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7/25/2019 Optical Fiber Cable Ppt
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National Transmission Team / 06/24/161 Nokia Siemens Networks
Optical Fiber Cable(OFC)
By :- NATIONAL TRANSMISSION TEAM
Anku! S!ar"a
#ara Mal!$tra
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Growth Of Optical Fiber
o Optical fibers were isco!ere in 1"20s
o #nitially t$ey were use for meical purposes but selom use forcommunication purposes ue to $i%$ losses&
o 'y 1"60( %lass)cla fibers $a attenuation of about one ecibelper meter( fine for meical ima%in%( but too $i%$ for communications &
o 'y 1"*0 t$e carriers built national backbone network of opticalfiber wit$ 1+00nm sources w$ere fiber attenuation was as low as 0&,'/km
o -owe!er( a new %eneration of sin%le)moe systems is nowbe%innin% to fin applications in submarine cables an systems
ser!in% lar%e numbers of subscribers& T$ey operate at 1&,,micrometers( w$ere fiber loss is 0&2 to 0&+ '/km( allowin% e!enlon%er repeater spacin%s&
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What are Optical Fibers?
Optical Fibers are t$in lon% .km strans of ultra pure %lass .silica or
plastic t$at can to transmit li%$t from one en to anot$er wit$out muc$
attenuation or loss&
T$is is to be belie!e as repeater istances on lon% $aul routes for optical
fibers !ary from ,0 to 1,0 km&
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Basic Concept Behind OFC Communication
fiber)optic system is similar to t$e copper wire system t$at fiber)optics is
replacin%& T$e ifference is t$at fiber)optics use li%$t pulses to transmitinformation own fiber lines instea of usin% electronic pulses to transmitinformation own copper lines
Fiber optic cable functions as a li%$t %uie( %uiin% t$e li%$t introuce at
one en of t$e cable t$rou%$ to t$e ot$er en& T$e li%$t source can eit$er bea li%$t)emittin% ioe .3 or a laser&
T$e li%$t source is pulse on an off( an a li%$t)sensiti!e recei!er on t$eot$er en of t$e cable con!erts t$e pulses back into t$e i%ital ones an5eros of t$e ori%inal si%nal&
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optical fiber consists of :-
%) C$re- t!e inner"$tlayer $& t!e &iber
t!r$u'! !ic! li'!t trael*
+) Cla,,in'- t!e layer c$erin' t!e c$re an, !ae lere&ractie in,e a c$"pare, t$ t!at $& c$re*
.) C$atin'-t!e $uter"$t layer baically ue, &$r t!epr$tecti$n $& t!e &iber &r$" t!e eternalenir$n"ent*
National Transmission Team /
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Working Principle of Optical Fiber:
Optical fiber works on t$e principle of Total #nternal eflection&
T$tal internal re&lecti$nis an optical p$enomenon t$at occursw$en a ray of li%$t strikes a meium bounary at an an%lelar%er t$an a particular critical an%le wit$ respect tot$e normal to t$e surface& #f t$e refracti!e ine7 is lower on t$eot$er sie of t$e bounary( no li%$t can pass t$rou%$ an all oft$e li%$t is reflecte& T$e critical an%leis t$e an%le ofincience abo!e w$ic$ t$e total internal reflection occurs&
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Total internal refection confines li%$t wit$in optical fibers .similarto lookin% own a mirror mae in t$e s$ape of a lon% papertowel tube& 'ecause t$e clain% $as a lower refracti!e ine7(
li%$t rays reflect back into t$e core if t$ey encounter t$eclain% at a s$allow an%le .re lines& ray t$at e7cees acertain critical an%le .c escapes from t$e fiber .yellow line&
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!pes of optical fiber
Optical fiber is of two types 9)
1Step #ne7 Fiber:T$is kin of fiber $as uniform refracti!eine7 wit$in t$e core an t$ere is a s$arp ecrease inrefracti!e ine7 at t$e core)clain% interface&
2;rae #ne7 Fiber ) #t is an optical fiber w$ose core $asa refracti!e ine7 t$at ecreases wit$ increasin% raial istancefrom t$e fiber a7is .t$e ima%inary central a7is runnin% own t$e
len%t$ of t$e fiber& 'ecause parts of t$e core closer to t$e fibera7is $a!e a $i%$er refracti!e ine7 t$an t$e parts near t$eclain%( li%$t rays follow sinusoial pat$s own t$e fiber&
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"tep-inde# $ultimode Fiber
core iameter < ,0 : 200 =m
clain% iameter < 12,)400 =m
ST3>)#N3? @AT#@O3 F#'3$as a lar%e core( as a result( some of t$eli%$t rays t$at make up t$e i%ital pulse may tra!el a irect route( w$ereasot$ers 5i%5a% as t$ey bounce off t$e clain%& T$ese alternati!e pat$ways
cause t$e ifferent %roupin%s of li%$t rays( referre to as moes( to arri!eseparately at a recei!in% point&& BonseCuently( t$is type of fiber is best suitefor transmission o!er s$ort istances( in an enoscope( for instance&
