for the present study consisted of 56 students who volunteered for

this experimental study conducted to assess the effect of meditation on anxiety and

concomitant cognitive performance.

Table 1 provides description about the characteristics of the sample used in the

study. The subjects were drawn from two classes of an English medium school.

Experimental group

The experimental group refers to the group of 27 students of 11 th grade

constituting the full class strength, who volunteered to participate in the practice of

the researcher devised and developed meditation technique (refer tools and materials)

for eight weeks. These participants practiced the meditation technique once daily on

all working days of the school in their classrooms for the duration of 20 minutes and

on their own on holidays. This group consisted of 17 males and 10 females with mean

age of 16.12 years and 16.20 years respectively with their total mean age being 16.15

years. Since there was no gender difference between their responses to IPAT anxiety

48

scale as well as the five cognitive tests (see ‘tools and materials’), it was thought to

consider these participants as a single experimental group ignoring gender

differences.

Control group

The participants in the control group consisted of 29 student volunteers

constituting the full class strength studying in grade nine. This group consisted of 15

males and 14 females with mean age of 15 years and 15.14 years respectively. Their

total mean age was 15.07 years. Since their responses to the IPAT anxiety scale and

the five cognitive tests did not show any significant gender specific differences, they

are also treated as a single group. They also practiced the same meditation technique

as practiced by their experimental group counterparts, for three consecutive weeks

immediately after their fifth week reading, that is, sixth, seventh and eighth week.

None of the 56 participants of the present study had any prior experience of

practice in any meditation technique. According to Sharma (2006), conducting a

meditation program amongst individuals who are naïve to meditation for a short

period ranging over few weeks or months, followed by an assessment of the changes

that have taken place in such individuals over the short course of their meditative

practice has profound implications for understanding the potential vested in the

practice of meditation for human development.

The researcher had initially envisaged of conducting an experimental study

using an advanced experimental design called switching-replication design where the

control group shall also receive the treatment (e.g., any independent variable to be

tested like meditation or drug trial) in the same manner as received by experimental

group initially and after the set period the original experimental group becomes the

control group, similarly control group becomes the experimental group (Trochim,

49

2003). This design is considered the strongest of all experimental designs that verifies

the veracity of treatment effect of the independent variable through its repeated

testing. However, this design could not be implemented due to the constraints

involved in ensuring the complete stoppage of meditative practice amongst the

experimental group during its switch over to the role of control group and also due to

the known sustained and prolonged carry over effects of meditative practice even after

its cessation. Therefore the present study could not be conducted as envisaged due to

these constraints in its technical feasibility. However, in the present study the

treatment (meditation) given to the experimental group was replicated in the control

group after their fifth week recording of the dependent measures without the switch

over, that is, the experimental group continued the meditative practice till the end of

the eighth week and the control group also during the same period (sixth, seventh and

eighth week) practiced meditation.

The experience of the author of the present study from the past attempts to

secure volunteers from educational institutions at school, college and university level

as well as new enrolments for meditation program at meditation centres and institutes

for over two years, familiarised the author about the difficulties in initiating as well as

sustaining a highly controlled experimental program to assess the impact of

meditation. Most of these institutes were willing to cooperate for only one time

surveys and not for a sustained experimental program. The researcher found that the

volunteer participants drawn from higher secondary schools were comparatively more

disciplined, cooperative and enthusiastic.

Accordingly the researcher implemented the present experimental study in a

higher secondary English medium school but faced constraints from the school

management regarding the allocation of participants being limited to one class of

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grade 11 and one class of grade nine only. The allotment of the participants for the

study was also restricted to eight weeks. The unequal number of participants in the

experimental and control group was due to the differences in the total strength of the

allotted classes. The school management was also not accommodative of the idea of

randomizing and allocating the subjects within grade 11 and grade nine respectively

to experimental and control groups. In fact, this could have facilitated two

randomized, matched and controlled experimental studies on the effect of meditation

on anxiety and concomitant cognitive performance.

Researcher decided to conduct the study by dividing the two groups of

students in grade 11 and grade nine to experimental and control groups respectively,

as this would not compromise with the comparability of the results obtained from the

two groups. This is because the mean age (16.15 years and 15.07 years) of the two

groups fall within the population norms of the dependent measures (IPAT anxiety

scale and five cognitive tests) used in this study which are only age referenced for this

age group between 15-19 years (Krug, Scheier, & Cattell, 1976; Spreen, Sherman, &

Strauss, 2006). Hence the grade level differences in education that exists between the

two groups who participated in this study does not compromise the comparability of

their results obtained on the dependent measures tested. Further, the full class strength

forming the experimental/control group has incidentally shielded this experimental

study from confounding its internal validity arising out of social interaction threats

between the participants of the experimental and control groups. These social

interaction threats are highly prevalent in educational institutions where experimental

programs are conducted allocating randomly a group of participants of the same class

to different treatment conditions of experimental and control groups. The awareness

amongst the participants of the two groups about the disparities in their treatment

51

conditions, during the course of their social interaction, invokes threats to internal

validity of the experimental study from the operation of phenomena known as

compensatory rivalry and resentful demoralization (Trochim, 2003). Compensatory

rivalry leads to covert replication of the treatment given to experimental group in

control group without the awareness of the experimenter. Resentful demoralization

may lead to partial non cooperation from the participants of control group on account

of their feeling of being discriminated/deprived of the treatment. These social

interaction threats are capable of confounding the internal validity of the experimental

study without the knowledge of the experimenter. However, the present study has

been shielded from these aforesaid social interaction threats due to the grade level

difference that existed between the two groups as well as their location in different

buildings of the institution where the present study was conducted that made the

chances of interaction between them rare. This study has also been shielded from

differences arising due to socio-economic, academic schedule and cultural factors that

could have arose had the two groups been drawn from separate educational

institutions.

The period of eight weeks of meditative practice that the present study probed

is advancement over most of the earlier research studies conducted on meditation

which have probed the effect of its practice for comparatively shorter durations of

three to six weeks (Nidich et al., 1973; Puryear et al., 1976; Lazar et al., 1977; Raskin

et al., 1980).

TOOLS AND MATERIALS

Three types of tools were used in this study: IPAT Anxiety Scale was used for

measuring anxiety through self report, five cognitive tests were used in the paper-

pencil format for measuring cognitive performance (tests/tools used in this study are

52

given in Appendix), and the meditation technique, ‘Performance Enhancement

Program’ designed and administered by the author of the present study.

A. IPAT ANXIETY SCALE

The IPAT anxiety scale (Cattell & Scheier, 1961) measures the free floating

anxiety of the respondent. The free floating anxiety refers to the manifest level of

anxiety which is either situationally determined or relatively independent of the

immediate situation (Cattell, Scheier, & Madge, 1986). Free floating anxiety is

derived from the response to the 40 questions of the scale.

Administration

The administration of the scale is simple, straight-forward and not much time

consuming. Most of the respondents have been found to complete it within five

minutes. It can be administered individually, in groups and it is also self

administrable. It has been designed to be non-stressful and it has demonstrated that

individuals with low educational levels as well as institutionalized neurotics and

psychotics can handle the test without undue strain.

The test administrator introduces this instrument as a ‘self-analysis form’

aimed at understanding oneself. The respondents are asked to answer each of the

question items in the questionnaire according to the following instructions, read by

the test administrator:

1. Inside this booklet there are forty statements about how people normally feel,

think at one time, or another. There is no right or wrong answers. Mark inside

one of the three corresponding boxes to each statement that best describe your

feeling at this moment.

53

2. Do not take much time pondering over any statement. Respond to each of the

forty statements promptly in accordance to the feeling they evoke at the

moment.

3. As far as possible avoid the middle box which in most cases implies being

‘uncertain’ about the statement. Use it as little as possible, only in case, if you

really cannot decide between the other two extreme boxes.

Scoring

Each of the responses to the statements yields a score of 0, 1, or 2 for the

single choice of response on three-point scale. The range of scores possible for free

floating anxiety is between 0-80.

Reliability of the IPAT

The reliability of the IPAT Anxiety Scale was determined through three

methods. The first method was the test-retest method over a period of two weeks

which provided coefficients ranging from .83 to .88. The split-half method provided

reliability coefficients in the range of .76 to .80. The Ferguson’s adaptation of the

Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20) yielded coefficients of .78 to .83. Reliability

coefficients are provided for both the covert and overt free floating anxiety scales

using the test-retest method. The former scale provided coefficients ranging from .76

to .84 while the latter scale ranged from .76 to .84 (Cattell et. al., 1986).

Validity of the IPAT

The construct validity of the scale has proved to be very highly substantiated

by its correlations with other questionnaire measures of anxiety. It has recorded an

average correlation of .70, .68, .68 and .76 with Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale,

Maudsley personality Inventory (N Scale), Eysenck Personality Inventory (N Scale)

and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Trait Anxiety) respectively (Krug et al., 1976).

54

B. COGNITIVE TESTS

The five cognitive tests given are: Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test

(PASAT), Word Recognition Test (WRT), Letter Digit Substitution Test-Type 1

(LDST-1), Letter Digit Substitution Test-Type 2 (LDST-2), and Trail Making Test

(TMT) in its versions 1, 2 and 3 respectively were used.

PACED AUDITORY SERIAL ADDITION TEST (PASAT)

Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) by Gronwall and Sampson

(1974) is technically a cognitive test that assesses the higher cognitive functions

related to attention and concentration. It measures central information processing

capacity similar to that seen on divided attention tasks (Ponsford & Kinsella, 1992).

Further it has also been found to consist of at least three components: working

memory, information processing capacity and information processing speed (Shucard,

Parrish, Shucard, McCabe, Benedict, & Ambrus, 2004).

Administration

PASAT is administered by the test administrator who calls out a series of

single digit numbers between 1 and 9 at the rate of one digit per two seconds. The

respondent is required to attend to each of the digits called out and add serially each

of the single digits heard till the command ‘write’. On hearing the command ‘write’,

the respondent is required to write the sum in the response sheet. The respondent gets

three seconds to write the answer, after which they have to immediately attend to the

next series of digits called out by the test administrator and respond in the same

manner till the end of the testing session which takes 15 minutes. For example, the

test administrator may call out the following digits at the rate of two second per digit

(5-7-6-5-Write-7-4-7-3-7-5-Write-6-9-4-8-6 etc.), the respondent has to mentally

calculate (5+7+6+5) and promptly write this answer on the answer sheet within three

55

seconds on hearing the command ‘write’ and attend to and calculate the sum of next

series (7+4+7+3+7+5) and respond as before and continue uniformly till the test

session is over.

The description of the test procedure itself demonstrates the heavy load this

task demands on the working memory capacity of the respondent.

Scoring

The scoring of PASAT is done through the calculation of the percentage of the

correct responses (CR) to that of total responses (TR) in a testing session i.e. CR / TR

* 100.

Reliability

Adequate reliability has been reported for PASAT with split-half reliability

found to be greater than .90 (Egan, 1988) and test-retest reliability values between .93

– .97 (McCaffrey et al., 1995).

Validity

O’Donnell, MacGregor, Dabrowski, Oestreicher, and Romero (1994) reported

adequate construct validity of the PASAT demonstrating relatively strong correlations

with other tests of attention such as Visual Search and Attention Task (r = .55) and

Trail Making Test (r = .58).

WORD RECOGNITION TEST (WRT)

Word Recognition Test (WRT) tests the verbal episodic memory of the

respondent in the category of short term memory (Baddeley, Eruslie, & Nimmo-

Smith, 1994). It is generally known that short term memory (STM) has limited

information retention capacity both temporally as well as quantitatively. Therefore

most of the tests of STM involve either the test of recognition or immediate recall.

This test is a test of recognition.

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Administration

The respondents of this test are given a sheet containing a list of 60 words of

commonly known objects. The test administrator prepares a list of 15 words from this

list which is called out at the rate of one word per second. During this process the

respondents are asked to listen attentively to the word list called out by the test

administrator without looking into the word list sheet given to them, which are kept

face down in front of them. After the test administrator has completed with the calling

out of the 15 stimulus words, the respondents are given a time limit of one minute to

recognize and mark the words called out, from the sheet given to them containing the

list of 60 words which was kept in front of them face down.

Scoring

The scoring is done by calculating the percentage derived from deducting

wrong responses (WR) from right responses (RR) out of 15 i.e. RR – WR / 15 * 100.

Reliability

The reliability coefficient of this test derived on Cronbach Alpha is .86.

Validity

The construct validity of this test is found to be moderate in relation to Face

recognition test, a subtest of STM which is (r = .30 to .57).

LETTER DIGIT SUBSTITUTION TEST TYPE-1 (LDST-1)

Letter Digit Substitution Test Type-1 (LDST-1) by Jolles, Houx, Van Boxtel,

and Ponds et al. (1995) is used to evaluate the general speed of visual information

processing, complex cognitive speed and flexibility. According to Natu and Aggarwal

(1995), the Letter Digit Substitution Test (LDST) is related to the Symbol-Digit

Modalities Test developed by Smith (1968) which originated from the Digit Symbol

Substitution Test developed by Wechsler (1958). In technical terms, the LDST-1

57

gives the measure of efficiency of operations in working memory of the respondents.

This test is a little more complex than the ensuing Letter Digit Substitution Test Type-

2 (LDST-2) since it has some element of mathematical operations.

