On the Origin of the Armenians (In the Light of Non-Metric Cranial Traits Data)Author(s): Alla Movsesian and Nvard KocharSource: Iran & the Caucasus, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2004), pp. 183-197Published by: BRILLStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4030991 .Accessed: 06/04/2011 11:28

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ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARMENIANS (IN THE LIGHT OF NON-METRIC CRANIAL TRAITS DATA)

ALLA MOVSESIAN

Lomonosov State University, Moscow

NVARD KOCHAR

Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Armenian Academy of Sciences, Yerevan

The problem of the origin of the Armenian ethnicity has been high- lighted in numerous scholarly publications. Many archaeological data corroborate the cultural continuity between the current and ancient populations of Armenia extending at least down to the period of early Iron Age. 1

In effect, the formation of the physical type of Armenians had been deeply rooted in a grey antiquity and is closely associated with the formation of the Armenoid anthropological type embracing many populations of the Near East and the Caucasus, as well as the majority of the Armenian nation. The Armenoid type is characterised by a slightly wavy hair, a developed tertiary integument, with abundant fa- cial hair, dark complexion, dark eyes and hair, a peculiarly shaped nose with a dropped tip, wide and elevated nose wings, moderately thick lips, narrowly cut eyes, medium-size rather elevated face, brachycranial, very elevated skull, often with a very inclined forehead and a flat back of the head.

The origin of the Armenoid type is very interesting with regard to complicated ethno-genetic processes within the Near East and the Caucasus, as well as to the historical antiquity of the peoples of these regions and their proximity to the centres of the world civilisation. Ac- cording to Debec: "... there can be no serious ethno-genetic study of the European and Near Eastern peoples that would skip references to the peoples of the Caucasus".2

' B. B. Piotrovskij, Arxeologiya Zakavkazya, Leningrad, 1949. 2 G. F. Debec, "Paleoantropologiya SSSR", Trudy Instituta Etnografii, n.s.t. IV, Moscow-Lenin-

grad, 1948.

K Brill, Leiden, 2004 Iran and the Caucasus, 8.2

184 ALLA MOVSESIAN, NVARD KOCHAR

Bunak who had made an inestimable contribution into the anthro- pology of Armenians indicated the very early origin and extensive dis- tribution of the Armenoid type as far back as 1927. Examining the iconographic material and comparing it with the craniological data, he wrote that "the formation of this type had been completed prior to the emergence in the Near Eastern region of the European and Asiatic tribes (Phrygians, Greeks, Iranians, Turks, etc.), which had been dis- solved in the already crystallised Armenoid race rather than apprecia- bly affected the anthropological type of the population".3

The morphological characteristics of the contemporary Armenian groups have been studied in detail by Abdushelishvili.4 Examining the dental material, he concluded on the undoubted resemblance and in- ternal unity of the Armenian sub-ethnic groups. This type of unity has also been detected while studying the population genetics of the der- matological indications showing, as in case of the dental and crani- ological analyses, a distinct Europeoidal Near-Eastern (Armenoid) ra- cial diagnostic complex.5 The dermatoglyphics and family structure studies have also yielded the differentiation time of the Armenian sub- populations from the initial proto-population amounting to 8-9 thou- sand years. This enables an assumption to be made that it was already in the Neolithic time that the initial type was formed giving rise to the Armenian gene pool.

However, neither archaeological, nor linguistic, nor population-ge- netic reconstructions of the ethno-genetic processes can be regarded as completed without the paleoanthropological data being considered as historical sources. Unfortunately, it is exactly the lack of paleoanthro- poligical materials that explains the annoying blanks in the study of the ancient population of Armenia.

Substantial contributions to the paleoanthropology of Armenia were the works by Abdushelishvili6 and Alexeev.7 A basic research

3 V. V. Bunak, "Crania Armenica", Trudy Nil antropologii pri MGU, vol. II, Moscow, 1927. 4 M. G. Abduseligvili, "Ob antropologiceskom sostave sovremennogo naseleniya Armenii",

Antropologiceskij sbornik IV, Trudy Instituta etnografli AN SSSR, vol. 82, Moscow, 1963. 5 N. R. Kocar, Antropologiya armyan. Dermatoglfika i populyacionnaya struktura, Erevan, 1989; N. R.

