operant-conditioning-and-its-application-to-instructional-design

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Operant Conditioning and its Application to Instructional Design

The following is an explanation of the relevance of operant conditioning to the instructionaldesign process, including its history and application in instructional strategies.

Operant conditioning is the foundation on which B.F. Skinner explored human behavior. Abranch of traditional behavioral science, operant conditioning came to the forefront of research inthe 1930's through the work of Skinner. Learning in operant conditioning occurs when "a proper

response is demonstrated following the presentation of a stimulus" (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p.55). This means that learning has taken place when there is an observable change in the behavior

of the learner after the instruction has been delivered. Skinner was preceded by theorists such asJ.B. Watson who studied the objective data of behavior and Ivan Pavlov, often referred to as the

Father of Classical Conditioning (Burton, 1981; Driscoll, 1994). Classical conditioning focuseson the involuntary response of the learner following a stimulus.

Similar to classical conditioning, operant conditioning studies the response of the learner

following a stimulus; however, the response is voluntary and the concept of reinforcement isemphasized. The relationship in operant conditioning includes three component parts: the

stimulus, a response, and the reinforcement following the response. According to Burton, operantconditioning is based on "a functional and interconnected relationship between the stimuli that

preceded a response (antecedents), the stimuli that follow a response (consequences), and theresponse (operant) itself" (1981, p. 50). Skinner determined that reinforcement following a

response would alter the operant, or response, by encouraging correct behavior or discouragingincorrect behavior. Skinner referred to the operant as "any behavior that produced the same

effect on the environment" and the relationship between the operant and its consequences wastermed "contingency" (Cook, 1993, p. 63). Environmental factors influence learning, but most

important is the arrangement between the stimuli and the consequence, or reaction, of the learnerin his environment (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Contingency, according to Cook, is a "kind of 'if-

then' relationship: if the response is made, then the reinforcement is delivered" (1993, p. 63). Forexample, by eliciting a stimulus- teacher asks a question, the learner responds- child raises hand,

reinforcement is issued- teacher calls on student with hand raised.

Reinforcement serves one of two purposes: strengthening a response or weakening a response.Types of reinforcement include positive and negative to strengthen a response, and punishment,

extinction, response cost, and timeout to weaken a response. Positive reinforcement is the"presentation of a reinforcer (satisfying stimulus) contingent upon a response that results in the

strengthening of that response" (Driscoll, 1994, p. 32). An example of positive reinforcementwould be praise, a reward, or a gift after displaying appropriate behavior. A negative reinforcer

also strengthens a response, but by taking away the aversive stimulus subject to that response(Driscoll, 1994). An example of negative reinforcement would a child finally doing his

homework just to stop his parents from nagging. Punishment is used to weaken a response, ordecrease an inappropriate behavior. It is what most of us are familiar with. Examples include

taking away a favorite toy when a child is acting up or grounding a teenager for coming homepast curfew. Other methods of weakening an undesired response include extinction, removal of

the reinforcement maintaining a response; response cost, removal of reinforcement contingent


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upon behavior by imposing a fine; and timeout, removing the learner from the environment thatreinforces the incorrect behavior (Driscoll, 1994).

Maintenance of the newly acquired behavior is an important part of the operant conditioning

theory. Methods of maintenance include a ratio schedule of reinforcement and an interval

schedule of reinforcement. A ratio schedule relies on the number of times the appropriateresponse is made after the stimulus is delivered. After a set number of correct responses, thereinforcement is delivered by the instructor (Driscoll, 1994). Interval scheduling depends of a set

amount of time under which the correct answer is given before reinforcement will be delivered.Both ratio and interval scheduling can be delivered under fixed amounts of responses/times or

variable number of responses or times (Driscoll, 1994).