Administration

At the top of the test sheet, a box is presented with ten numbers from 0 to 9

corresponded with 10 letters symbolizing the unique codes for each of the numbers in

a random order for the substitution task involved in this test. On the rest of the page,

boxes are presented with just numbers requiring simple mathematical operations.

Subjects are asked to complete the mathematical operations and substitute all the

numerical figures both given and derived from mathematical operations to their

respective alphabetical codes using the code list given at the top of the sheet, within

the time limit of three minutes.

Scoring

The scoring is based on the percentage of correct codes (CC) substituted from

the total codes (TC) to be substituted, i.e. CC / TC * 100.

Reliability

The test-retest reliability of LDST-1 has proven to be very high of the value of

.80.

Validity

LDST-1 has been reported to have shown high correlation with DSST in the

range of .62 to .78 (Natu & Aggarwal, 1995).


Letter Digit Substitution Test Type-2 (LDST-2) is in every way same as

LDST-1, the difference lies only in the execution of the task. In this, the respondent

has to fill as many numbers as possible for the letters given in the response part of the

58

sheet in two minutes without any mathematical operations involved. This task

involves substitution of alphabets to numerals using the numerical codes from 0 to 9

for the alphabets, given at the top of the sheet. The mode of administration, scoring,

reliability and validity is same as LDST-1.

TRAIL MAKING TEST (TMT)

Trail Making Test (TMT) was originally part of the Army Individual Test

Battery (1944) and has enjoyed wide use as an easily administered test of scanning

and visuo-motor tracking, divided attention and cognitive flexibility. The repeated

testing of TMT is shown have significant practice effect when such repeated testing is

spaced over a week. To overcome this drawback the experts recommend adoption of

different versions of TMT on such repeated testing (Mitrushina, Boone, Razani, &

D’Elia, 2005). Accordingly three versions of the test were used in the present study

namely: TMT version 1, 2 and 3.

Administration

TMT test form consists of series of dots represented by either a number or

alphabet. This arrangement of alphabet and numbers appear in a logical ascending

pattern. The respondent is required to connect as many of these dots as possible with a

pencil without lifting it within the time limit of one minute following the logical

ascending sequence of alphabet-number-alphabet-number order from the starting

point connecting A-to-1, 1-to- B, B-to-2, 2-to-C, C-to-3 in this serially progressive

order alternating between the letter and digit till the end of the trail.

Scoring

The performance on TMT is derived on the parameter of correct connections

per second. This is calculated by counting the total number of correct connections and

59

then dividing them from total time taken in seconds for making them in respect to

each of the test takers.

Reliability

Klonoff, Low, and Clark (1977) reported high test-retest correlation of .87 for

TMT.

Validity

According to Franzen (2000), TMT is correlated with non verbal index of

WISC III (r = .59). O’Donnell et al. (1994) has reported correlation of TMT with

PASAT (r = .58).

C. MEDITATION TECHNIQUE

A culture free meditation technique – ‘Performance Enhancement Program’

was designed and developed by the author of the present study to foster scholastic

aptitude amongst scholars. This program also amileorates other problems, like lack of

self-confidence, prevalent in general amongst scholars. This meditation technique

comes under the concentrative type or category of meditation technique (Dunn et al.,

1999) or ‘zoom-lens attention style’ (Shapiro, 1994), as it emphasizes upon focusing

on a particular focal object, that is, a visual imagery. It was developed after analysing

various techniques of meditation and after understanding its cognitive and cognate

psychological underpinnings. This meditation technique draws its inspiration from the

meditational expositions given by Swami Vishnu Devananda (1995) and Benson’s

relaxation response. The focus on a mantra or syllable recitation in these meditational

monographs and technique has been replaced by focus on a visual imagery to make

‘Performance Enhancement Program’ culture free.

60

The meditation technique as it was given to the participants of this study is

exactly described below.

Step 1

Taking any comfortable sitting position ensuring an erect back, close your

eyes. Suggest to your self that you may be able to concentrate for the whole duration

of this meditative practice and it may culminate in the attainment of a single goal that

you wish to achieve through overcoming of the problem you are facing in its

attainment.

Step 2

First exhale your breath, then inhale slowly and deeply to your maximum

capacity, hold your breath for a second, then exhale slowly and completely. Repeat

this process six times.

Step 3

After completion of the above step, without break, continue to inhale slowly

and deeply. During this process, bring your concentration on the breath you are

inhaling, simultaneously bring in your mind the thoughts and feelings that the cool

fresh air you are inhaling as it goes inside and becomes a part of you, is purifying

your mind, brain cells and as it moves down, your lungs and the whole body system is

being purified by it. After inhaling to your maximum capacity, hold the breath for a

second. As you exhale bring in your mind the thoughts and feelings that the warm air

that is being exhaled by you is taking away with it the impurities in your mind, brain

cells and whole body system. Feel happy and blissful for having been completely

purified. Repeat this process six times synchronizing the inhalation and exhalation

process with corresponding thoughts and feelings, as directed.

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Step 4

After completion of Step 3, without any break, making your breath natural and

deeper till further directions and defocusing or shifting the attention of your mind

from it (till completion of step 6). Now bring in your mind an image or symbol deeply

rooted in your belief system. It may be an image of a deity like for e.g., ‘Ganapathy’

or ‘Jesus Christ’ or symbol for e.g., ‘Om’, ‘Cross’ or if one is an atheist then he/she

can simply bring in mind the image of for e.g., sun or moon or a speck of light. After

bringing into the mind any of this, further imagine the rays of light emanating from

the chosen source, is entering you; if comfortable you may even imagine it as entering

you through the space between your eyebrows (ajna chakra) or as is comfortable for

you. As it enters continue to imagine the image of rays of light from the source

entering you and you are feeling charged with immense energy with the rays of light

energizing your mind, brain cells and as you continue, imagine it moving down, feel

your whole body system imploded with immense energy. Continue to imagine and

feel like this for some time till further directions from your instructor. In case any

extraneous thoughts disturb you, you may simply let it pass through and return your

mind back to this required focus. The practitioner may, in most circumstances, be

practicing this step for around 10 minutes.

Step 5

Continue to imagine the rays of light entering you and yourself feeling

charged by it, slowly bring in your mind any single problem you wish to overcome

which is acting as a hurdle in the achievement of your desired goal. For e.g., if you

want to overcome laziness, as you imagine the rays of light entering you from the

source selected, suggest to yourself ‘I do not want to be lazy’, feel this repetition six

times. After this, continuing to imagine the rays of light entering you and with its

62

energy entering you and suggesting to you that ‘you will not be lazy’. This step

normally takes three to five minutes.

Step 6

Now continuing to imagine the rays of light entering you from the source

selected, feel yourself that your problem will be solved (refer to problem selected in

step 5). That is, as the rays of light enter you from the source selected, you are

suggesting to yourself that ‘I will be hard working’. Feel this repetition six times. This

is erasing the problem of ‘laziness’. After this, imagine and feel the energy coming to

you from the rays of light of your associated symbol or image and simultaneously

suggesting to you that ‘you are hard working’. Continue to feel and imagine in this

mode till further directions. The participant remains in this mode till completion of the

duration of 20 minutes overall from step 3.

Step 7

After the completion of 20 minutes duration from ‘step 3’ to ‘Step 6’, repeat

‘Step 3’ and slowly open your eyes and remain still and silent for one minute.

This meditation program has been developed by the investigator over a period

of three years and its effectiveness has been tested amongst the members of the

scholastic community.

DESIGN

This study was conducted using ‘repeated measures quasi experimental design

with partial replication in control group’. This design is a strong research design that

ensures both internal and external validity. It has been adapted and advanced from

pretest-posttest nonequivalent group design and switching-replication design by

including multiple posttests or repeated measures and partial replication of the

63

treatment in control group (Campbell & Stanley, 1966; Cook & Campbell, 1979;

Trochim, 2003).

The experimental group was administered dependent measures (IPAT anxiety

scale and the five cognitive tests) prior to their initiation to practice of meditation.

Immediately after their pretest, they practiced meditation for eight weeks with the

dependent measures being administered once at each weekly interval for eight weeks.

The control group was also administered the dependent measures in the same pattern

(without meditative practice in their first six consecutive measures) during the same

time period. The control group was initiated to the practice of meditation immediately

after their fifth week recording of the dependent measures. They practiced meditation

for the remaining three weeks and their three weekly responses to the dependent

measures were recorded.

PROCEDURE

The researcher was introduced to the participants by the head of the

institution. The participants of the experimental and control groups were given an

introductory lecture about the purpose and requirements of the study. After seeking

their informed consent the researcher administered the dependent measures (IPAT

anxiety scale and five cognitive tests) to the participants of both the groups on the

same day. The practice of meditation was initiated immediately amongst the

participants of experimental group, involving a daily single session of 20 minutes

duration, on all working days of the school in their classroom. These participants were

also instructed to practice on their own during the holidays. Thereafter the dependent

measures were administered on both the groups once at each successive weekly

interval on the same day. The participants of both the groups appeared for their

prefinal exams which were held immediately after they were administered their fourth

64

week dependent measures and the prefinal exam was over before their recording of

fifth week dependent measures. During this period, the practice of meditation

amongst the experimental group could not be conducted in their classrooms and they

practiced on their own. The control group was also initiated similarly to the practice

of meditation, immediately after their fifth week recording of the dependent measures.

Control group practiced meditation for three weeks (sixth, seventh and eighth week)

with weekly response to the dependent measures. The participants of both the groups

completed the meditation program and final reading of the dependent measures two

days before their annual exams.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES

The statistical analysis of the nine recordings (pretest and eight weekly

measures) on the scores of IPAT Anxiety Scale and five cognitive tests battery were

subjected to statistical analysis using MS-Excel 2003.

The choice of statistical analysis is a crucial step in research that plays an

important role in arriving at the most probable inferences of a research study. The

important factors that need to be considered and consideration of which facilitates in

arriving at the appropriate decision regarding statistical analysis are: type of research

design, sample size, nature of dependent variables; whether they are quantitative or

qualitative and their parameter distribution amongst the population.

The present study was conducted using repeated measures quasi experimental

design with partial replication in control group. The sample size in both the

experimental and control groups was less than 30. The dependent variables employed

are of quantitative character with the parameters characterizing normal distribution in

the population. It is appropriate to use parametric tests for this type of design and data

65

type (Breakwell, Hammond, & Fife-Schaw, 2000). Student’s t-test and Anova are the

basic parametric tests.

Statistical literature recommends usage of t-test in case of comparisons

involving two groups with sample size of less than 30 (Kurtz, 1998). Anova is an

extension of t-test constructed for dealing with comparisons involving larger sample

size and multiple groups (Markowski & Markowski, 1990). Student’s t-test is

considered to be robust of all statistical tests that guards against ‘Type-I error’, that is,

the error of rejecting null hypothesis when it is true (Bhatnagar & Bhatnagar, 2001). It

has proved to be the most versatile amongst statistical tests that can cater to and

accommodate for various types of variables, samples and groups. The‘t-test paired’ is

used for repeated measures and the‘t-test unpaired’ for comparing two independent

samples (Zimmerman, 1997; McClendon, 2003).

The statistical analysis of the data collected for the present study was done

using Student’s t-test after considering its robustness in guarding against ‘Type-I

error’ and its applicability to the present study with respect to the sample size, design

and independent non random nature of samples involved.

The recordings of each of the eight weekly dependent measures of the

experimental and control groups were compared with their respective pretest using‘t-

test paired’. In repeated measures design, the pretests represent the baseline measures

of the samples on the dependent measures administered to the experimental and

control groups respectively. The subsequent weekly dependent measures of the two

groups administered at progressive weekly intervals after one to eight weeks

individually indicate the cumulative weekly impact of practice of meditation or

control when compared with their pretest. This gives information about the weekly

changes in the measures of free floating anxiety and cognitive performance resulting

66

from the impact of practice of meditation as well as practice effect induced by the

repeated weekly testing of the measures in experimental group. The analyses made in

control group with respect to their dependent measures recorded before their start of

meditation show the changes in their each of the five weekly premeditation measures

against the pretest which indicates the practice effect brought about by weekly testing.

The subsequent analyses in control group of their last three weekly recordings (6th, 7th

and 8th week) of the dependent measures taken after their respective one, two and

three weeks of practice of meditation yields information about the changes brought

about by meditation as well as practice effect if any imparted by repeated weekly

testings.

The dependent measures consisting of the pretest and the eight weekly

measures were administered for both the experimental and control groups during the

same time period. Therefore statistical analyses of between group comparison was

carried out on the experimental and control groups between their pretests and the

respective eight weekly measures using‘t-test unpaired’. This analysis on pretest

values yields information about any pre-existing differences between the two groups.

The changes in the subsequent five weeks readings show the effect of meditation and

weekly practice effect of five weeks in the experimental group and only effect of five

weekly test repetitions on the control group on all the measures tested (after the fifth

week’s recording of the dependent measures in both the groups, the control group also

practiced meditation). The comparison of the last three recordings, that is the sixth,

seventh and eighth weekly recordings show the impact of the six, seven and eight

week’s practice of meditation in the experimental group and effect of one, two and

three week’s practice of meditation in the control group.