Kocar, V. A. Seremet'eva, Yu. G. Ryckov, "Dermatoglifika v izucenii geneticeskix processov po- pulyacii celoveka (na primere naseleniya Armenii)", Genetika, vol. XVII, N 8, 1981.

6 M. G. Abduselisvili, op. cit.; idem, "Materialy k kraniologii Kavkaza", Trudy Instituta eksperi- mental'noj morfologiiAN GSSR, vol. V, Tbilisi, 1955; idem, "Ob antropologiceskom sostave sovre- mennogo naseleniya Armenii", Antropologieeskij sbomik IV, Trudy Instituta etnografii AX SSSR, vol. 82, Moscow, 1963; idem, Kkraniologii sovremennogo i dremnego naselenya Kavkaza, Tbilisi, 1966.

7 V. P. Alexeev, Proisxozdenie narodov Kavkaza, Moscow, 1974; V. P. Alexeev, I. I. Goxman, An- tropologya aziatskoj casti SSSR, Moscow, 1984.

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARMENIANS 185

done by Alexeev8 on the paleoanthropology of the Caucasus includes all craniological series on the Armenian territory known by that time deducing that the Armenoid complex of traits had existed here since the Eneolithic time at least. However, as has been rightfully concluded by the author, the identity of types between the ancient and contem- porary populations of Armenia is not yet a proof of their genetic con- tinuity. Indeed, the typological approach widely used for systematic arrangement of the anthropological traits is not too productive in identifying the nature and trend of the ethno-genetic processes. Moreover, the attempts to identify the differing sustainable morpho- logical complexes within a single population unit more often than not will counter the concepts of modern genetics on the causes and mechanisms of intra- and inter-population variation. In contrast to the typological one, the population-genetic approach enables the tracing to be made of genetic variability and epochal continuity; however, its usage becomes possible only for the cases of very representative sam- pling. Until recently, the paleo-anthropological material on the terri- tory of Armenia had not been suited for the population-genetic analy- sis by virtue of its paucity and dispersion. The fragmentary nature of the osteological material resulted from a poor preservation of the cra- nia due to specific local climate.

Nonetheless, the vigorous excavations by the Armenian archaeolo- gists have by now resulted in a more or less representative craniologi- cal collection embracing the periods of the middle and late Bronze, early Iron Age, as well as the antique time.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We have studied 484 crania from the territory of Armenia, their data being partially published,9 as well as approximately the same quantity of comparative material.

The Middle Bronze Period (Second haif of the II Millennium B. C.)

By the archaeological data, the culture of earlier periods of the Bronze Age is based upon and directly results from the Copper Age culture, showing a great cultural advancement and solid links between Trans- caucasia and the old Near Eastern culture.'0 This epoch is character-

8 Alexeev, op. cit. 9 A. A. Movsesian, "K paleoantropologii bronzovogo veka Armenii", Biologiceskij z'umal Armenii,

4, 1990. 10 Piotrovskij, op. cit.

186 ALLA MOVSESIAN, NVARD KOCHAR

ised by the emergence of red pottery with black emblazonment located in many areas of Armenia, to be replaced with the multicoloured light- background pottery. The growth of cattle breeding results in the prop- erty differentiation of tribes, to continuous confrontation for catde and grazing grounds, to incessant military scuffles and to the emergence, consequently, of the fortified town-fortresses. The weapons have al- ready been manufactured using bronze, sometimes silver. There are frequent occurrences of articles of precious metals showing high de- gree of goldsmithery. The highly developed local culture shows clear links with the Ancient Orient, with the Hittite Kingdom, in particular.