Because the learner is reacting to the stimulus in the environment, behaviorism in general iswidely criticized for promoting a passive role of the learner in receiving information. According

to Ertmer and Newby, "the learner is characterized as reactive to conditions in the environmentas opposed to taking an active role in discovering the environment" (1993, p. 50). This is a

misinterpretation of what Skinner believed the role of the learner to be. He emphasized the activerole of the learner. According to Skinner, the learner "does not passively absorb knowledge from

the world around him but must play an active role" (Burton, 1981, p. 49). Skinner's statement isreinforced by the central premise of behaviorism: the learner's change in observable behavior

indicates that learning has occurred. Skinner identifies three components necessary for learning:doing, experiencing, and practice (Burton, 1981). These three components work together to

determine what has been learned, under what conditions, and the consequences that will supportthe learned behavior. The types of learning that are achieved in an operant conditioning

environment are discrimination (recall of facts), generalizations (define and illustrate concepts),association (apply explanations), and chaining (automatically perform a procedure) (Ertmer &

Newby, 1993). Instructional strategies for teaching these learning outcomes include shaping,fading, and chaining. Shaping is used to teach relatively simple tasks by breaking the task down

into small components (Driscoll, 1994). Chaining is similar to shaping but used to break downcomplex tasks; however, there is a difference regarding the reinforcement schedule. In shaping,

reinforcement is delivered all throughout the steps, whereas with chaining the reinforcement isnot delivered until the end and the learner can demonstrate the task in its entirety (Driscoll,

1994). Discrimination, according to Driscoll, is best learned using fading techniques. Thisinvolves the gradual withdrawal of the reinforcement as the desired behavior is elicited (1994).

These prescriptive strategies aid the instructor in reaching the desired learning outcome.

In the 1960's, Skinner used Sydney Pressey's teaching machines as a basis for creatingprogrammed instruction. Pressey's teaching machines were developed in the mid-1920's first as a

self-scoring testing device and then evolved to include immediate reinforcement for the correctanswer (Burton, 1981). Research conducted on his teaching machines concluded that "errors

were eliminated more rapidly with meaningful material and found that students learned moreefficiently when they could correct errors immediately" (Burton, 1981, p. 23). Pressey's teaching

machines were popular with the U.S. Air Force after World War II. They were "variations of anautomatic self-checking technique" and "essentially allowed students to get immediate

information concerning accuracy of response" (Burton, 1981, p. 53). Skinner later appliedbehaviorist theory to the basis of teaching machines and created programmed instruction.


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Programmed instruction was popularized in the 1960's with Skinner. The technique was similar

to Pressey's teaching machines in the use of immediate feedback after the response and student-controlled rate of instruction, but Skinner applied operant conditioning principles to programmed

instruction. The fact that learning is measured by the change in behavior and the maintenance of

the changed behavior, Skinner "required students to 'overtly' compose responses" (Burton, 1981,p. 54). Pressey had used multiple-choice as the method of assessment; a method that Skinnerthought left chance for mistakes. Skinner required the student to write out the response as this

behavior could be observed (Burton, 1981). The content in programmed instruction is arrangedin small chunks and organized in a simple to complex sequence. The learner progresses by

responding correctly, receiving feedback, and moving forward. If the response is incorrect, thelearner repeats instruction until there are no mistakes. This allows the learner to set his own pace.

The instruction is linear with no paths diverging from the directed instruction.

Although programmed instruction is effective in achieving certain learning outcomes, it issometimes characterized as boring because of the monotony, repetition, and small steps towards

mastery. Crowder attempted to alleviate this problem by introducing branching to programmedinstruction. In branching, there are several possible answers and larger units of instruction. This

format also allows students to skip over what they already know and to be branched intoappropriate advanced or remedial sections (Driscoll, 1994). Whereas Skinner's programmed

instruction encouraged the overt response of the learner, Crowder reverted to Pressey's approachand gave the learner multiple choice questions at the end of instruction. This does not follow the

principles of operant conditioning by not requiring an overt response, but it does provideimmediate feedback and reinforcement as in operant conditioning principles. According to

Burton, several studies compared found no differences in the type of response, overt or multiplechoice in the performance of the learner (1996).