67

The statistical analyses for probing the gender differences have not been

depicted in the present study due to the small sample size of the participants. It was

felt that the small sample size would not be helpful in contributing towards arriving at

any sound probable inferences regarding this relationship. Inspite of this drawback,

the gender difference analyses conducted as such by the researcher did not yield any

statistically significant gender difference for the dependent measures tested in the

present study. Since the analyses was not contributive towards revealing any

statistically significant differences between the genders and was consistent with the

known literature of these dependent measures showing and endorsing non existence

of gender difference (Krug, Scheier, & Cattell, 1976; Spreen, Sherman, & Strauss,

2006), this analyses has not been included or described in the present report.

The criteria for level of significance or ‘p-value’ that forms the basis for

acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis proposed in the present study has been

set at three levels, namely: p < 0.05 level, p < 0.01 level and p < 0.001 level, in

accordance with the current APA guidelines (American Psychological Association,

2001). The level of significance namely: p < 0.05 level, p < 0.01 level and p < 0.001

level indicate just significant, significant, and highly significant relationship

respectively between the treatments or conditions, variables or groups tested. The

level of significance signifies that such significant relationship between the variables

tested is not a chance occurrence but due to the effect of difference in treatment or

conditions or the groups tested (Trochim, 2003).

68

Chapter 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter describes the results and the statistical analyses conducted within

and between the experimental and control groups using‘t-test paired’ or ‘unpaired’

respectively. The results have been depicted in the form of a table and discussion has

been made therein. The null hypothesis assumed and tested according to the

objectives of the present study has either been accepted or rejected on the basis of the

results indicated by statistical analysis. In case the null hypothesis is rejected the

alternative hypothesis signified by such rejection has been appropriately stated.

FREE FLOATING ANXIETY

Table 2 given below shows the means, standard deviations and the

computed‘t’ values derived from the statistical comparisons between the pretest with

each of the eight weekly measures of free floating anxiety in experimental group.

TABLE 2

Parameters pRETEST

1-WEEK-M

2-WEEKS-M

3-WEEKS

-M

4-WEEKS

-m

5-WEEKS

-m

6-WEEKS

-m

7-WEEKS

-m

8-WEEKS

-m

Mean 37.07

33.33

33.07

29.67 30.44 30.04 29.59 28.74 27.93

SD 9.64 10.93

13.26

11.37 12.54 11.84 12.74 12.40 12.78

‘t’ paired 2.59*

2.25*

5.24***

3.98***

4.10***

3.89***

5.14***

5.01***

Comparison of each of the weekly mean scores of free floating anxiety in

experimental group with its pretest score (N = 27)

*Significance (Two Tail) at p < 0.05 level, ***p < 0.001 level, M - Meditation.

The results show statistically significant decrement in free floating anxiety till

the end of the eighth week of meditative practice when compared with the pretest.

The first and second week comparison with pretest are found to be statistically just

69

significant (p < 0.05) level and from the third week onwards till the end of the study

shows highly statistical significant (p < 0.001) decrement.

The above pattern of results gives credence to the well known reported fact

mentioned in the elaborate review of literature about meditation and its effects on

anxiety, that its regular practice is associated with significant decrement in anxiety

(Delmonte, 1985). The rise in anxiety scores in the fourth and the fifth week may be

due to the anxiety induced due to their prefinal exams in the fourth week. The fifth

week’s score indicates the decreasing residual effect of the anxiety caused by the

prefinal exams in the fourth week. These results of free floating anxiety seen in the

fourth and fifth week’s comparison with the pretest, validates the buffering impact of

sustained practice of meditation for just over four to five weeks even amongst new

and inexperienced meditators when they are confronted with high anxiety causing

events (Orme-Johnson, 1973). This is because the meditation practice for just four to

five weeks was enough to shield them against high anxiety provoking events amongst

the student community.

The results of the statistical comparisons made in Table 2 clearly indicate that

practice of meditation resulted in bringing about a statistically significant decrement

from the pretest to the eight weekly measures of free floating anxiety amongst the

participants of the experimental group. Hence the results of this statistical analysis

purport rejection of hypothesis-1 of the present study. This substantiates the

alternative hypothesis-1 that ‘As a result of practice of meditation

(Performance Enhancement Program) for eight weeks there is


free floating anxiety and its pretest in experimental group as shown

by IPAT Anxiety Scale’.

70

.

The following Table 3 shows the means, standard deviations and the derived‘t’

values for the statistical comparisons between pretest and the eight weekly measures

of free floating anxiety in control group.

TABLE 3

Parameters PRETEST

PREMED-1

PREMED-2

PREMED-3

PREMED-4

PREMED-5

1-WEEK-M

2-WEEKS-M

3-WEEKS-M

Mean 37.31 36.96 35.93 35.76 35.38 35.86 35.1

7

35 34.3

4

SD 11.65 12.75 12.57 11.80 11.93 12.03 12.1

5

13.2

6

11.7

2

‘t’ paired 0.69 1.74 1.87 1.92 1.14 1.70 1.38 1.96

Comparison of the weekly mean scores of free floating anxiety in control group with

its pretest score (N = 29)

Premed: Before start of meditation score, M – Meditation.

The results indicate that there is no statistically significant change in the free

floating anxiety as compared to their pretest values throughout the eight weeks study

in spite of the fact that they also practiced meditation for the final three weeks. This

failure to show a statistically significant decrement in anxiety on initiation of

meditation in the control group may be due to the announcement made after the fifth

week of the study of the impending final exams scheduled after this study. This shows

that the buffering effect of meditation in face of high anxiety provoking events takes

longer period of meditation practice. This is in contrast to the sustained statistically

significant decrement shown in the experimental group even after the announcement

of the final exams.

The results of the statistical comparisons of the eight weekly scores of free

floating anxiety with its pretest score, endorses the null hypothesis-2 that ‘As a

result of weekly response to IPAT Anxiety Scale for eight weeks out

71



of free floating anxiety and its pretest in control group’.

The ensuing Table 4 presents the means, standard deviations and the

computed‘t’ values of comparisons between experimental and control groups on free

floating anxiety.

TABLE 4

Comparisons between experimental and control groups between their pretest and

weekly mean scores of free floating anxiety

(Experimental N = 27, Control N = 29)

ParametersGroups Mean SD ‘t’ unpairedExp-Pretest 37.07 9.64Cont-Pretest 37.31 11.65 0.08Exp-1-Week-M 33.33 10.93Con-Premed-1 36.96 12.75 1.15

Exp-2-Weeks-M 33.07 13.26Con-Premed-2 35.93 12.57 0.83




Exp-6-Weeks-M 29.59 12.74Con-1-Week-M 35.17 12.15 1.67

Exp-7-Weeks-M 28.74 12.40Con-2-Weeks-M 35 13.26 1.83

Exp-8-Weeks-M 27.93 12.78Con-3-Weeks-M 34.34 11.72 1.95

Exp: Experimental group, Con: Control group, M – Meditation.

Premed: Before start of meditation score in control group.

The results of the two groups with respect to their comparisons between their

respective pretests and the respective eight weekly measures do not show any

72

statistically significant difference on free floating anxiety. However, it can be seen in

the results that the difference in mean scores between the two groups at pretest was

very small (0.24), with the experimental group’s mean being lesser than that of

control group by a small margin.

The comparisons between each of the respective eight weekly measures of the

two groups also have not shown any statistically significant difference on free floating

anxiety even though the difference between experimental and control groups showed

a difference varying from 3.63 in the first week’s comparison to 5.82 in the fifth

week’s comparison thereby showing that the experimental group maintained

comparatively lower anxiety levels even though it was not statistically significant.

Similarly the sixth, seventh and eighth week also showed a difference of 5.58, 6.26

and 6.41 on free floating anxiety mean scores respectively between the experimental

and control groups inspite of the fact that both the groups were practicing meditation

during these final three weeks of the study, the experimental showing lower anxiety

levels.

This shows that to make a statistically significant difference between the two

groups may take more than five weeks of practice of meditation. A similar finding

was reported by Ross (1977) amongst two groups of students. In Ross’s study, the two

groups were given pretest of IPAT anxiety scale. After pretest, one group learned and

practiced transcendental meditation (TM) and the other just learned TM but did not

practice it. Ross reported the trend of greater decreases in anxiety amongst the regular

meditating group compared to the non meditating group. However in Ross’s study

this difference in changes of anxiety between the two groups only approached towards

significance over a three to four month period. Similarly, with respect to the present

study the experimental group also shows greater decreases in free floating anxiety

73

compared to the control group over its five weeks of meditation, however this

difference is also like that of Ross’s finding.

Therefore based on the statistical analysis of the comparison between the

experimental and control groups, it becomes imperative to accept the existence of null

hypothesis-3 endorsing the hypothesis that ‘There is no statistically significant

difference between experimental and control groups on free floating anxiety’.

PACED AUDITORY SERIAL ADDITION TEST (PASAT)


computed‘t’ values of the pretest and the eight weekly measures of Paced Auditory

Serial Addition Test (PASAT) in experimental group.

TABLE 5

Comparisons of the weekly mean scores of Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test

(PASAT) in experimental group with its pretest score (N = 27)

Parameters pRETEST

1-WEEK-M

2-WEEK

S-M

3-WEEKS-

M

4-WEEK

S-m

5-WEEK

S-m

6-WEEK

S-m

7-WEEK

S-m

8-WEEKS-

m

Mean 78.15

85.18

91.97 92.59 91.67 93.45 92.59 94.18 93.91

SD 23.04

13.93

8.79 10.16 10.34 6.98 8.66 7.15 6.17

‘t’ paired 2.02 2.92**

3.75***

3.54**

3.50**

3.25**

3.47**

3.94***

**Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, M - Meditation.

The results of PASAT in experimental group show statistically significant

improvement from its second week till the end of the study as compared to their

pretest score. This result indicates that the performance of the experimental group on

PASAT was more or less progressive. Here the observed changes are the product of

meditation as well as practice effect brought about by weekly test repetition.

These results indicate that under normal circumstances very highly statistical

significant improvement in performance on cognitive tasks involving sustained and

divided attention as well as high working memory capacity is attainable with three

74

weeks of practice of meditation. PASAT is a cognitive test of sustained and divided

attention as well as working memory capacity (Shucard, Parrish, Shucard, McCabe,

Benedict, & Ambrus, 2004). These results indicating statistically significant

improvement in cognitive tasks that demand high level of attentional resources is

comparable with the findings of Linden (1973) that practice of meditation is

associated with significant enhancement of attentive ability. The above results also

endorse the findings of Tomasetti (1985), Williams (1985) and Moretti-Altuna (1987)

who have reported that meditation effectively trains the capacity to attend.

Thus the statistical analysis of the results warrants rejection of null hypothesis-

4. Thereby substantiating the alternative hypothesis-4, that, ‘As a result of

practice of meditation (Performance Enhancement Program) for

eight weeks there is statistically significant difference between the

weekly measures of Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) and

its pretest in experimental group’.

75

Following Table 6 shows the means, standard deviations and the computed‘t’

values between the pretest and the eight weekly measures of PASAT in control group.

TABLE 6

Parameters PRETEST

PREMED-1

PREMED- 2

PREMED-3

PREMED-4

PREMED-5

1-WEEK-

M

2-WEEKS

-M

3-WEEKS

-MMean 65.17 79.60 81.32 80.46 78.74 79.84 85.41 83.25 85.96

SD 28.86 18.44 16.61 16.10 16.75 19.87 18.08 18.44 15.80

‘t’ paired 3.62** 4.57**

*

3.23** 2.79** 3.67** 4.07**

*

4.19**

*

4.67**

*

Comparisons between the weekly mean scores of PASAT in control group with its

pretest (N = 29)

**Significance at p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, M – Meditation.

Premed: weekly premeditation/before start of meditation score.

The above results show the weekly performance of control group on PASAT

with its pretest. They show statistically significant improvement in its performance

from the first week till the end of eighth week. However, these weekly mean scores of

PASAT do not show a progressive trend. The results of the performance on PASAT

amongst these participants of control group show statistically significant improvement

(p < 0.01) in their performance from the first week. Highly significant improvement

(p < 0.01) in its performance is found to be attained in its second week measure.

However, there is drop in performance of PASAT from its third to the fifth weekly

repeated test practice (Premed-3 to Premed-5) which is found to be fluctuating at

comparatively lower mean scores than that was attained in its second week’s score.

Thereafter, the results show that the practice of meditation was conducive for the

participants of control group for attaining high levels of statistical significance (p <

0.001) in performance of PASAT in all its subsequent three weekly measures.

76

The results of control group indicate that highly significant improvement in

performance on tasks demanding sustained and divided attention including high

working memory capacity are attainable with weekly repeated practice of such tasks.

This is consistent with the available findings of psychological testing of PASAT

which have found statistically significant practice effect (Gronwall, 1977;

Schachinger, Cox, Linder, Brody, & Keller, 2003). In addition, Gronwall (1977) also

reported that such statistically significant practice effects on PASAT tend to be

minimal after its second presentation. This is substantiated by the results given in the

above table. These results also clearly show that the improvement attained through

simple weekly practice of such highly attention demanding tasks like PASAT is not

sustainable continuosly and is vulnerable for fluctuations. The practice of meditation

for three weeks after five weekly repeated tests of this attention demanding task leads

to its high statistically significant (p < 0.001) level and sustained improvement in its

performance in all its subsequent three weekly measures taken after the meditation

practice. This again substantiates the findings of Linden (1973), Tomasetti (1985),

Williams (1985) and Moretti-Altuna (1987).