This period, or rather its final stage is represented by the crani- ological series from the Lchashen and Getashen burial grounds. The excavations in Lchashen located on the southwest shore of the lake Sevan have been carried on for several years by A. Mnatsakanian. The site is dated by a long period: since the second half of the third millen- nium B. C. to the 12th century A. D.; however, the most part of the osteological material is related to the late middle and early-developed Bronze Age, i.e. second half of the second millennium B. C. (126 skulls). The archaeological complexes of Lchashen link the Old Arme- nia with the cultural centres of Mesopotamia, Persia, and other adja- cent countries.11 Alexeev describes the crania of Lchashen as large and massive, elongated, with a rather high, medium-width face. From the Eneolithic ones they can be differentiated by an extremely obvious protrusion of the nasal bones and an orthognathic profile of the facial skeleton. 12

The characteristic features of the Lchashen series induced Alexeev to raise the issue on a possible role of the incoming elements in the formation of the Lchashen population. The burial ground near Nerkin Getashen village uncovered by 0. Khnkikian and A. Piliposian, is of a special interest, since the uncovered burials were related to different stages of the Bronze Age. Based upon the archaeological inventory, three groups of burials are identified: group one (13 skulls) is related to the transitory stage between the middle and late Bronze; group two (27 skulls) is related to the late Bronze Age; group three (23 skulls) is related to the early Iron Age. Thus, the residing population is pre- sented in a longitudinal chronological section, enabling a tracing to be made of the epochal variability within a single population.

" A. 0. Mnacakanian, "Osnovnye etapy razvitiya material'noj kul'tury Lcasena", Istoriko-filo- logichekij Zumal, N2, 1965.

12 Alexeev, op. cit.

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARMENIANS 187

A craniological research of a part of skulls from this burial'3 showed the dolichocephaly and large magnitudes of all basic measurements. Like the skulls from Lchashen, the facial part is of medium width, heavily profiled in the horizontal plane. The orbits are not high, nose narrow, protruding. All crania are characterised by pronounced European features.

7The Late Bronze Period

In the late second millennium, the culture of the South Caucasus goes over into the Developed Bronze Age. At this time, the Transcaucasian area undergoes substantial changes. The rapid development of animal husbandry and agriculture results in the social division of labour, emergence of cattle breeding tribes. Handicrafts develop like pottery, weaving, as well as metallurgy based upon the abundant copper de- posits of Transcaucasia. The bronze articles are very diverse, very high quality, being the main media of intertribal exchange. There is a growing number of settlements-fortresses with walls piled up of huge stone blocks (Cyclopean masonry).

This period is represented by the second group of crania from the Nerkin Getashen burial, crania from the burial near the village of Akunk on the south-east shore of the lake Sevan (28 crania), as well as by the craniological series of burials in the environs of Karashamb village (excavations by E. Khanzadian, V. Hovhannisian, F. Mura- dian) dated late second to early first millennium B.C. (31 crania). Dated about the same time is the craniological material from the North-West Armenia, on the western slope of Aragats, Artik village (36 crania). The burial ground was excavated by T. Khachatrian and dated around 13th to 10th century B. C. Archaeological material from the Artik burial is close to the Lchashen, indicating extensive inter- population associations.'4 The Artik burial crania are distinguished for heavily profiled facial bones, great protrusion of the nasal bones, ele- vated and relatively wide facial bones approximating them to the Lchashen series, as well as for the long, narrow and high cranium characteristics for the entire population of Ancient Armenia."5 Ac- cording to Alexeev, the population having left this burial ground re- sulted from the mixture of the Eneolithic and the incoming groups from around the lake Sevan.

13 A. K. Palikian, "Novye paleoantropologiceskie materialy s territorii Armenii", Biologi6esk# zurnalAmmenii, 4, 1990.

14 T. S. Khachatrian, Material'naya kul'tura drevnego Artika, Erevan, 1963. 5 Alexeev, op. cit.

188 ALLA MOVSESIAN, NVARD KOCHAR

Iron Deployment Age

In the early first millennium B. C., the Transcaucasia's southern areas were joined the Kingdom of Van, thus making the entire Caucasus closely connected with the ancient Near Eastern states, with their cul- tures leading the bronze-to-iron transition in Transcaucasia. In all likelihood, clearly observed in the Transcaucasian culture of 7th-6th centuries B. C. are three elements: the local Transcaucasian inherited from the bronze-time culture, Old Oriental and Scythian".

The burials related to the early Iron Age were dug out by A. Pilipo- sian at the Sevan lake shore (villages of Karmir, Artsvakar and Saruk- han, 34 crania). Related therein is also the third group of crania from the Nerkin Getashen burial ground.