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Graded-inde# $ultimode Fiber
c$re ,ia"eter / 01 2 %11 3"
cla,,in' ,ia"eter / %+0-411 3"
;3)#N3? @AT#@O3 F#'3 contains a core in w$ic$ t$e
refracti!e ine7 iminis$es %raually from t$e center a7is out towars
t$e clain%& T$e $i%$er refracti!e ine7 at t$e center makes t$e li%$t
rays mo!in% own t$e a7is a!ance more slowly t$an t$ose near t$eclain%& lso( rat$er t$an 5i%5a%%in% off t$e clain%( li%$t in t$e core
cur!es $elically because of t$e %rae ine7( reucin% its tra!el
istance& T$e s$ortene pat$ an t$e $i%$er spee allow li%$t at t$e
perip$ery to arri!e at a recei!er at about t$e same time as t$e slow but
strai%$t rays in t$e core a7is& T$e result9 a i%ital pulse suffers less
ispersion&
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"ingle-mode Fiber
core iameter < * : 12 =m
clain% iameter < 12, =m
S#N;3)@O3 F#'3 $as a narrow core .ei%$t microns or less( an t$e
ine7 of refraction between t$e core an t$e clain% c$an%es less t$an itoes for multimoe fibers& i%$t t$us tra!els parallel to t$e a7is( creatin% little
pulse ispersion& Telep$one an cable tele!ision networks install millions of
kilometers of t$is fiber e!ery year&
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%iameter of core in different Fiber modes
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$ode Field %iameter
@oe)fiel iameteris a measure of t$e spot si5e or beamwit$ of li%$t propa%atin% in a sin%le)moe fiber & @oe)fieliameter is a function of source wa!elen%t$( fiber core raius(anfiberrefracti!e ine7 profile& T$e !ast maDority of t$e opticalpower propa%ates wit$in t$e fiber core( an a small portion
propa%ates in t$e clain% near t$e core as s$own in t$e fi%&
3ner%y istribution in core
an clain%
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Comparison With Other $edia & echnologies
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'd(antages Of Optical Fibers
1& Eery $i%$ information carryin% capacity&
2& 3SS TT3NAT#ON .orer of 0&2 b/km
+& Small in iameter an si5e li%$t wei%$t
4& OG BOST S BO@>3 TO BO>>3 .as %lass is maefrom san( t$e raw material use to make OF is freeH&
,& ;reater safety an immune to emi rfi( moisture corossion6& Fle7ible an easy to install in ti%$t conuicts
8& I3O 3S3 EA3 .so t$eft is less
*& #s ielectric in nature so can be lai in electrically sensiti!e
surrounin%s"& ifficult to tap fibers( so secure
10& No cross talk an isturbances
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%isad(antages Of Optical Fibers)
1&T$e terminatin% eCuipment is still costly as compare to coppereCuipment&
2&Optical Fiber is elicate so $as to be $anle carefully&
+&ast mile is still not totally fiberise ue to costly subscriberpremises eCuipment&
4&Bommunication is not totally in optical omain( so repeate
electric :optical : electrical con!ersion is neee&,&Tappin% is not possible& Speciali5e eCuipment is neee to tap
a fiber&
6&Optical fiber splicin% is a speciali5e tec$niCue an nees
e7pertly traine manpower&8&T$e splicin% an testin% eCuipments are !ery e7pensi!e as
compare to copper eCuipments&
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'pplications Of Optical Fibers)
1& ON; #STNB3 BO@@AN#BT#ON 'BJ'ON3S
2& E#3O TNS@#SS#ON
+& 'O'N S3E#B3S
4& BO@>AT3 T BO@@AN#BT#ON .N( GN etc&&
,& -#;- 3@# 3S6& @##TK >>#BT#ON
8&NON)BO@@AN#BT#ON >>#BT#ONS .sensors etcH
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Optical Fiber Cable
#n practical fibers( t$e clain% is usually coate wit$ atou%$ resin bufferlayer( w$ic$ may be furt$er surroune bya jacketlayer( usually plastic& T$ese layers a stren%t$ to t$e fiber but o
not contribute to its optical wa!e %uie properties& i%i fiber assembliessometimes put li%$t)absorbin% .ark %lass between t$e fibers( topre!ent li%$t t$at leaks out of one fiber from enterin% anot$er& T$isreuces cross)talkbetween t$e fibers&
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstalk_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstalk_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstalk_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstalk_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstalk_(electronics)7/25/2019 Optical Fiber Cable Ppt
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*arious !pes Of Optical Fiber Cables
O>;G .Optical >ilot ;roun Gire Bable
Self)Support 3# fi%ure * type OF Bable
Bable SS .ll ielectric Self Supporte type OF Bable
S-3 type OF Bable
AN3;OAN / 'A#3 type OF Bables ABT Type OF Bable
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%ownlead clamps
"tockbridge %amper
"uspension assembl!