The results of the statistical comparisons in control group of the weekly mean

scores of PASAT with its pretest justify the rejection of null hypothesis 5. This

necessitates the acceptance of alternative hypothesis that ‘As a result of weekly

response to PASAT for eight weeks out of which the final three

weeks are with practice of meditation finds statistically significant

difference between the weekly measures of PASAT and its pretest in

control group’.

77

The ensuing table 7 shows the means, standard deviations and the computed‘t’

values of the comparisons between the experimental and control groups on their

respective pretests and their subsequent eight weekly measures of PASAT.

TABLE 7

Comparison between experimental and control groups on their pretest and weekly

mean scores of PASAT (Experimental N = 27, Control N = 29)

ParametersGroups Mean SD ‘t’

unpaired Exp-Pretest 78.15 23.04 Con-Pretest 65.17 28.86 1.86

Exp-1-Week-M 85.18 13.93 Con-Premed-1 79.60 18.44 1.28

Exp-2-Weeks-M 91.97 8.79 Con-Premed-2 81.32 16.61 3.03**

Exp-3-Weeks-M 92.59 10.16 Con-Premed-3 80.46 16.10 3.40**

Exp-4-Weeks-M 91.67 10.34 Con- Premed-4 78.73 16.75 3.50**

Exp-5-Weeks-M 93.45 6.98 Con- Premed-5 79.84 19.87 3.46**

Exp-6-Weeks-M 92.59 8.66 Cont-1-Week-M 85.41 18.08 1.92

Exp-7-Weeks-M 94.18 7.15 Con-2-Weeks-M 83.25 18.44 2.96**

Exp-8-Weeks-M 93.91 6.17 Con-3-Weeks-M 85.96 15.80 2.51*

Exp: Experimental group, Con: Control group, M: Meditation.

*Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

Premed: Before start of meditation score.

The results of the comparisons between the two groups on the scores of

PASAT in the pretest and the first week are found to be statistically not significant.

78

The effect of meditation on the cognitive test of PASAT is observable from the

second week readings which are statistically significant at p < 0.01 as compared to

non meditating control group. Thereby showing comparatively better performance in

the PASAT by the meditating experimental over that of non-meditating control group.

This level of statistically significant better performance of the experimental group

over the control is found to remain so till the fifth week. The sixth week’s comparison

of PASAT scores between the two groups is found to be statistically not significant.

This statistically not significant comparison indicates the start of meditative practice

by the control group which completed one week of its practice compared to the six

weeks of meditative practice by experimental group. However, the subsequent two

recordings, that is, seventh and eighth week showed a statistically significant better

performance by the experimental group over that of the control group. Here the level

of statistical significance of better performance of the experimental group over that of

control group is found to decrease statistically from p < 0.01 level to p < 0.05 level

with the increasing practice of meditation by the control group. This is shown by the

results of statistical comparison between the two groups where seven weeks of

meditative practice of experimental group finds statistically significant better

performance at p < 0.01 level over two weeks of meditative practice by control group.

This reduction in the level of statistical significance is indicative of length of practice

of meditation is critical for sustained better performance, that is why the level of

significance between experimental group who had eight weeks of meditation practice

when compared to the control group with three weeks of meditation practice showed a

reduction in statistical significance from p < 0.01 level to p < 0.05 level.

The results of the statistical comparison between the pretest of the two groups

indicate that there is no statistically significant difference between the two groups on

79

PASAT. The statistically significant better performance of the experimental group on

sustained and divided attention as well as working memory capacity over that of the

control group is indicated by their performance on PASAT from the second week till

the fifth week of meditation practice of the experimental group over that of the control

group. These results indicate the better performance of meditating group on sustained

and divided attention as well as working memory capacity over that of non-meditating

group and are consistent with the findings of some earlier studies (Valentine & Sweet,

1999; Travis, Teece, & Guttman, 2000). Valentine and Sweet (1999) found that both

concentrative and mindfulness practitioners had improved sustained attention on a

continuous performance task in contrast to control participants. Travis, Teece, and

Guttman (2000) found improvement in performance of divided attention tasks

resulting from practice of TM.

The present study finds special notings in the statistical results obtained in the

comparison of the two groups on PASAT after the two groups practiced meditation.

In this regard, the statistical results of comparison between the sixth week’s measure

of PASAT between the two groups which signifies six weeks of practice of

meditation by experimental group with that of one week meditation practice by

control group is found to be statistically not significant. This finding is a pointer to the

probability of attainment of excellent and highly significant improvement in

performance on any well familiarized task that is attention demanding like PASAT,

when such familiarization is followed by even just one week of practice of meditation.

The seventh and eighth week’s statistical comparison of the results of performance of

PASAT between the two groups indicates statistically significant better performance

of experimental group which practiced seven and eight weeks of meditation over that

of respective two and three weeks of meditation practice in control group. These

80

results suggest that the meditators with greater meditative experience or period of

meditation practice perform distinctively better on cognitive tasks requiring sustained

and divided attention as well as high working capacity over that of meditators with

lesser meditation practice. The result also suggests that the significant gap in

performance on these high attention demending tasks of the lesser experienced

meditators compared to the meditators with greater meditation experience comes

closer proximity with increasing weekly meditation practice.

The statistically significant results found in the comparisons between the

experimental and control groups on PASAT merit the rejection of null hypothesis 6

that states there is no statistically significant difference between the two groups on

PASAT. This justifies the alternative hypothesis that ‘There is statistically significant

difference between the experimental and control groups on PASAT’.

WORD RECOGNITION TEST (WRT)

Table 8 given below shows the means, standard deviations and the results of

statistical comparisons between pretest and the eight weekly measures of Word

Recognition Test (WRT) in experimental group.

TABLE 8

Parameters pRETEST

1-WEEK-

M

2-WEEKS-

M

3-WEEKS-

M

4-WEEKS-

m

5-WEEKS-

m

6-WEEKS-

m

7-WEEKS-

m

8-WEEKS-

m

Mean 69.63

81.73 83.21 90.86 91.11 90.86 91.36 84.44 91.85

SD 16.78

16.18 11.60 12.28 8.27 11.57 11.52 12.81 10.35

‘t’ paired 3.23**

4.48***

6.06***

6.25***

6.09***

6.38***

4.38***

6.94***

Comparison of the weekly mean scores of Word Recognition Test (WRT) in

experimental group with its pretest score (N = 27)

**Significance (Two tail) p < at 0.01, ***p < at 0.001, M: Meditation.

The above results of WRT in experimental group shows statistically

significant (p < 0.01) improved performance from the first week which attain high

81

statistical significance (p < 0.001) from the second week till the eighth week. This

improvement is brought about by two components one, by daily meditation for 20

minutes and the other weekly repeated test practice. The mean score performance of

WRT is found to be progressive throughout except in the seventh week.

Word Recognition Test is a cognitive test of short term memory. The above

pattern of results of WRT in experimental group indicates that practice of meditation

induces immediate statistically significant improvement on short term memory. Also

this performance on short term memory further enhances to high statistically

significant levels from the second week of meditative practice. This high statistically

significant improvement in performance on short term memory is sustained

throughout the eight weeks of meditative practice with no instance of drop in

statistical significance. This finding is similar to the findings reported by Pagano and

Frumkin (1977) who reported that TM meditators demonstrated enhanced ability to

remember and discriminate musical tones.

The above results justify the need for rejection of null hypothesis 7 which

states that as a result of practice of meditation there is no statistically significant

difference between the pretest and the eight weekly measures of WRT in experimental

group. The rejection of null hypothesis 7 gives credence to the alternative hypothesis

that ‘As a result of practice of meditation for eight weeks there is


WRT and its pretest in experimental group’.

82

Table 9 shows the means, standard deviations and the computed‘t’ values

between pretest and the eight weekly measures of Word Recognition Test (WRT) in

control group.

TABLE 9

Comparison of the weekly mean scores of Word Recognition Test (WRT) in control

group with its pretest score (N = 29)

Parameters PRETEST

PREMED-1

PREMED-2

PREMED-3

PREMED-4

PREMED-5

1-WEEK-

M

2-WEEK

S-M

3-WEEKS-M

Mean 74.0

2

77.47 81.61 84.37 82.76 83.88 93.10 87.82 85.06

SD 15.3

6

18.21 18.66 17.93 15.99 21.73 8.26 12.98 16.30

‘t’ paired 1.17 2.04 3.03*

*

2.49* 2.24* 6.63**

*

4.28**

*

3.23*

*

*Significance (Two tail) p < at 0.05, **p < at 0.01, ***p < at 0.001, M: Meditation.


The results of performance on word recognition test by control group shows

that trend of its weekly scores compared with pretest become statistically significant

(p < 0.01) only in the third week. The subsequent comparisons of the fourth and fifth

week’s score of WRT with pretest are found to regress to be just statistically

significant (p < 0.05 level). The comparisons of the sixth and the seventh week’s

score of WRT with its pretest which were taken following start of meditative practice

are found to be statistically highly significant at p < 0.001 level. The final eighth

week’s comparison of WRT with its pretest is found to be significant at p < 0.01

level.

Word Recognition Test is a cognitive test of short term memory. The above

results clearly indicate that performance on short term memory (STM) does not show

83

immediate statistical significance on weekly repeated testing. It takes three weekly

test repetitions to attain statistical significance (p < 0.01 level) with its pretest which

is unlike the performance of experimental group on PASAT which was found to attain

statistical significance (p < 0.01 level) on immediate weekly repeated testing with

meditation practice. This statistical significance (p < 0.01) level attained in

performance of STM in its third weekly test repetition is not found to be sustainable at

that level of statistical significance in its fourth and fifth weekly test repetetion. There

is a regression in the statistical significance of the level of performance on STM in

these two weeks (fourth and fifth week) in particular at p < 0.05 level. This regression

in statistical significance of the performance on STM coincides with their engagement

in prefinal exams in the fourth week. This result of performance on WRT observed in

the fourth and the fifth week clearly indicates that the performance on STM is

affected detrimentally by any anxiety provoking event like school prefinal

examination in this case. This finding is in agreement with the findings of

Mwamwenda (1994) and Decaro et al. (2008) who have reported from their studies on

student participants that anxiety interferes with the task accomplishment as well as

working memory.

The practice of meditation for just one or two weeks is found to raise the

performance of the control group to very high statistical significance as compared to

its pretest. This highly significant rise in performance on short term memory was

never observed in any of the earlier five weekly repeated test practices of WRT. The

finding of high statistically significant improvement in performance on STM observed

immediate to one and two weeks of practice of meditation also finds some relation

with the findings of Pagano and Frumkin (1977). Pagano and Frumkin reported that

TM meditators demonstrated enhanced ability to remember and discriminate musical

84

tones. The drop in statistical significance of control group on performance on STM in

the third week of meditative practice coincides with the proximity to annual exams.

Exams in general are well known anxiety infusing events in student life. This seems

to indicate that the practice of meditation for just three weeks is not enough to ensure

a complete buffer from deterioration in performance on STM when confronted with

anxiety provoking events. However, this particular case also seems to suggest that it

was the practice of meditation for three weeks that shielded the very high statistically

significant drop in performance on STM in this group under such anxiety provoking

circumstances.

The statistical comparisons made in the control group on WRT suggests the

need for rejecting the null hypothesis 8 which states that ‘As a result of weekly

response to WRT for eight weeks out of which the final three weeks

are with practice of meditation finds no statistically significant

difference between the weekly measures of WRT and its pretest in

control group’. This rejection of null hypothesis endorses the alternative

hypothesis that ‘As a result of weekly response to WRT for eight weeks

out of which the final three weeks are with practice of meditation

finds statistically significant difference between the weekly

measures of WRT and its pretest in control group’.

85

The ensuing Table 10 shows the means, standard deviations and the results of

statistical comparisons between the experimental and control group on pretest as well

as the weekly measures of Word Recognition Test (WRT).

TABLE 10

Comparison between experimental and control groups on their pretest and respective

weekly mean scores of Word Recognition Test

(Experimental N = 27, Control N = 29)

ParametersGroups Mean SD ‘t’ unpairedExp-Pretest 69.63 16.78Con-Pretest 74.02 15.37 1.02

Exp-1-Week-M 81.73 16.18Con-Premed-1 77.47 18.21 0.93


Exp-3-Weeks-M 90.86 12.28Cont-Premed-3 84.37 17.93 1.59

Exp-4-Weeks-M 91.11 8.27Cont-Premed-4 82.76 15.99 2.48*

Exp-5-Weeks-M 90.86 11.57Cont-Premed-5 83.22 21.72 1.66

Exp-6-Weeks-M 91.36 11.52 Con-1-Week-M 93.10 8.26 0.65



Exp: Experimental group, Con: Control group, M: Meditation.

*Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.05, Premed: Before start of meditation score.

86

The results of the comparisons between the experimental and control groups

show no statistically significant difference between their measures of pretest of WRT.

This indicates the comparability of the two groups on this test of short term memory.

The results of the statistical comparisons of the weekly measures of WRT also do not

show any statistically significant difference between the two groups on seven out of

its eight weekly measures. The statistical comparison between the two groups is found

to be just significant at p < 0.05 level in their fourth week’s comparison.

The above results generally indicate that there is no statistically significant

difference between the two groups on the performance of short term memory.