Computer-based instruction originates from Skinner's programmed instruction. These computer

simulated instructional strategies follow closely Skinner's operant conditioning by presenting astimulus, eliciting a response, and providing immediate feedback. Computers added more

options and variety the instruction, and this solved some of the criticism of monotonous andboring instruction. Computers changed the instruction by allowing for complex branching of

content, record of student response, graphics and speech, drill and practice, problem solving, andtutorials (Driscoll, 1994). It also provides cueing and shaping techniques to guide the learner to

achievement. Computer based instruction is used currently in training and education basedmodels such as CBT (computer-based training) and CAI (computer-assisted instruction).

Although the technology has allowed for a more sophisticated presentation, the basis of theinstruction is primarily behaviorist in nature and based on Skinner's programmed instruction.

Behaviorism is influential on the standard instructional design process. Creators of programmed

instruction needed to determine when to begin instruction, and they did this by analyzing thelearner's prerequisite knowledge. The process of the learner analysis and identifying prerequisite

skills in the instructional design process was originated by behaviorists during the developmentof their instruction, namely through teaching machines and programmed instruction. The Needs

Analysis phase of the ID process includes both the learner analysis and prerequisite skills.


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One of the most important contributions of behaviorism to the instructional design process is theidentification and measurement of learning. Behaviorists agree that "learning has occurred when

learners evidence the appropriate response to a particular stimulus" (Smith and Ragan, 1999, p.19). The emphasis on producing observable and measurable outcomes led to the creation of

performance objectives (Driscoll, 55). In the instructional design process, performance

objectives describe what the learner will accomplish, under what conditions, and how the learnerwill be measured. These components are included in the Task Analysis phase of the ID processand the assessment of the learner at the end of instruction.

In programmed instruction, the learner is required to pass each section before continuing to the

next segment of instruction. This technique encouraged mastery learning. In order to achievemastery, it is necessary that the content be organized from simple to complex. The learner needs

to grasp the basic information prior to moving on to more difficult tasks. Instructional designerstake this sequence into consideration when developing material. They must first determine the

prerequisite knowledge and then lay out the steps of the new content in a format conducive toachieving mastery. Instructional designers also use instructional strategies of cueing, shaping,

and fading to guide the learner through the instruction. This process takes place in the TaskAnalysis phase of ID. Before moving ahead with instruction, the learner is given feedback on

each answer. This is based on the reinforcement Skinner believed essential to learning. Thereinforcement of the learner impacts his performance. By encouraging the learner to achieve the

correct response and discouraging incorrect answers, the programmed instruction is using theinstructional strategies based on operant conditioning: reinforcement and feedback (Ertmer and

Newby, 1993). Finally, the use of practice and shaping in instruction has its roots in behaviorism.The sequencing of practice from simple to complex and the use of prompts are strategies

Skinner applied in his research of operant conditioning. Successive approximations arereinforced until the goal has been reached (Driscoll, 1994).

Operant conditioning has influenced education and continues to be a guide in developing

instruction. Although some techniques have changed and technology evolved, programmedinstruction is widely used and modified to suit individual needs. The cognitive perspective has

added to the instructional strategies and finds itself combined with behaviorism whentechnology-based instruction is delivered. The influence of behaviorism to the instructional

design process is significant and still apparent in current design.

References

Burton, J.K., Moore, D.M., & Magliaro, S.G. (1996). Behaviorism and instructional technology.In D.H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and

technology (pp. 46-67). New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Cook, D.A., (1993, October). Behaviorism evolves. Educational Technology, pp. 62-77.

Cooper, P.A., (1993, May). Paradigm shifts in designed instruction: From behaviorism tocognitivism to constructivism. Educational Technology, 33(5), 12-19.

Driscoll, M.P. (1994). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.


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Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J., (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing

critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance ImprovementQuarterly, 6(4), 50-72.

Kunkel, J.H., (1996). What have behaviorists accomplished--and what more can they do?Psychological Record, 46(1), 21-38.

Smith, P.L., & Ragan, T.J. (1999). Instructional design. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

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