T$ey are use to fi7 t$e cable to t$e
tower in t$e own lea to t$e Dointbo7&
ssembly wit$ reinforce suspensionclamp an neoprene inner co!erin%(especially esi%ne for O>;Gcables& #nclues %rounin% clamps fortower connection&
T$e ampers are use to absorb t$ecable !ibrations&
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'+,'. Figure / t!pe OF Cable
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LAS5E6 type OF Cable
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01%+,G,O01% & B0,,+% !pe OF Cables
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%0C !pe OF Cable
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"ubmarine
CommunicationCable
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"ubmarine communication cable
ub"arine c$""unicati$n cableis a cable lai beneat$
t$e sea to carry telecommunications between countries& cross section of a submarine communications cable
is as follows 9)
1 ) >olyet$ylene
2 ) @ylar tape+ ) Strane steel wires
4 ) luminium water barrier
, ) >olycarbonate
6 ) Bopper or aluminium tube
8 ) >etroleum Delly* ) Optical fibers
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mportance of "ubmarine Cables
s of 2006( o!erseas satellite links accounte carrie only 1
percent of international traffic( w$ile t$e remainer was carrieby unersea cable& T$e reliability of submarine cables is $i%$(especially w$en multiple pat$s are a!ailable in t$e e!ent of acable break& lso( t$e total carryin% capacity of submarinecables is in t$e terabitsper secon w$ile satellites typically offeronly me%abitsper secon an isplay $i%$er latency& -owe!er(a typical multi)terabit( transoceanic submarine cable systemcosts se!eral $unre million ollars to construct&
For more etails on submarine cablesan its installation refer to t$eattac$e ocument& ubmarine cable
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terabitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terabits7/25/2019 Optical Fiber Cable Ppt
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6ec$""ii$nin' rea$n:T$is cable estroye after one mont$ of operation ue to t$e
e7cessi!e !olta%e applies to t$e cable in orer to ac$ie!e faster tele%rap$ operation&
SEA-ME-7E % SEA-ME-7E + SEA-ME-7E . SEA-ME-7E 4
C$""ii$ne,
in
8un-%90 Oct-%994Au'-%999 N$-+110
(6ec$""ii$ne, (6ec$""ii$ne,
8une %999) Oct$ber +11;)
Capacity
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"outh +ast 'sia2$iddle +ast2Western +urope3 4"+'-$+-W+ 35 Cable
#t is an optical fiber submarine communications cable systemt$at carries
telecommunications between Sin%apore( @alaysia ( T$ailan ( 'an%laes$( #nia(Srianka( >akistan( Anite rab 3mirates( Saui rabia( Suan (3%ypt( #taly
(Tunisia( l%eria an France&
T$e cable is appro7imately 1*(*00 kilometreslon%( an pro!ies t$e
primary #nternet backbone between Sout$ 3ast sia( #nian subcontinent ( @ile
3ast an 3urope&
T$e cable uses ense wa!elen%t$)i!ision multiple7in% .G@(allowin% for
increase communications capacity per fibre compare to fibres carryin% non)
multiple7e si%nals an also facilitates biirectional communication wit$in a sin%le
fibre&
Two fibre pairs are use wit$ eac$ pair able to carry 64 carriers at 10 ;bit/s
eac$& T$is enables terabit per secon spees alon% t$e S3)G3)@3 4 cable wit$
a total capacity of 1&2* Tbit/s&
S3)@3)G3 4 is use to carry telep$one( internet( multimeia an !arious
broaban ata applications
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"plicing
Splices are permanent connections
between two fibers&Splicin% is only neee if t$e cableruns are too lon% for one strai%$t pullor you nee to mi7 a number ofifferent types of cables .like brin%in%a 4* fiber cable in an splicin% it tosi7 * fiber cables&
Eieo s$ows t$e steps for Splicin%9
1& >$ysical >reparation
2& Strippin%( Blea!in% an cleanin%
t$e fiber wit$ #so propyl lco$ol&+& Splicin% t$e fiber&
4& -eatin% t$e Splice wit$ Slee!e&
,& outin% t$e splice fiber in LointBlosure
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!pes Of "plices
T!ere are t$ type $& plice:
%*Fui$n Spliceare mae by welin% t$e two fibers to%et$erusually by an electric arc&
+*Mec!anical Spliceare ali%nment %a%ets t$at $ol t$eens of two fibers to%et$er wit$ some ine7 matc$in% %el or
%lue between t$em&T$e tools to make mec$anical splices are c$eap( but t$e splicest$emsel!es are e7pensi!e&
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Which "plice?