However, the statistically significant better performance by the experimental group on

short term memory over that of control group in their fourth week’s comparison

requires a pertinent noting and discussion. This statistically significant better

performance by the experimental group was attained over the control group in the

week that engaged the participants of both the groups in their prefinal exams. Exams

are known to be generally the most anxiety provoking as well as amongst the most

demanding and critical events for the student community. In this context, the

statistically significant better performance by the experimental group over control

group on short term memory indicates that practice of meditation for four weeks was

conducive in elevating the performance of experimental group on short term memory

under the most demanding and critical circumstances when they had to face their

academic exams. This finding has some relevance with the findings of Fiebert and

Mead (1981) as well as Hall (1999), who have reported that when participants

regularly meditate before studies and examinations, academic scores tend to improve.

The above results of the statistical comparisons between the experimental and

control group on WRT calls for the rejection of null hypothesis 9. This warrants

87

adoption of alternative hypothesis that ‘There is statistically significant difference

between the experimental and control groups on WRT’.



computed‘t’ values of pretest and the eight weekly measures of letter digit

substitution test type-1 (LDST-1) in experimental group.

TABLE 11Parameters pRE

TEST

1-WEEK-M

2-WEEK

S-M

3-WEEK

S-M

4-WEEK

S-m

5-WEEKS-

m

6-WEEKS-

m

7-WEEKS-

m

8-WEEKS-

m

Mean 47.25

53.70

61.60 65.89 63.45 67.91 73.46 73.27 75.36

SD 12.91

13.27

11.25 9.62 9.71 11.43 13.67 13.38 10.58


7.31***

9.57***

7.83***

10.13***

10.18***

10.65***

13.45***

Comparison of the weekly mean scores of letter digit substitution test type-1 (LDST-1) in experimental group with its pretest score (N = 27)

**Significance at p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, M: Meditation.

The results of performance of letter digit substitution test type-1

(LDST-1) in experimental group shows more or less progressive

improvement in its weekly mean score performance with

corresponding high statistical significance (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001).

The results finds attainment of immediate statistical significance at

p < 0.01 level in its first weekly measure of LDST-1 corresponding to

one week of meditation practice. All the subsequent weekly mean

score comparisons of LDST-1 in experimental group with its pretest

are found to be of high statistical significance (p < 0.001) level. An

important aspect to be taken note of is that in all these weekly

88

comparisons with pretest from the second week to the eighth week

which correspond with two to eight weeks of meditation practice are

found to be of high statistical significance at p < 0.001 level with no

instance of drop in this statistical significance in any of these weeks.

LDST-1 is a cognitive test that measures the higher level

cognitive skills consisting of the general speed of visual information

processing, complex cognitive speed and flexibility. The statistical results of the

experimental group on LDST-1 are therefore indicative of deftness infused by

practice of meditation in these afore mentioned higher level cognitive skills. In

addition, it can also be observed from these results that practice of meditation ensures

progressive, sustained and highly significant improvement in these skills. These

findings show some consistency with the finding of Verma et al. (1982) who reported

statistically significant improvement amongst TM meditators on the cognitive task of

coding.

The results and discussion of statistical comparisons made in Table 11

regarding the weekly performance of experimental group on LDST-1 with its pretest

justifies the rejection of null hypothesis 10. The rejection of null hypothesis 10

confers the validity of alternative hypothesis 10 that ‘As a result of practice of

meditation (Performance Enhancement Program) for eight weeks

there is statistically significant difference between the weekly

measures of LDST-1 and its pretest in experimental group'.

89

Table 12 shows the means, standard deviations and the results of statistical

comparisons between pretest and the eight weekly measures of letter digit

substitution test type-1 (LDST-1) in control group.

TABLE 12Parameters PRET

ESTPREME

D-1PREME

D-2PREME

D-3PREME

D-4PREME

D-51-

WEEK-M

2-WEEKS

-M

3-WEEKS

-MMean 37.98 47.41 52.81 52.22 48.93 52.77 58.46 59.07 61.00

SD 15.26 14.85 15.22 15.37 12.02 14.01 14.37 16.38 13.52

‘t’ paired 4.37*** 7.86*** 7.31*** 4.32*** 6.22*** 7.87*** 7.98*** 9.16***

Comparison between the weekly mean scores of letter digit substitution test type-1 (LDST-1) in control group with its pretest score (N = 29)

***Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.001, M - Meditation.

Premed - Before start of meditation score.

The results of the mean score performances on letter digit

substitution test type-1 (LDST-1) in control group do not show a progressive

trend in the five weekly repeated test practices of LDST-1, even though all these five

weekly measures are found to be of high statistical significance (p < 0.001) level

when compared with their pretest. However, the progressive trend is infused in the

mean score performances of LDST-1 after the start of meditative practice in control

group in all their three subsequent weekly measures of LDST-1. These three weekly

measures of LDST-1 are found to be of high statistical significance (p < 0.001) level

with its pretest.

90

It has already been stated that LDST-1 is a cognitive test that

measures the higher level cognitive skills consisting of the general

speed of visual information processing, complex cognitive speed and flexibility. The

results in control group show that statistically high significant improvement in

performance on these higher level cognitive skills is attainable subsequent to repeated

test practice of LDST-1; however they do not show a progressive trend in its mean

score performances with mere repeated test practice. The progressive trend in the

mean score performances on these higher level cognitive skills measured by LDST-1

as well as its maintainance at high statistical significance with its pretest is found after

the start of meditative practice in control group. These results in control group again

indicate the effectiveness of meditative practice in infusing progressive improvement

in the higher level cognitive skills measured by LDST-1 compared to the fluctuative

trend seen due to its mere repeated test practice.

The results of the comparisons between the weekly measures of LDST-1 with

its pretest in control group merit the rejection of null hypothesis 11. The rejection of

the null hypothesis confirms the alternative hypothesis that ‘As a result of weekly

response to LDST-1 for eight weeks out of which the final three



in control group’.

91

The ensuing Table 13 shows the means, standard deviations and the

computed‘t’ values of the comparisons between the experimental and control groups

on their pretest and the respective weekly measures of letter digit substitution

test type-1.

TABLE 13

Comparison between experimental and control groups on pretest and their respective weekly mean scores of Letter digit substitution

test type-1 (Experimental N = 27, Control N = 29)Parameters

Groups Mean SD ‘t’ unpairedExp-Pretest 47.25 12.91 2.46*Con-Pretest 37.98 15.26

Exp-1-Week-M 53.70 13.27 1.67Con-Premed-1 47.41 14.85

Exp-2-Weeks-M 61.60 11.25 2.47*Con-Premed-2 52.81 15.22

Exp-3-Weeks-M 65.89 9.62 4.01***Con-Premed-3 52.22 15.37

Exp-4-Week-M 63.45 9.71 4.99***Con-Premed-4 48.93 12.02

Exp-5-Weeks-M 67.91 11.43 4.44***Con-Premed-5 52.77 14.01

Exp-6-Weeks-M 73.46 13.67 4.00***Con-1-Week-M 58.46 14.37

Exp-7-Weeks-M 73.27 13.38 3.56***Con-2-Weeks-M 59.07 16.38

92

Exp-8-Week-M 75.36 10.58 4.44***Con-3-Weeks-M 61.00 13.52

Exp: Experimental group, Con: Control group, M: Meditation

*Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001.


The results of the comparisons between the two groups on

their pretest show that there exists statistically significant (p < 0.05) difference

between the two groups with the significant better performance of the experimental

group over the control group. However, their immediate first week’s comparison of

LDST-1 is found to be not significant statistically inspite of one week of meditation

practice of the experimental group with that of control group as controls which

indicates that the statistical significance observed in their pretest comparison was a

mere happenstance. This indicates that the two groups are comparable on the measure

of LDST-1. The ensuing weekly comparisons from the second week till the eighth

week show statistically significant superior performance of the experimental group

over the control group. The comparisons are found to be statistically significant (p <

0.05) in their second week’s comparison. All the subsequent weekly comparisons

from the third week till the eighth week are found to be of very high statistical

significance (p < 0.001) level. After the fifth week’s comparison between the two

groups, their subsequent three weekly comparisons involve comparison of practice of

meditation by control group for one, two and three weeks with the respective six,

seven and eight weeks of meditative practice by experimental group. A pertinent

feature to be observed in these three weekly comparisons between the two groups is

that high statistically significant (p < 0.001) level superior performance of the

experimental group prevails over the control group in spite of practice of meditation

by the control group.

93

The performance on LDST-1 measures the adeptness in higher level cognitive

skills such as the general speed of visual information processing, complex cognitive

speed and flexibility. The aforesaid results of weekly comparisons between the two

groups indicate that practice of meditation for three to five weeks results in high

statistically significant improvement in performance of tasks involving these higher

level cognitive skills compared to the controls. This finding has consistency with the

finding of Verma et al. (1982) who compared 23 TM practitioners and 15 controls and

found that the TM practitioners showed statistically significant improvement on

coding tasks. The results of the comparisons made in Table 13 also indicate that

practice of meditation for six, seven and eight weeks by experimental group is found

to have high statistically significant superior performance over that of respective one,

two and three weeks of meditative practice by control group. This result, in particular,

suggests that meditators who are more experienced are likely to perform better on

these higher level cognitive tasks measured by LDST-1 than their less experienced

meditating counterparts.

The results of the comparison between the experimental and control groups on

LDST-1 points to the need for rejecting null hypothesis 12. This affirms the

alternative hypothesis that ‘There is statistically significant difference between the

experimental and control groups on LDST-1’. Thereby the superior performance of

the meditating group over that of non meditating group is substantiated.

94



computed‘t’ values between pretest and the eight weekly measures of letter digit

substitution test type-2 (LDST-2) in experimental group.

TABLE 14

Comparison between the weekly mean scores of letter digit substitution test type-2 (LDST-2) in experimental group with its pretest score (N = 27)

Parameters pRETEST

1-WEEK-M

2-WEEKS-

M

3-WEEKS-

M

4-WEEKS-

m

5-WEEKS-

m

6-WEEKS-m

7-WEEKS-m

8-WEEKS-m

Mean 55.08

57.85

67.23 71.95 73.24 68.52 78.98 79.63 87.03

SD 8.65 8.69 8.53 9.34 11.36 10.71 12.69 13.12 13.71

‘t’ paired 1.76 9.19***

8.57***

9.51***

5.82***

10.30***

10.34***

12.86***

***Significance (Two tail) at < 0.001, M: Meditation.

The results of the performance of LDST-2 in experimental group show more

or less progressive improvement in its mean performance throughout their eight

weekly measures from pretest. The comparisons of these weekly performances with

pretest are found to acquire statistical significance from the second week till the

eighth weekly measure. This statistical significance is found to remain sustained in all

these weekly comparisons from the second till the eighth week at a very high level (p

< 0.001).

95

The above results are clearly indicative of practice of meditation being

conducive for attaining a sustained progressive and high statistically significant

improvement in performance when compared to the pretest in the higher level

cognitive skills signified by LDST-2. The higher level cognitive skills denoted by

LDST-2 are general speed of visual information processing, complex cognitive speed

and flexibility. These results of performance on LDST-2 by experimental group finds

some reference in the experimental findings of Verma et al. (1982), who reported that

TM meditators showed statistically significant better performance on coding task.

The result of performance by experimental group as given in Table 14

warrants the rejection of null hypothesis 13. The rejection of null hypothesis 13

signifies the affirmation of alternative hypothesis that ‘As a result of practice of



measures of LDST-2 and its pretest in experimental group’.

Following Table 15 shows the means, standard deviations and the results of

statistical comparisons between pretest and the eight weekly measures of letter

digit substitution test type-2 (LDST-2) in control group.

TABLE 15

Comparison of the weekly mean scores of letter digit substitution test type-2 (LDST-2) in control group with its pretest score (N = 29)

Parameters PRET

ESTPREMED-1

PREMED-2

PREMED-3

PREMED-4

PREMED-5

1-WEEK-

M

2-WEEKS

-M

3-WEEKS

-MMean 54.45 59.76 60.84 62.65 62.76 61.57 68.44 68.30 74.12

SD 13.20 14.90 14.42 14.13 13.10 12.18 14.99 12.99 15.77

‘t’ paired 2.60* 2.47* 4.15**

*

3.44** 2.89** 4.91**

*

5.58**

*

6.89**

*

96

*Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, M: Meditation.


The results of performance of LDST-2 in control group show statistically

significant improvement in their performance on LDST-2 from the very first week

(Premed-1) till the eighth week’s (3-weeks-M) with its pretest. However, their mean

performances with their statistical significance with the pretest fluctuated in the five

weekly repeated test practice (Premed-1 to Premed-5) between p < 0.05 to p < 0.001.

This fluctuation is due to the training effect imparted by taking the test weekly.

However after the practice of meditation for three weeks, the subsequent three weekly

measures (6th, 7th and 8th) of LDST-2 show more or less progressive improvement in

mean score performances which was maintained at high statistical significance of p <

0.001 level with its pretest.

These results of LDST-2 in control group show that statistically significant as

well as progressive improvement in performance of this task of LDST-2 requiring

higher level cognitive skills associated with its performance, such as general speed of

visual information processing, complex cognitive speed and flexibility, are found to

be more tenable and better through practice of meditation. Comparitively through

weekly repeated practices of this task, the level of weekly improvement made by

control group in its mean performance with its statistical significance with pretest is

found to be generally slow, fluctuating and untenable. This endorses that the practice

of meditation is more advantageous in securing a tenable improvement in higher level

cognitive skills associated with LDST-2 rather than its simple weekly repeated test

practice.