7The Antique Period

Relics of late third century B. C.-second century A. D. were discov- ered on the southern bank of the lake Sevan, near the village of Kar- chaghbyur (19 crania), as well as Shirakavan, district Ani (18 crania). The crania from Karchaghbyur were measured by A. Palikian,16 show- ing some reduction of the upper facial elevation (from 86.2 in the late Bronze to 64.6 in the antique period).

All listed craniological series are being preserved in the State His- torical Museum of Armenia and in the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Armenian Academy of Sciences, Yerevan.

Contemporary Armenia

The contemporary Armenians are represented by a craniological se- ries of 129 crania collected by Bunak, being preserved in the Anthro- pological Museum of the State University of Moscow. Their sole dif- ference from the ancient ones is in the ratios of the horizontal diame- ters of the crania.'7

Used as comparative material were the following craniological se- ries preserved in the Anthropological Museum of the Moscow State University: the Ossetians (125 crania); the Adyghs (48 crania); the Abkhazians (55 crania); the Turks (31 crania), the Bulgarians (30 cra- nia), the Italians (43 crania). Examination also has been made of the Bronze-period populations from the territory of the Middle Dnieper

6 Palilian, op. cit. 1 Alexeev, op. cit.

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARMENIANS 189

basin: Yamnaya culture (31 crania), Katakombnaya culture (47 cra- nia), Srubnaya culture (29 crania), as well as the group of Scythians (31 crania) from the same region.

Research was done under a programme made up of 37 non-metric cranial traits. The data were analysed using the methods of multidi- mensional statistics.

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Phylogenetic Tree Analysis

The phylogenetic tree or cluster analysis is a very convenient and de- monstrable technique of classifying the populations having a large number of independent characteristics. A serious fault of this method is the inevitable fact that growing with the number of populations is the number of possible versions of trees, since whatever tree is only one of the possible projections upon a plane of points reflecting the mutual positions of populations in the multidimensional space of dis- tances. One way to minimise the errors is to use the bootstrap method and to compare trees obtained after resampling the set of data em- ployed in the analysis for a sufficient number of times. The use of bootstrapping for testing the stability of trees was introduced by Fel- senstein.'8 This approach was used by Cavalli-Sforza et al. for recon- struction of the genetic tree of human populations.19

The clusterisation of the examined populations was done using the PHYLIP (version 3.5)-the Phylogeny Inference Package,20 having quite extensive capabilities. Methods that are available in the package include bootstrapping, distant matrices and consensus trees construc- tion. For more objective evaluation of the authenticity of the results 1000 bootstrapped data sets were produced from the original data matrix. Whereupon from each of the replicate data sets two kinds of distance matrices, using Cavalli-Sforza's chord distance2' and Nei's genetic distance22 have been calculated. By neighbour-joining method

18 J. Felsenstein, "Confidence Limits on Phylogenies: an Approach using the Bootstrap", Evo- lution 39, 1985: 783-791.

19 L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, P. Menozzi, A. Piazza, The Histogy and Geography of Human Genes, Prin- ston University Press, 1994.

20 J. Felsenstein, "PHYLIP-Phylogeny Inference Package (Version 3.2)", Cladistics 5, 1989: 164-166.

21 L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, A. W. F. Edwards, "Phylogenetic Analysis: Models and Estimation Pro- cedures", Evolution 32, 1967: 550-570.

22 M. Nei, "Genetic Distance between Populations", American Naturalist 106, 1972: 283-292.

190 ALLA MOVSESIAN, NVARD KOCHAR

from each distant matrix by successive clustering of lineages a tree was constructed. And finally, consensus trees based on most frequent clus- ters were obtained (Fig. 1, 2).