#f cost is t$e issue( weM!e %i!en you t$e clues to make a c$oice9
fusion is e7pensi!e eCuipment an c$eap splices( w$ilemec$anical is c$eap eCuipment an e7pensi!e splices&
So if you make a lot of splices .like t$ousans in an bi% telco orBTE network use fusion splices& #f you nee Dust a few( use
mec$anical splices&Fusion splices %i!e !ery low back reflections an are preferrefor sin%lemoe $i%$ spee i%ital or BTE networks& -owe!er(t$ey onMt work too well on multimoe splices( so mec$anicalsplices are preferre for @@( unless it is an unerwater or aerial
application( w$ere t$e %reater reliability of t$e fusion splice ispreferre&
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ConnectorsT$e connector is a mec$anical e!ice mounte on t$e en of a fiber)opticcable( li%$t source( recei!er( or $ousin%& T$e connector allows t$e fiber)opticcable( li%$t source( recei!er( or $ousin% to be mate to a similar e!ice& T$e
connector must irect li%$t an collect li%$t an must be easily attac$e anetac$e from eCuipment&
Type O& C$nnect$r
ST(Strai'!t Tip)most
popular connector for
multimoe networks
FC
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Optical Fiber CharacteristicsOptical Fiber Characteristics
@ostly S@ fiber is use for lon% istance communication
typically , Jm to 180 Jm wit$out any problem
@@ fiber is only use for t$e low ata rates an s$ort
istance communication typically 100 meter to 1 Jm
istance of reac$ epens on so many parameters
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!pical "$ Fiber Parameters
Attenuation slope (dB/Km/nm)
Dispersion slope (ps/nm2 Km)
Mode field diameter
'ttenuation (s Wa(elength'ttenuation (s Wa(elength
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0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10
20
50
100
800600 12001000 16001400 1800
Early 1970s
First
Window
Second
Window Third
Window1980s
Wavelength (nm)
Attenu
ation
(dB/km
)
'ttenuation (s Wa(elength'ttenuation (s Wa(elength
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"ignal distortion due to chromatic dispersion
Spectrum broadening
Difference in group velocity
WavelengthGroupvelocity
1
Time
1 0
Original signal
Time
Transmitter output
Time
Receiver input
Time
111
Regenerated signal
Wavelength
Optical spectrum
Pulse broadening
(Waveform distortion)
Optical fiber
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Wa(eform distortion due to fiber non-linearit!
High power
intensity
Frequency
chirp
Refractive
indexchange
Waveform distortiondue to chromaticdispersion
Optical fiber
Spectrum
broadening
Transmitter out
Received waveform
Low opticalpower
High opticalpower
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After fiber transmission
40 Gb/s optical signal
Transmitter output
25 ps
Transmission fiber
Positive dispersion(Negative dispersion)
+Dispersion compensating fiber
(DCF)
After dispersion comp.
Negative dispersion(Positive dispersion)
Longer wavelength Slow(Fast)
Shorter wavelength Fast(Slow)
Longer wavelength Fast(Slow)
Shorter wavelength Slow(Fast)
%ispersion Compensation +#ample
PolarizationModeDispersion(PMD)
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Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
- Well defined, frequency independent eigenstates
- Deterministic, frequency independent Differential Group Delay (DGD)
- DGD scales linearity with fiber length
1st-order PMD
Ideal Practical
Core
Cladding
Cross-section of optical fiber
ast a!is
"lo# a!is
Fast
Slow
:Differential Group Delay (DGD)
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Automatic PMD compensation
PMD characteristic changesslowlydue to
normal environmental fluctuations (e.g.temperature)
But,fast changedue to e.g. fiber touching
High-speed PMD compensation device& Intelligent control algorithm
PMD compensation scheme in receiverBefore PMD comp.