The results of the statistical comparisons in table 15 between the pretest and

the weekly measures of LDST-2 in control group both as a result of its repeated test

practice as well as practice of meditation is found to be statistically significant thereby

97

calling for rejection of null hypothesis 14. The alternative hypothesis confirmed due

to this rejection is, ‘As a result of weekly response to LDST-2 for eight


meditation finds statistically significant difference between the

weekly measures of LDST-2 and its pretest in control group’.

Table 16 shows the means, standard deviations and the computed‘t’ values of

comparisons between the experimental and control groups on their pretest and their

respective weekly measures of letter digit substitution test type-2.

TABLE 16

Comparison between experimental and control groups on their pretest and respective

weekly mean scores of letter digit substitution test type-2 (Experimental N =

27, Control N = 29)

ParametersGroups Mean SD ‘t’ unpairedExp-Pretest 55.08 8.65Con- Pretest 54.45 13.20 0.21


Exp-2-Weeks-M 67.23 8.53Con-Premed-2 60.84 14.42 2.03*

Exp-3-Weeks-M 71.95 9.34Con-Premed-3 62.64 14.13 2.93**



Exp-6-Weeks-M 78.98 12.69Con-1-Week-M 68.44 14.99 2.85**

Exp-7-Weeks-M 79.63 13.12Con-2-Weeks-M 68.29 13.00 3.25**

Exp-8-Weeks-M 87.03 13.71Con-3-Weeks-M 74.12 15.77

98

3.27**

Exp – Experimental group, Con – Control group, M: Meditation.

*Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.05 **p < 0.01.


The comparisons between the pretest of the two groups on

LDST-2 do not show any statistically significant difference. The

comparisons between the two groups from the second week to the

eighth week’s measure of LDST-2 find statistically significant

superior performance of the experimental group over that of control

group. In these weekly comparisons, the statistically significant

superior performance of the experimental group over the control

group is found to be at p < 0.05 level in the second and the fifth

week’s comparison and the remaining ones are found to be

statistically significant at p < 0.01 level. The weekly comparisons of

the sixth, seventh and the eighth week involve practice of

meditation by control group for one, two and three weeks

respectively. Even these weekly comparisons between the

experimental and control group finds statistically significant superior

performance of experimental group over that of control group.

The results of comparisons between the two groups indicate

that practice of meditation for three to five weeks is beneficial

towards maintaining progressive and statistically significant superior

performance of the experimental group over the control group on

the higher level cognitive skills associated with LDST-2. These

higher level cognitive skills are general speed of visual information

processing, complex cognitive speed and flexibility. This finding shows consistency

99

with the finding of Verma et al. (1982) who compared 23 TM practitioners and 15

controls and found that the TM practitioners showed statistically significant

improvement on coding tasks. Further, the results of the comparison between the two

groups also indicate that meditators with practice of meditation for six, seven and

eight weeks show statistically significant superior performance over their meditating

counterparts with one, two and three weeks of meditation practice respectively on

these higher level cognitive skills associated with LDST-2.

The results as given in Table 16 clearly find the existence of statistically

significant difference between most of the respective weekly comparisons of LDST-2

between experimental and control groups which necessitate the rejection of null

hypothesis 15. This rejection affirms the alternative hypothesis 15 that ‘There is

statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the

performance of LDST-2’.

TRAIL MAKING TEST

Table 17 given below shows the means, standard deviations and the results of

statistical comparisons between the pretest and the eight weekly measures of Trail

Making Test (TMT) in experimental group.

TABLE 17

Comparison of the weekly mean scores of Trail Making Test (TMT) in experimental

group with its pretest score (N = 27)parameters pretest

vERSION-1

1-WEEK-

M vERSIO

N-1

2-WEEKS-

M vERSIO

N-1

3-WEEKS-

M vERSIO

N-1

4-WEEK

S-m vERSION-2

5-WEEK

S-m vERSION-3

6-WEEK

S-m vERSIO

N-2

7-WEEKS-

m vERSIO

N-3

8-WEEKS-

m vERSIO

N-1

Mean 0.63 0.87 1.16 1.59 0.71 0.77 0.79 0.85 1.61

SD 0.17 0.19 0.51 0.80 0.22 0.29 0.22 0.22 0.79

‘t’ paired 7.78***

5.96***

6.85***

1.69 2.11* 3.28**

4.43***

7.11***

*Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, M: Meditation.

100

The results of the performance on TMT in experimental group show

progressive improvement in its mean score performances with high statistically

significant (p < 0.001 level) sustained improvement with its pretest on all its weekly

measures of version 1. The first administration of the version 2 of TMT in the fourth

week is found to be statistically not significant to its pretest. The first administration

of version 3 of TMT in the fifth week is found to be just statistically significant (p <

0.05) level with its pretest. The repeated administration of the versions 2 and 3 of

TMT in the sixth and seventh week respectively is found to be statistically significant

at (p < 0.01) level and (p < 0.001) level respectively with its pretest.

These results indicate that practice of meditation is beneficial in ensuring

progressive and statistically significant improvement in performance on all repeated

versions of TMT. These progressive and statistically significant performances on

TMT also indicate similar corresponding implications on expertise in higher level

cognitive skills involving visuo-motor scanning and tracking, divided attention and

cognitive flexibility. This is because these higher level cognitive skills are associated

with performance on TMT.

The lowering of the performance of TMT in the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh

week, as well as no statistical significance in the fourth and fifth week with the pretest

is due to the introduction and repetition of new versions of TMT, that is version 2 and

3, that controlled for repeated test practice effect as recommended in its

administration (Mitrushina et al., 2005). An analytical look at the test results shows

that even though these new versions controlled for statistically significant test practice

effect but it also at the same time brings to prominence the improvement in TMT due

to practice of meditation. This is exemplified by comparing the scores obtained in the

first administration of versions 2 and 3 of TMT in the fourth and fifth week with that

101

of pretest. These scores of versions 2 and 3 stand for the improvement in TMT

resulting from practice of meditation for four and five weeks over that of pretest.

These results find consistency with the earlier findings of Orme-Johnson (1973),

Orme-Johnson et al. (1977) and Jedrczak et al. (1986) who have reported that practice

of meditation improves perceptual motor performance.

Since the results of the comparisons between pretest and the weekly measures

of TMT show statistically significant improvement in their performances consequent

to their practice of meditation, null hypothesis 16 is rejected. This confirms the

alternative hypothesis 16 that ‘As a result of practice of meditation



TMT and its pretest in experimental group’.

The means, standard deviations and the computed‘t’ values derived from

comparisons between pretest and the eight weekly measures of Trail Making Test

(TMT) in control group are given in Table 18.

TABLE 18Parameters PRET

ESTvERSION-1

PREMED-1

vERSION-1

PREMED-2

vERSION-1

PREMED-3

vERSION-1

PREMED-4

vERSION-2

PREMED-5

vERSION-3

1-WEEK-

M vERSIO

N-2

2-WEEKS

-M vERSIO

N-3

3-WEEKS-

M vERSION-

1

Mean 0.59 0.88 0.90 1.10 0.63 0.68 0.83 0.84 1.26

SD 0.16 0.27 0.25 0.43 0.23 0.20 0.30 0.34 0.38


*

5.47**

*

6.75**

*

0.89 2.22* 4.20**

*

4.19**

*

10.08**

*

Comparison of the weekly mean scores of Trail Making Test (TMT) in control group

with its pretest score (N = 29)

*Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001, M: Meditation.

The results of the comparisons of the weekly mean scores in control group is

somewhat similar to that which has been observed in experimental group. The results

102

similarly show high statistically significant (p < 0.001 level) and progressive

improvement in performance of TMT on all the weekly measures of its version 1

which include three weekly repeated test practices and one measure taken after three

weeks of practice of meditation. Similar to that which has already been observed in

experimental group, the first administration of version 2 of TMT taken in the fourth

week is found to be statistically not significant with its pretest. Also similarly is the

case of version 3 of TMT taken in the fifth week which is found to be statistically just

significant (p < 0.05 level) with its pretest. The repeated administration of version 2

and 3 of TMT in the respective sixth and seventh week after one week and two weeks

of practice of meditation respectively are found to be statistically significant at a very

high level (p < 0.001).

The results observed in control group show that the progressive and high

statistically significant improvement in performance on higher level cognitive skills

associated with performance on TMT which involves visuo-motor scanning and

tracking, divided attention and cognitive flexibility is attainable following its weekly

repeated test practice. However, if one wants to clearly observe the very highly

progressive and statistically significant impact of meditation on the higher level

cognitive skills associated with TMT, then one should see the TMT scores of control

group in their sixth and seventh weekly measure and compare that with the scores

obtained by experimental group in table 17 during the same week. From this

comparison, one can clearly observe that a mere one and two weeks of meditative

practice brings a sudden highly significant jump in performance of TMT in control

group in its sixth and seventh weekly measure which is found to be even better or

very close to that of the performance of experimental group during the same period.

This result, in particular, seems to suggest that there is a likelihood of finding highly

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progressive and statistically significant jump on all familiarized task requiring

psychomotor scanning and tracking ability if one meditates for even one to two weeks

after such task familiarization. This finding is also understood to be interesting and

unprecedented in the research literature assessing the impact of meditation.

The results observed in Table 18 shows statistically significant improvement

in performance of control group on TMT both as a result of its weekly repeated test

practice as well as practice of meditation with its pretest which thereby merits

rejection of null hypothesis 17. The rejection of this null hypothesis gives credence to

the alternative hypothesis 17 that ‘As a result of weekly response to TMT for

eight weeks out of which the final three weeks are with practice of


weekly measures of TMT and its pretest in control group’.

Table 19 shows the means, standard deviations and the statistical comparisons

between the experimental and control groups on their pretest and the respective

weekly measures of Trail Making Test (TMT)

.TABLE 19

Comparisons between experimental and control groups on their respective pretests

and respective weekly mean scores of Trail Making Test (TMT)

Experimental N = 27, Control N = 29

ParametersGroups Mean SD ‘t’ unpairedExp-Pretest 0.63 0.17Con-Pretest 0.59 0.16 0.97




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Exp-6-Weeks-M 0.79 0.22Con-1-Week-M 0.83 0.30 0.55


Exp-8-Weeks-M 1.61 0.79Con-3-Weeks-M 1.26 0.38 2.08*

Exp – Experimental group, Con – Control group, M: Meditation.

*Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.05, **Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.01.


The result of the comparison between the two groups in Table 19 on their

pretest of TMT is found to have no statistically significant difference. The respective

weekly comparisons between the two groups on TMT show statistically significant (p

< 0.05 and p < 0.01 levels) superior performance of the experimental group over the

control group in all its weekly comparisons of version 1 in the second, third and the

eighth week’s comparison. The weekly comparisons between the two groups on TMT

in their fourth, fifth and seventh week is found to have better performance of

experimental group over that of control group but is not statistically significant.

The results of these weekly comparisons of TMT between the two groups

indicate that the practice of meditation is associated with superior performance on all

familiarized tasks or versions of TMT, familiarized prior to meditative practice. This

conclusion has been arrived at from the performance of control group which showed

either superior or very close performance with experimental group after the versions 2

and 3 of TMT were repeated in the sixth and seventh week after they practiced

meditation for one and two weeks respectively. The first administration of different

versions of TMT, that is, versions 2 and 3 compared in the fourth and fifth week also

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shows superior performance of experimental group over control group but is not

statistically significant. The use of these different versions of the TMT has been

recommended in cases where it is administered weekly to control for test practice

effect (Mitrushina et al., 2005). The results of the first administration of the two

different versions of TMT have brought to light the superior performance on it

induced by practice of meditation. TMT is associated with higher level cognitive

skills which involve visuo-motor scanning and tracking, divided attention and

cognitive flexibility. The aforesaid discussion made on the results of the comparison

between the two groups have corresponding implications on the performance of these

higher level cognitive skills associated with TMT resulting from meditation practice.

The results of the comparisons between the experimental and control groups

on TMT shows statistically significant difference in performance on three of the eight

weekly comparisons of this test; this warrants the rejection of null hypothesis 18. The

alternative hypothesis 18 confirmed by this rejection is that ‘There is statistically

significant difference between the experimental and control groups on TMT’.


computed‘t’ values of the comparisons within the versions 1, 2 and 3 of trail making

test in experimental group.

Table 20

Comparisons within the versions 1, 2 and 3 of Trail Making Test (TMT) in

experimental group (N = 27)Parameters 3-Weeks-M

Version-18-Weeks-M Version-1

4-Weeks-M Version-2

6-Weeks-M Version-2

5-Weeks-M Version-3

7-Weeks-M Version-3

Mean 1.59 1.61

0.80 0.79

0.14

0.71 0.79

0.22 0.22

1.44

0.77 0.85

0.29 0.22

1.57

SD

‘t’ paired

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M: Meditation.