This procedure has enabled us to identify four rather compact clusters: the Armenian, the Caucasian, the Balkan-Mediterranean groups, and ancient populations of the Dnieper basin. Thus, the clas- sification reflects the territorial group division. It is remarkable that both trees join the ancient and contemporary Armenian populations, with the exception of the Antique group occupying a separate position

(cf. Fig. 2). Moreover, independently of methods of tree reconstruction, the

mutual location of the ancient and contemporary Armenian popula- tions reflecting their epochal sequence remains invariable. That may indicate definite genetic interrelations and continuous genetic succes- sion in this region. The isolated location of the Antique group can show both the expansion of genetic contacts in antique time, i. e. a mixed composition of the Karchaghbyur and Shirakavan modula- tions, as well as the incoming, alien nature of the residents. Indeed, ac- cording to craniometrical data, the Karchaghbyur series is distin- guished among others.23 Besides, as shown by Cavalli-Sforza and Pi- azza,24 mixed populations are distinguished by distorting all genetic distances, so that a potential mixing can be discovered by using differ- ent methods of clusterisation, since in different types of trees the cross- breed populations will display a tendency towards separation from their cluster and joining others, which was found in the case with the Antique group. So, while assuming that the basic genetic substrate here was of local origin, we have to admit as very probable the role of an alien, incoming component in forming the antique, perhaps even the pre-antique, population of this region.

Examining the other clusters it is to be noted that they also reflect the genetic connections between populations. For example, the inte- gration between the Ossetians and the Caucasian groups is evidently not accidental, showing the role of the Caucasian substrate in the ethno-genesis of the Ossetians, relating clearly not only typologically but also genetically to the Caucasian group of populations.25 Both trees show an association of Yamnaya, Srubnaya and Katakombnaya cul-

23 Palikian, op. cit. 24 L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, A. Piazza, "Analysis of Evolution: Evolutionary Rates, Indepenence

and Treeness", Theogy of Population Biology 8, 1975. 25 Alexeev, op. cit.

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARMENIANS 191

tures and Scythians, which is in agreement with the assumption on their genetic affinity.26

Analysis of Principal Components (Factor Analysis)

In fact, the analysis of principal components correlates with the cluster analysis. Moreover, as shown by Cavalli-Sforza and Piazza,27 using the independent and neutral traits and the number of populations in each identified cluster being nearly the same, the population separation by the first principal component will match the first level of branching on the tree. Another component will indicate the second level, etc. How- ever, those conditions are not usually executable, so that to obtain an impartial picture of inter-population relations will, perhaps, require a comparison between the outcomes of the cluster and factor analysis.

Analysis of principal components has been done using the STA- TISTICA 6 package; results are shown on Figs. 3, 4, 5, as well as in Table 1.

The first five factors describe 64,3% of group dispersion. Table 1 giving the loads of factors upon traits, shows that the discriminatory capacity is proper not only to the common traits but also to the rare ones, such as os Wormii sut.coronale, os zygomaticum bipartitum, os Incae, etc.

It is to be noted that the factor I differentiates the groups mainly as to the inserted bones and irregular sutures; the heaviest load of factor II falls upon non-permanent foramens. The positioning of groups in the map of I and II principal components is given in Fig. 3 (all examined groups) and Fig. 4 (without the Dnieper region groups). As seen in Fig. 3, all Armenian groups are concentrated in top right-hand part of the map, according to the positive values of the first and second principal components. Thus, identification of these groups in an individual cluster is corroborated by analysing the principal components. A rather compact group is formed by the populations of the Dnieper ba- sin. Thus, the component analysis has evidently corroborated the ge- netic links between them. Moreover, the II principal component clearly divides the contemporary and ancient groups. Except the Ar- menians showing a striking resemblance with the ancient groups, all the rest of the contemporary populations have occupied the lower parts of the principal component map. Individual groups were formed by the Turks, the Ossetians, and the Adyghs, the Italians, Bulgarians

26 T. S. Konduktorova, Antropologiya naselenya Ukrainy mezolita, neolita i epoxi bronzy, Moscow, 1973.

27 L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, A. Piazza, op. cit.

192 ALLA MOVSESIAN, NVARD KOCHAR

and the Abkhazians. It is quite probable that shown here were some stages of the ethno-genesis of these peoples, however, discussing this problem is not the target of this text. Fig. 4 shows the Armenian groups as distinct from others, occupying the entire right-hand side of the map, the dividing factor here being the first principal component.

