On the other hand ....

CDM simulations consistently produce halos that are cusped at the center. This has been known since the 1980’s, and has been popularized by Navarro et al 1996 with the NFW density distribution which parameterizes the CDM halos

(r / rs ) - 1 {1 + (r/rs)} - 2

These are cusped at the center, with r - 1

We have had a long controversy over the last few years aboutwhether the rotation curves imply cusped or cored dark halos.

This continues to be very illuminating

Galaxies of low surface brightness are important in thisdebate.

The normal or high surface brightness spirals have a fairly well defined characteristic surface brightness scale(central surface brightness around 21.5 B mag arcsec -2)

In the LSB galaxies the disk density can be more than 10 x lower than in the normal spirals. •

These LSB disks are fairly clearly sub-maximal and the rotation curve is dominated everywhere by the dark halo.

Edge-on LSB galaxy NGC 5084

.

The observational problem is to determine the shape of the rotation curve near the center of the galaxies - a cored halo gives a solid body rotation curve near the center, while a cusped halo has a steep slope

Observationally it is not easy to tell.

HI rotation curves have limited spatial resolution so the beam smearing can mask the effects of a possible cusp.

More recent 2D optical rotation data (Fabry-Perot) has much better resolution - current data favor a cored halo.

Example of NGC 6822 - a nearby LSB galaxy - 20 pc resolution

High spatialresolution HIobservations

of Local GroupLSB galaxyNGC 6822

Weldrake et al 2002

isothermalhalo

min disk min disk + gas

SPS M/L max disk

High spatialresolution HIobservations

of Local GroupLSB galaxyNGC 6822

NFW halo

Weldrake et al 2002

Distribution of inner slope of density ~ r

Sample of about60 LSB galaxies

optical rotation curvesgive inner slope ofdensity distribution

NFW halos have = -1

Flat cores have = 0

de Blok et al 2002

NFW

What is wrong - observations or theory ?

Yes - the density distribution of the dark halos provides a criticaltest of the nature of dark matter and of galaxy formation theory. For example, the proven presence of cusps can exclude some dark matter particles (eg Gondolo 2000).

Does it matter ?

The halo density profiles can also be used to derive constraintson the fluctuation spectrum (Ma & Fry 2000).

Maybe CDM is wrong.

eg self-interacting dark matter can give a flat central (r) viaheat transfer into the cold central regions. But further evolutioncan then lead to core collapse (as in globular clusters) and even steeper r -2 cusps (eg Burkert 2000, Dalcanton & Hogan 2000)

Alternatively ...

There are many ways to convert CDM cusps into flat central cores so that we do not see the cusps now ...

For example ...

Bars are very common in disk galaxies - about 70% of disk galaxies show some kind of central bar structure - bars are believed to come from gravitational instability of the disk

The nearby spiral galaxy M83 in blue light (L) and at 2.2 (R)

The blue image shows young star-forming regions and is affectedby dust obscuration. The NIR image shows mainly the old stars andis unaffected by dust. Note how clearly the central bar can be seenin the NIR image

Weinberg & Katz 2000 proposed that the angular momentumtransfer and dynamical heating of the inner halo by the bar can remove a central cusp in ~ 1.5 Gyr

radius / (bar radius)

dens

ity

Current belief is that halos probably do form with cusps, but the cusp structure is flattened by blowout of baryons in an early burst of star formation (eg Dekel 2002 ....)

This idea has a couple of additional major attractions, butfirst a short digression on two important dynamical processes involved in hierarchical galaxy formation:

.

• dynamical friction

• tidal disruption

equipotentials in therotating frame

In simulations of galaxy formation, the virialized halos are quite lumpy, with a lot of substructure - a lot more satellites and dwarf galaxies than observed.

From simulations, we would expect a galaxy like the Milky Way to have ~ 500 satellites with bound masses > 108 solar masses.These are not seen optically and probably not in HI.

What is wrong ?

Could be a large number of baryon-depleted dark satellites, or some problem with details of CDM (eg maybe the short wavelength end of the power spectrum needs modification)

B. Moore

Moore et al 1999 showed the similarity of dark halos on different scales - clusters, large galaxies, small galaxies -note the substructure in the halos

The baryons also clump and, as they settle to the disk, the clumps suffer dynamical friction against the halo and so lose angular momentum

The resulting disks have smaller angular momentum thanthose observed: they are therefore smaller and spinningmore rapidly than real galaxies.

This remains one of the more serious problems in thecurrent theory of galaxy formation (eg Navarro et al 2002).

We need to find ways to suppress the loss of angular momentum of the baryons to the dark halo

One way to avoid this loss of angular momentum is by blowoutof baryons early in the galaxy formation process.

Sommer-Larsen et al (2002) made N-body/SPH simulations with a star formation prescription to illustrate this.

Star formation begins early in the galaxy formation process: small elements of the hierarchy (dwarf galaxies) form stars long before the whole system has virialized - the stellar winds and SN from the forming stars temporarily eject most of the baryons from the forming galaxy.

The halo virializes and then the baryons settle smoothly to the disk. Because they settle smoothly, the loss of angular momentum viadynamical friction is much reduced.

The blowout process can also contribute to reducing the problem of too much substructure and to the cusp problem in another way (eg Dekel 2002). Because the smaller elements of the hierarchy grow first, they are denser (we will see observational evidence for this later).

This means that they are less likely to be tidally disrupted as they settle to the inner parts of the halo via dynamical friction, so they contribute to the high density cusp in the center of the virialised halo.

Blowout of the baryon component of these dense small elementscan contribute to unbinding them. Their chances of survival against the tidal field of the virialising halo are then reduced, so

• the substructure problem (too many small elements) is reduced, and• the cusp problem is reduced