The comparisons within Table 20, 21 of experimental and control groups

respectively have been done with the intention of understanding the progress within

the similar versions of trail making test (TMT), if any, within these two groups. Three

versions of TMT were administered to the two groups during the same time period

therefore it was thought to probe whether there is any statistically significant

difference between the similar repeated versions. The comparisons involve comparing

the first administered versions 2 and 3 with their respective repeated versions. It is

understood from the earlier tables (17, 18, and 19) that the version 1 of TMT was

administered in the pretest and repeated consecutively for three weeks at weekly

interval in both the groups. Then it was followed by a break of four weeks during

which the versions 2 and 3 of TMT were alternatively administered, after which the

version 1 was administered once again for the final time in the eighth week. Therefore

it was thought that in order to understand the overall progress in the version 1 of TMT

for both the groups, it would be appropriate to compare results obtained in its third

week (last test taken before the interval for four weeks) with its final testing in the

eighth week.

The results given in Table 20 of TMT in experimental group show no

statistically significant improvement in the performance on any of its three versions

compared within. However, the repeated measures within all the three versions are

found to have an improvement over their preceding ones. These results indicate that

practice of meditation coupled with the three weekly repeated practices of the version

1 of TMT led to acquisition of high statistically significant adeptness in performance

on TMT. This resulted in creating a ripple impact of very high level performance on

the very first administration of other two versions of TMT that ensured that their

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respective repeated testing did not find statistical significance over them, even though

there was improvement in their performance on repeated testing it was not statistically

significant.

The above discussion of results of within versions performance of TMT in

experimental group, clearly indicate the strength of meditation practice in bringing up

the general level of performance on the higher level cognitive skills associated with

TMT. These are visuo-motor scanning and tracking, divided attention and cognitive

flexibility.

The lack of statistically significant difference in all the three comparisons

made in table 20 of TMT endorses the null hypothesis 19 that ‘There is no

statistically significant difference between the comparisons made

within versions 1, 2 and 3 of TMT respectively in experimental

group.

.Table 21 shows the means, standard deviations and the computed‘t’ values of

the comparisons within the versions 1, 2 and 3 of trail making test in control group.

This involves comparisons between the premeditation (before practice of

meditation) measures of each of the three different versions of TMT with that of their

respective version taken after practice of meditation by control group. The three

versions of trail making test are namely: versions 1, 2 and 3.

Table 21

Comparisons within the versions 1, 2 and 3 of Trail Making Test (TMT) in control

group (N = 29)

Parameters

Version 1

Premed

Version 1Aftermed

Version 2

Premed

Version 2Aftermed

Version 3

Premed

Version 3Aftermed

Mean 1.10 1.26

0.43

0.63 0.83 0.23

0.68 0.84

0.20 SD

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‘t’ paired

0.38

2.76

*

0.30

5.29**

*

0.34

3.28**

*Significance (Two tail) at p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Premed: TMT score prior to meditation, Aftermed: TMT score after practice of

meditation

The above results in Table 21 of the comparisons within the three respective

versions of TMT in control group show statistically significant (< 0.05 levels, p <

0.001, p < 0.01 and p respectively to version 1, 2, and 3) improvement in performance

on all of its three versions compared within.

These results indicate that the prior practice and familiarization of all the three

versions of TMT, followed by practice of meditation and repeated administration of

all the three versions culminated in statistically significant (p < 0.05, p < 0.001 and p

< 0.01) improvements in performance on all versions of this psychomotor task. This

result, in particular, seems to propose about the inherent capability and potential of

meditation practice in inducing profound improvement in performance requiring

higher level cognitive skills on all familiarized tasks prior to initiation of meditation

practice. The higher level cognitive skills on which the implications of these results

apply are: visuo-motor scanning and tracking, divided attention and cognitive

flexibility.

The statistically significant results of the comparisons within all the three

versions of the TMT in control group show the significant improvement bestowed by

practice of meditation on various versions of this psychomotor task. This calls for

rejection of null hypothesis 20. In this respect, the alternative hypothesis that applies

is that ‘There is statistically significant difference between the

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control group’.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the present study suggest the effectiveness of the new

meditation technique (Performance Enhancement Program) in reducing free floating

anxiety and enhancing concomitant cognitive performance.

The results of experimental group on free floating anxiety shows the

effectiveness of meditation in sustaining free floating anxiety at statistically

significant lower levels with its pretest throughout the eight weeks of its meditation

practice. The results of free floating anxiety in this group also saw the effectiveness of

meditation practice in keeping free floating anxiety at statistically significant lower

level when these participants were engaged with the well known anxiety provoking

tasks of prefinal and annual exams. However, such statistically significant decrement

in free floating anxiety was not observed in the control group. But the result of free

floating anxiety in control group also reiterated the effectiveness of meditation in

reducing free floating anxiety as its mean scores saw a progressive trend towards

decrement throughout the three weeks practice of meditation of this group.

The results of cognitive performance saw statistically significant improvement

in performance on paced auditory serial addition test, word recognition test, letter

digit substitution test both type 1 and type 2 and the trail making test in experimental

group. Even though control group also showed abilities to attain significant

improvement in performances of these five cognitive tests with its repeated test

practice, they were not sustainable. When control group started practice of meditation,

the performance on these five cognitive tests were found to be sustainable and

statistically significant as compared to their pretest. The comparison of these

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cognitive tests between the two groups projected the statistically significant superior

performance of the experimental group over that of the control group on all the five

cognitive tests tested.

Thus, the effectiveness of meditation in reducing free floating anxiety and

concomitantly enhancing cognitive performance is substantiated by the results of

IPAT anxiety scale and the five cognitive tests obtained in the present investigation.

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The present study was aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of a newly

developed meditation technique, ‘Performance Enhancement Program’ and in

unraveling the effect of this meditation on anxiety and concomitant cognitive

performance. We are living in an age of anxiety, and mental health problems that

accompany anxiety are alarming. Anxiety interferes negatively with human

performance and as such it impacts or delays the achievement of set goals. This has

placed an urgent need for controlling anxiety. If an effective mechanism is found to

control anxiety, the progress may be very fast and ones targets or goals may be

achieved much earlier than stipulated. The impact of anxiety amongst the scholastic

community has reached alarming proportions and hence a program was devised and

tested. The program and its methodological implementation techniques, its effects on

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anxiety and concomitant cognitive performance amongst two scholastic groups are

detailed in this study.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to find out the effect of a newly developed

meditation program, ‘Performance Enhancement Program’, on the free floating

anxiety and concomitant cognitive performance of two groups of participants from the

scholastic community. This study measured amongst other things the effectiveness of

the ‘performance enhancement program’ designed and developed for the sole purpose

of ameliorating the impact of anxiety and foster cognitive performance.

HYPOTHESES

The aims and objectives of the present study were proposed to be attained

through testing of the following 20 null hypotheses. The purpose of the null

hypotheses is to remove the experimenter’s bias regarding the relationship between

the variables under study. It aims to infuse objectivity and precision in reporting of

the research results. In accordance with these scientific principles, the 20 hypotheses

proposed were:

Hypothesis-1

As a result of practice of meditation (Performance

Enhancement Program) for eight weeks there is no statistically

significant difference between the weekly measures of free floating

anxiety and its pretest in experimental group as shown by IPAT

Anxiety Scale’

Hypothesis-2

As a result of weekly repeated practice of IPAT anxiety scale

for five weeks as well as its weekly administration over three weeks

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of practice of meditation finds no statistically significant difference

between the weekly measures of free floating anxiety and its

pretest in control group.

Hypothesis-3


experimental and control groups on free floating anxiety.

Hypothesis-4



significant difference between the weekly measures of PASAT and

its pretest in experimental group.

Hypothesis-5

As a result of weekly response to PASAT for eight weeks out of



PASAT and its pretest in control group.

Hypothesis-6


experimental and control groups on PASAT.

Hypothesis-7



significant difference between the weekly measures of word

recognition test (WRT) and its pretest in experimental group.

Hypothesis-8

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As a result of weekly response to WRT for eight weeks out of



WRT and its pretest in control group.

Hypothesis-9


experimental and control groups on WRT.

Hypothesis-10



significant difference between the weekly measures of Letter Digit

Substitution Test Type 1 (LDST-1) and its pretest in experimental

group.

Hypothesis-11





Hypothesis-12



Hypothesis-13

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significant difference between the weekly measures of Letter Digit

Substitution Test Type 2 (LDST-2) and its pretest in experimental

group.

Hypothesis-14





Hypothesis-15



Hypothesis-16



significant difference between the weekly measures of Trail Making

Test (TMT) and its pretest in experimental group.

Hypothesis-17

As a result of weekly response to TMT for eight weeks out of



TMT and its pretest in control group.

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Hypothesis-18


experimental and control groups on TMT.

Hypothesis-19



experimental group.

Hypothesis-20



control group.

SAMPLE

The participants for the present study were drawn from the scholastic

community consisting of 56 students studying in an English medium school. A group

of 27 participants constituting full class strength was allocated to the experimental

group. Another full class of 29 participants formed the control group.

TESTS

The present study tested the changes in free floating anxiety in response to the

practice of meditation (Performance Enhancement Program) through IPAT Anxiety

Scale. The changes in cognitive performance resulting from practice of meditation

were measured using five cognitive tests: Paced auditory serial addition test, Word

recognition test, two types of Letter digit substitution tests and Trail making test.

DESIGN

This study was conducted using ‘repeated measures quasi experimental design

with partial replication in control group’. This design is a strong research design that

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ensures both internal and external validity. It has been adapted and advanced from

pretest-posttest nonequivalent group design and switching-replication design by

including multiple posttests or repeated measures and partial replication of the

treatment in control group (Campbell & Stanley, 1966; Cook & Campbell, 1979;

Trochim, 2003).

The experimental group was administered dependent measures (IPAT anxiety

scale and the five cognitive tests) prior to their initiation to practice of meditation.

Immediately after their pretest, they practiced meditation for eight weeks with the

dependent measures being administered once at each weekly interval for eight weeks.

The control group was also administered the dependent measures in the same pattern

(without meditation practice in their first six consecutive measures) during the same

time period. The control group was initiated to the practice of meditation immediately

after their fifth week recording of the dependent measures. They practiced meditation

for the remaining three weeks and their three weekly responses to the dependent

measures were recorded.

ANALYSES

The results of the weekly changes in the measures of free floating anxiety and

the five tests of cognitive performance with its pretest in the experimental and control

group respectively were analysed using‘t’ test paired. The comparative analyses of the

pretests and the respective weekly measures of free floating anxiety and the five

measures of cognitive performance between the experimental and control group were

done using‘t’ test unpaired.

MAJOR FINDINGS

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The new meditation program (Performance Enhancement Program) has

proved to be effective in reducing free floating anxiety and enhancing

cognitive performance.

The practice of meditation was found to produce a sustained statistically

significant decrement in free floating anxiety with its pretest over the eight

weeks of practice of meditation amongst the participants of the experimental

group. The sustained statistically significant decrement in free floating anxiety

with its pretest was sustained even during the period when these participants

were engaged and involved with the anxiety provoking task of prefinal exams

as well as the annual exams. The sustained decrement in free floating anxiety

shown by the participants of the experimental group under such adverse

anxiety provoking circumstances substantiates the sound buffering effect of

meditation on anxiety.

The practice of meditation had more or less progressive improvement

throughout the eight weeks of meditative practice amongst the participants of

the experimental group on all the five cognitive tests associated with the

higher level cognitive skills: sustained and divided attention, short term

memory, cognitive speed and flexibility and psychomotor scanning and

tracking ability. The results of the control group saw a fluctuative trend in the

performance of these higher level cognitive skills during the five weekly

repeated test practices of the five cognitive tests. However, these higher level

cognitive skills in control group also showed a progressive and statistically

significant improvement with pretest during the three weeks of their

meditation practice. Thus the results of the cognitive tests in both the groups

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tested are found to be supportive of the positive impact of meditation in

enhancing cognitive performance.

The results of the between group comparisons showed better performance with

practice of meditation in tangibly enhancing cognitive performance pertaining

to higher level cognitive skills of: sustained and divided attention, short term

memory, cognitive speed and flexibility and psychomotor scanning and

tracking ability over that of non practitioners of meditation. Further it is also

observed that greater the period of practice of meditation better will be the

performance on these higher level cognitive skills.

TENABILITY OF THE HYPOTHESES

Hypothesis-1

‘As a result of practice of meditation (Performance


significant difference between the weekly measures of free floating

anxiety and its pretest in experimental group as shown by IPAT

Anxiety Scale’

There is statistically significant difference between the pretest and each of the

eight weekly measures of free floating anxiety showing its sustained statistically

significant decrement throughout the eight weeks of meditative practice in the

experimental group. This calls for negation of the above proposed null hypothesis-1.

The affirmed alternative hypothesis-1 is ‘As a result of practice of meditation



free floating anxiety and its pretest in experimental group as shown

by IPAT Anxiety Scale’

119

Hypothesis-2

‘As a result of weekly response to IPAT Anxiety Scale for eight


meditation finds no statistically significant difference between the

weekly measures of free floating anxiety and its pretest in control

group’.

The results of the control group on free floating anxiety which

tested the above null hypothesis showed no statistically significant

difference between the weekly mean scores of free floating anxiety

with its pretest as a result of both repeated test practice of IPAT

Anxiety Scale as well as its weekly administration over the three

weeks of meditative practice. Thus the null hypothesis-2 proposed

here is affirmed.

Hypothesis-3

‘There is no statistically significant difference between the

experimental and control groups on free floating anxiety’.