It is important that there is a sustainable disposition of Antique group towards the ancient Armenian populations. As we remember, the results of cluster analysis indicated a possibility of a foreign com- ponent to be present within examined antique populations. Does it mean that the assumptions on the mixed structure of the Antique group were invalid, and its characteristic disposition on the trees was only an accidental error?

To check this we have carried out a component analysis at a lower level, by comparing the series from different burial sites (Fig. 5). By virtue of the small number of crania from Karmir, Sarukhan and Artsvakar, these series were integrated into a single group. The results were quite remarkable: it was at the level of individual burial grounds, i. e. somewhat at the level of elementary populations extended along the chronological scale, that the analysis of the principal components uncovered both the genetic proximity and the differences between the groups. The populations of Karchaghbyur and Shirakavan are dis- tinctly different from other groups, which form a compact grouping within the positive part of the first principal component. Thus, we can suppose that the antique inhabitants of Karchaghbyur and Shira- kavan, while retaining genetic links with the previous population, had mixed structure, being subjected to a certain influence from the in- coming groups. It is understood that without a complementary mate- rial we cannot extend this conclusion to the entire antique population of Armenia, although, quite naturally, the expanding cultural links had to increase migrations from adjacent regions and boost genetic con- tacts not only in antique but also at an earlier time. As already men- tioned, according to the archaeological data, the culture of the 7th-6th centuries B. C., being closely linked with the preceding Bronze period, bears clear evidence of contacts with the adjacent, Urartian and Scythian, cultures. Regrettably, the material at our disposal will not yield the character of genetic links of the population of Armenia in the late first millennium B. C. Only new craniological materials can eluci- date one of the most exciting pages of the ancient history of Arme- nia-the emergence of the Urartians and Scythians in Transcaucasia.

Thus, we have to offer the following conclusions:

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARMENIANS 193

- 1) We can now postulate the genetic integrity of the contempo- rary and ancient populations of Armenia, starting from the Bronze pe- riod at least. This is corroborated by the data of craniometry, differ- entiating the contemporary and ancient groups only by value of the cephalic index. Alexeev and Gokhman, assuming that brachicephaly is one of the crucial criteria of the Armenian craniological complex, still maintain "there are no grounds of morphological nature to negate the genetic link of the brachicranial series of the Armenian plateau with the comparatively narrow-faced series of the Bronze period-Lcha- shen, Artik, etc. Their dolichocrany in this case does not impede the establishment of genetic links through the late development of bra- chicephalisation".28 The genetic ties between epochs become even more evident when we examine the data on the discrete varying traits, subject to neither the epochal variation nor to the influence of the en- vironmental factors.

- 2) Our data show, in particular, that during the Bronze period in Armenia existed extensive inter-population relations, connecting the population of the lake Sevan basin with the remote regions of Arme- nia. This is also mentioned by Alexeev29 while explaining the emer- gence of mixed craniological complexes by extensive matrimonial contacts.

- 3) And, finally, some differences in the Antique group from other ancient populations confirm the assumptions that, apart from Hurri- Urartian and the autochthonous elements, taking part in the ethno- genesis of the Armenian nation were other tribes and peoples. Future research will show if they were representatives of a northern race30 or originated from Asia Minor and the Near East. We shall ascertain, perhaps, if the gene pool of the Armenians contains the genes of the Cimmerian or the Scythians who put an end to the Urartian domina- tion in Transcaucasia. However, even now one can suppose, with a considerable degree of certainty that the discovered differences be- tween populations mainly result either from gene drift or by migration within adjacent areas. The substantiation of this hypothesis is the above-cited comparative analysis, with the Antique group occupying a solid place in the "Armenian cluster". This arrangement definitely shows a sustained kinship of antique Armenians with all other epochal groups of the Armenian ethnicity.