The comparisons that tested this hypothesis indicate

existence of no statistically significant difference between the two

groups on free floating anxiety. Hence the null hypothesis-3

proposed herein is confirmed.

Hypothesis-4



significant difference between the weekly measures of Paced

120

Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) and its pretest in experimental

group’.

There is statistically significant difference between the weekly

comparisons as well as more or less progressive improvement in the

weekly mean score performances of PASAT with its pretest. This

trend of statistically significant improvement shown in the results of

PASAT necessitates the rejection of the above null hypothesis-4. It is

replaced accordindly with the alternative hypothesis-4 that ‘As a

result of practice of meditation (Performance Enhancement

Program) for eight weeks there is statistically significant difference

between the weekly measures of Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test

(PASAT) and its pretest in experimental group’.

Hypothesis-5

‘As a result of weekly response to PASAT for eight weeks out



of PASAT and its pretest in control group’.

The results derived from the statistical analyses that

compared the weekly progress in PASAT with its pretest in control

group both as a response to its repeated test practice effect as well

practice of meditation did not show a progressive trend in the mean

performances of the weekly measures from the pretest, however

they were all statistically significant. Also tangibly better

performances were seen in the three weekly measures of PASAT

that were taken in this group after they practices meditation

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compared to that of five weekly repeated test practice effect. The

observation of statistical significance in all the eight weekly

measures of PASAT in control group compared to its pretest direct

rejection of the aforesaid null hypothesis-5. As a consequence of

this rejection the alternative hypothesis-5 invoked is ‘As a result of

weekly response to PASAT for eight weeks out of which the final

three weeks are with practice of meditation finds statistically

significant difference between the weekly measures of PASAT and

its pretest in control group’.

Hypothesis-6


experimental and control groups on PASAT’.

The statistical comparisons between the two groups on PASAT

demonstrated that there is no statistically significant difference

between the two groups on its pretest comparison. However, six of

the eight repective weekly comparisons between the two groups

show statistically significant superior performance of the

experimental group over that of control group on PASAT. Amongst

these weekly measures that showed statistically significant superior

performance of the experimental group over the control group also

included two weekly comparisons when control group also had

practiced meditation. The statistically superior performance

projected by the experimental group over control group on six of the

eight weekly measures of PASAT merit rejection of null hypothesis-6.

The alternative hypothesis-6 that confirms its place here is ‘There is

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statistically significant difference between the experimental and

control groups on PASAT’.

Hypothesis-7



significant difference between the weekly measures of WRT and its

pretest in experimental group’.

The comparisons between the weekly measures of WRT with

its pretest reveal statistically significant difference on all the eight

weekly measures compared. This deserves rejection of null

hypothesis-7. The alternative hypothesis affirmed is ‘As a result of



weekly measures of WRT and its pretest in experimental group’.

Hypothesis-8

‘As a result of weekly response to WRT for eight weeks out of



WRT and its pretest in control group’.

The statistical comparisons between the pretest and the eight

weekly measures of WRT project statistically significant

performance on six of the eight weekly measures compared with the

pretest. Though the weekly mean performances on WRT with

pretest do not show a progressive trend, however, it is interesting to

find more statistically significant superior performances in all the

123

three weekly measures of WRT taken after practice of meditation

with its pretest. As a consequence to this finding the null

hypothesis-8 is rejected. This is replaced by the alternative

hypothesis-8 that states ‘As a result of weekly response to WRT for



weekly measures of WRT and its pretest in control group’.

Hypothesis-9


experimental and control groups on WRT’.

The statistical comparisons between the two groups on WRT

do not show any statistically significant difference between them in

their respective comparisons of pretest and seven of the eight

weekly measures. A just statistically significant difference (p < 0.05

level) between the two groups is observed in their fourth weekly

measure with the statistically superior performance of the

experimental group over that of control group. This statistically

significant superior performance demonstrated by the experimental

group over that of control group in their fourth week’s comparison

conveys sound implications about the beneficial effects of

meditation practice in fostering superior cognitive performance to

that of controls under the most demanding circumstances. This is

because the fourth week’s comparison showed superior

performance by experimental group on short term memory (WRT is

cognitive test of short term memory) consequent to their four weeks

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meditation practice compared to no meditative practice by control

group during the period when participants in both the groups were

engaged with their prefinal exams. Since the statistical comparison

between the two groups showed statistically significance in one of

the weekly measures this deserves rejection of null hypothesis-9.

This confers the acceptance of alternative hypothesis that ‘There is


control groups on WRT’.

Hypothesis-10



significant difference between the weekly measures of LDST-1 and


The results of the comparisons between the weekly measures

of LDST-1 with its pretest show statistically significant difference on

all the weekly measures. Also the mean performance on these eight

weekly measures from the pretest is found to be progressive except

the fourth week’s measures. The statistically significant difference

found amongst all the eight weekly measures of LDST-1 with its

pretest necessitates the rejection of null hypothesis 10. As a result

of this, the alternate hypothesis-10 affirmed is ‘As a result of



weekly measures of LDST-1 and its pretest in experimental group’.

Hypothesis-11

125

‘As a result of weekly response to LDST-1 for eight weeks out



of LDST-1 and its pretest in control group’.

The statistical results of the weekly comparisons of LDST-1

with its pretest show statistically significant difference on all the

eight weekly measures which include the first five weekly measures

which are weekly repeated test practices of LDST-1 as well as its

subsequent three weekly measures taken after practice of

meditation. Even though all the eight weekly comparisons of LDST-1

with its pretest is found to be statistically significant, better

performance amongst the three weekly measures of LDST-1 in

control group is more conspicuous compared to its five weekly test

practices. Since the results of statistical comparisons of the weekly

measures of LDST-1 with its pretest show statistically significant

difference, this deserves rejection of null hypothesis 11. The

alternative hypothesis 11 that takes effect is ‘As a result of weekly

response to LDST-1 for eight weeks out of which the final three



in control group’.

Hypothesis-12


experimental and control groups on LDST-1’.

126

The comparison between the respective pretest and seven of

the eight weekly measures of LDST-1 between the experimental and

control group show statistically significant difference. The

experimental group is found to show statistically significant better

performance on LDST-1 over that of control group. These

statistically significant results between the two groups warrant

rejection of null hypothesis 12. As a result the alternative hypothesis

12 that takes replacement is ‘There is statistically significant

difference between the experimental and control groups on LDST-1’.

Hypothesis-13



significant difference between the weekly measures of LDST-2 and


The results of the weekly comparisons of LDST-2 with its

pretest show statistically significant difference on seven of the eight

weekly measures compared. The results of the weekly mean

performances of LDST-2 from the pretest show progressive

improvement except in its fifth weekly measure. Since there is

statistically significant difference on LDST-2 on seven of the eight

weekly measures with its pretest, this necessitates rejection of null

hypothesis 13. The alternative hypothesis 13 affirmed herein as a

result of rejection of null hypothesis 13 is ‘As a result of practice of


127


measures of LDST-2 and its pretest in experimental group’.

Hypothesis-14

‘As a result of weekly response to LDST-2 for eight weeks out



of LDST-2 and its pretest in control group’.

The statistical results of the comparisons between the weekly

measures of LDST-2 with its pretest in control group show

statistically significant results on all the eight weekly measures. The

weekly mean performance is found to be progressive except in the

sixth weekly measure. Another important feature of interest

observed is that the weekly mean performances on LDST-2

projected a much tangible improvement in the three weeks of

meditation practice by control group compared to its earlier five

weekly repeated test practices of LDST-2. The statistical significance

found in the weekly comparisons of LDST-2 with its pretest merit

rejection of null hypothesis 14. The alternative hypothesis 14 that

confirms its place is ‘As a result of weekly response to LDST-2 for



weekly measures of LDST-2 and its pretest in control group’.

Hypothesis-15

128



The statistical comparisons between the respective pretest

and the weekly measures of the experimental and control groups

show statistically significant superior performance of the

experimental group over that of control group on seven of the eight

weekly measures. The finding of the statistically significant

relationship between the weekly measures justifies rejection of null

hypothesis 15. The alternative hypothesis 15 that affirms its place is

‘There is statistically significant difference between the


Hypothesis-16



significant difference between the weekly measures of TMT and its


The results of weekly comparisons of TMT in experimental

group with its pretest show statistically significant difference on

seven of its eight weekly measures with its pretest. This confirms

rejection of null hypothesis 16. The alternative hypothesis 16 that

merits its place is ‘As a result of practice of meditation (Performance

Enhancement Program) for eight weeks there is statistically

significant difference between the weekly measures of TMT and its


Hypothesis-17

129

‘As a result of weekly response to TMT for eight weeks out of



TMT and its pretest in control group’.

The comparisons between the weekly measures of TMT and its

pretest show statistically significant difference on seven of the eight

weekly measures. The existence of the statistically significant

relationship between the weekly measures of the TMT with its

pretest calls for rejection of null hypothesis 17. As a result of this

rejection, the alternative hypothesis that displaces the null

hypothesis 17 is ‘As a result of weekly response to TMT for eight



weekly measures of TMT and its pretest in control group’.

Hypothesis-18


experimental and control groups on TMT’.

The results of the comparison between the two groups on

their respective pretest and the weekly measures of TMT show that

there is no statistically significant difference between the two

groups on their pretest. All weekly comparisons between the two

groups where version 1 of TMT was administered amongst the two

groups are found to have statistical significance from the second

week. These include the comparisons of the second, third and the

eighth week’s. These comparisons show statistically significant

130

better performance of experimental group over that of control

group. All other weekly comparisons between the two groups are

found to be statistically not significant. Since the three weekly

comparisons between the two groups show statistically significant

difference, this warrants rejection of null hypothesis 18. The

alternative hypothesis 18 that affirms its place is ‘There is


control groups on TMT’.

Hypothesis-19



experimental group’.

The comparisons made within the measures of version 2 and 3

as well that of version 1 administered in the third and eighth week

in experimental group show no statistically significant difference

between them. This necessitates the acceptance of null hypothesis

19.

Hypothesis-20



control group’.

The results of the comparisons within the three versions of

TMT in control group show statistically significant difference in all

the three comparisons of TMT. These comparisons indicate

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statistically significant improvement in performance on TMT in

control group after they practiced meditation in all its three versions

compared. This calls for rejection of null hypothesis 20. The

alternative hypothesis that affirms its place as a result of this

rejection is ‘There is statistically significant difference between the


control group’.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The present study shows that in today’s anxious milieu, the practice of

meditation (Performance Enhancement Program) leads to progressive statistically

significant reduction in free floating anxiety. Free floating anxiety measures anxiety

as a product of both individual’s predisposition to anxiety as well as the situational

impacts from the environment. Therefore significant decrement in free floating

anxiety indicates positive implications of practice of meditation (Performance

Enhancement Program) on mental health. This has been substantiated by the

statistically significant concomitant progressive improvement in cognitive

performance measured by five cognitive tests. In this regard, it was found that

concomitant to progressive statistically significant decrement in free floating anxiety

brought about by meditation practice for a small duration of 20 minutes per day for

eight weeks, there was statistically significant progressive improvement on all the five

cognitive tests that were associated with higher level cognitive skills: sustained and

divided attention, working memory capacity, short term memory, cognitive speed,

flexibility, and the psychomotor scanning and tracking ability. This shows that in spite

of the high anxious milieu surrounding us, the practice of meditation comes as a

handy tool to experience solace and salubriousness for the mind. In the experience of

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this salubriety of the mind through practice of meditation finds indications for

concomitant improvement in academic, professional, work or occupational output.

Also the constructive role played by meditation in the significant improvement of

psychomotor scanning and tracking ability implies analogous impact on professionals

engaged in critically demanding tasks similar to that of airline pilots, spacecraft

cammanders, locopilots, and surgeons.

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The major limitation of the present study is its short fall from a true

experimental design with a randomized matched control group. Trochim (2003) has

explained the hazards of threats to internal validity of a true experimental study with

randomized and matched control group when conducted amongst scholastics subjects

belonging to the same educational institution arising due to non controllability of

social interaction between the participants assigned to the two groups (experimental

and control) which leads to exchange of information about the treatment and covert

replication that severely threatens the validity of the experimental study. To evade this

threat the author thought of conducting the present study as done in the present form.

The other limitations of the present study are its small sample size and also the small

period of the experiment. The nature and characteristics of the sample for the present

study also limits its generalizability to scholastic community.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

In the backdrop of the present study it is suggested that future studies may be

conducted incorporating a switching-replication experimental design approach where

the treatment is administered to both the experimental and control groups where the

initial experimental group becomes the control and vice versa. This shall further our

knowledge about any residual effects of meditation and also verify the veracity of the

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impact of meditation on anxiety and cognitive performance. This design shall bring

highly tenable and valid findings if conducted in a residential school where the

nutritional status of the participants and various other activities can also be controlled.

The future studies may be conducted using a larger sample size and a greater duration

of experimentation of the meditation practice. More variables, tests and indices of

personality and cognitive performance may also be incorporated to enrich the value of

the present study. The effectiveness of this new meditation technique may be tested

also amongst diverse populations like that of working adult’s men and women, aged,

persons afflicted with coronary heart disease.

It is further suggested that future studies may be conducted by concurrently

administering body-mind index scales such as Psychosomatic complaints index

(Joseph, 1986) to know the changes in the physical well being status of the individual.

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