28 V. P. Alexeev, I. I. Gokhman, op. cit.: 89. 29 Alexeev, op. cit. ' Bunak, op. cit.

194 ALLA MOVSESIAN, NVARD KOCHAR

Table 1. Load of the first five identified factors upon the traits

Traits I II III IV V

Sutura frontalis 0,161 0,142 0,279 0,232 -0,078 For. supraorbitale 0,054 0,765 -0,276 -,0113 -0,009 For. frontale 0,418 0,663 -0,076 -0,031 -0,324 Spina trochlearis -0,050 0,568 -0,259 0,001 0,194 For. infraorb. acc. 0,023 0,453 0,526 0,402 0,239 Os zygomat. bip. 0,624 -0,306 -,0122 -0,530 0,057 Spina proc. front. 0,548 0,193 0,563 0,208 -0,170 Os bregmale -0,023 0,347 0,719 0,449 -0,224 Os W. sut. coron. 0,788 -0,096 0,126 -0,09 1 0,114 Stenocrotaphia 0,249 0,417 0,492 -0,523 -0,238 Os epiptericum 0,874 -0,034 0,001 0,018 -0,282 Proc. front.sq.temp. 0,261 -0,581 0,240 0,390 -0,219 Os W. sut. squam. 0,599 -0,199 -0,100 -0,320 0,206 Os postsquamosum 0,661 0,451 -0,185 0,007 -0,146 Os asterion 0,427 0,115 -0,128 0,207 -0,110 For. parietale 0,517 0,333 0,131 0,418 0,375 Os Incae -0,665 0,559 -0,064 0,394 -0,098 Os triquetrum -0,170 -0,283 0,725 0,046 0,111 Os apicis Lambdae 0,495 0,221 0,066 0,204 0,260 Os W. sut. Lambd. 0,693 -0,012 0,333 0,207 0,095 Sut. mendosa 0,593 0,095 0,40 0,310 -0,067 For. mastoid (abs.) 0,380 -0,687 -0,025 0,202 -0,272 For. mastoid. (exsut.) -0,628 0,525 0,387 -0,161 0,112 Os W. sut. occ.-mast. 0,327 0,216 0,208 -0,222' 0,062 Proc. interparietalis 0,041 0,599 -0,094 -0,091 0,002 Canalis condylaris -0,413 -0,379 0,032 0,120 0,348 Canal. hypogl.(bip.) 0,341 0,105 -0,182 0,502 0,134 Fac. condyl. bipart. 0,036 0,817 0,147 0,169 -0,042 Tuberc. praecond. 0,154 0,167 -0,531 -0,494 -0,016 For. tympanicum 0,663 -0,430 -0,336 0,192 -0,104 For. spinos. apert. -0,165 -0,305 0,417 0,181 0,494 For. spinos. bipart. 0,095 -0,649 0,004 -0,483 0,175 Proc. spinosum 0,079 0,240 0,038 -0,397 -0,175 For. pterygospinsum 0,345 -0,247 -0,116 -0,019 0,636 For. pterygoalare 0,018 -0,007 0,844 -0,277 0,058 Sut. palat. curv. 0,526 0,352 -0,10 -0,265 0,300 Torus palatinus -0,351 0,429 -0,314 0,273 0,473

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARMENIANS 195

Fig. 1. Consensus tree based on Cavalli-Sforza's chord distances

Antique

M. Bronze

L. Bronze

Iron Age

Armenians

Yamnaya

Katakomb.

Srubnaya

Scythians

Italians

Bulgarians

Turks

Adyghs

Abkhazians

Ossetians

Fig. 2. Consensus tree based on Nei's genetic distances

Antique

Iron Age

L. Bronze

M. Bronze

Armenians

Adyghs

Abkhazians

Ossetians

Italians

Bulgarians

Turks

Katakomb.

Yamnaya

Srubnaya

Scythians

196 ALIA MlOVSESIAN, NTVARD KOCHAR

Fig. 3. Principal component map (all groups)

4*.

a r-IF--44 o

Fig. 4. Principal component map (without Dnieper region groups)

C-

.1 t I1-

,A& ~t 4 0VA vS. 4Qi;t.*.*~~~~#W,vw s.::I-*

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARMENIANS 197

Fig. 5. Principal component map (local groups)

2.0

...Kar.aghb. . r ...... ........

A;

teaosheni

0.5 ....... ................ | *+ . . . >~~~~~~'Lchashdn

a . Kereshtmb

S,irek ave

25 20 1.5 .0 . 0.5

IPrincpal cotponr