After PMD comp.
40Gb/s waveforms
Distortionanalyzer
Controlalgorithm
PMDcomp.device #3
PMDcomp.device #2
PMDcomp.device #1
O/Emodule
$a#imum Permissible .oss
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$a#imum Permissible .oss
1Bonnector oss 9)
&+b loss for most
a$esi!e/polis$ connect &8, ma7& as per 3#/T# ,6*
2 Splice oss 9)
less t$an &,b for mec$anicalsplice
less t$an &+b loss for eac$fusion splice as per 3#/T# ,6*
+ Fiber oss 9)
Sin'le "$,e Multi "$,e
&,b per km for1+00 nm
+b per km for*,0 nm
&4b per km at1,,0 nm
1b per km for1+00 nm
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0 "tandards 4Optical Fiber50 "tandards 4Optical Fiber5
>*;01: efinition an test met$os for t$e rele!ant
parameters of sin%le moe fibers
>*;0%: B$aracteristics of a ,0/12, m multimoe %rae
ine7 optical fiber cable
>*;0+: B$aracteristics of a sin%le)moe optical fiber cable
>*;0.: B$aracteristics of a ispersion)s$ifte sin%le)moe
optical fiber cable&
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0 "tandards 4Optical Fiber50 "tandards 4Optical Fiber5
>*;04: B$aracteristics of a 1,,0 nm wa!elen%t$ loss)
minimi5e sin%le)moe optical fiber cable
>*;00: B$aracteristics of a non)5ero ispersion sin%le)
moe optical fiber cable&
Test And Measurement Instruments
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#t is an optoelectronicinstrument useto c$aracteri5e an optical fiber& n OTinDects a series of optical pulses into t$efiber uner test& #t also e7tracts( from t$esame en of t$e fiber( li%$t t$at is scatterean reflecte back from points in t$e fiber
w$ere t$e ine7 of refraction c$an%es&
n OT is use for estimatin% t$eo!erall attenuation( incluin% splice anmate)connector losses& #t may also be
use to locate faults( suc$ as breaks( anto measure optical return loss&
OPC'. $+-%O$'1 ,+F.+CO$++,(O%,)
Test And Measurement Instruments
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"P.C1G $'C61+
In &ui$n plicin' a "ac!ine i ue, t$preciely ali'n t!e t$ &iber en, t!en
t!e 'la en, are &ue, $r el,e,t$'et!er uin' $"e type $& !eat $relectric arc* T!i pr$,uce ac$ntinu$u c$nnecti$n beteen t!e&iber enablin' ery l$ l$ li'!ttran"ii$n* (Typical l$: 1*% ,B)
An attenuat$ri an electr$nic,eice t!at re,uce
t!e a"plitu,e $r p$er $&a i'nal it!$utappreciably ,it$rtin' it ae&$r"*
'+10'O,
Other $easurement ools
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Other $easurement ools
LASER SO@RCE #O7ER METER
TOOL DIT
"ome $anufacturers Of Optical Cables
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Furukaa
Fuikura
L> Cable
C$rnin'
#!ilip-Fitel
#irelli
TTL
Sterlite Cable
"ome $anufacturers Of Optical Cables
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Basic PlanningParameters
Planning and %esigning an OFC link
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Planning and %esigning an OFC link
R$ute Surey 6ei'n
37tensi!e route sur!ey is carrie out prior to esi%nin% oft$e OFB network to obtain t$e followin% essential ata 9)
o i%$t of Gay emarcation
o Soil stratao 37istin% Aner%roun utilities
o oa / ail / 'ri%e / i!er / Banal Brossin%s
o ny ot$er criticalities
renching
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renching
Speci&icati$n &$r Ecaati$n $& Trenc!e
o Stanar ept$ will be measure from lower sie of natural %roun le!elto t$e base of t$e trenc$&
o Stanar ept$ for normal soil an soft rock9 t least 1,00 mm .1&, @&
o Stanar ept$ for $ar rock9 t least "00 mm .0&" @ &
o ifferent clients $a!e sli%$tly mar%inal ifferences in trenc$ ept$&
o Git$ of trenc$9 400mm at top an +00mm at t$e bottom&o G$en cable is to be lai alon% cul!erts/bri%es or cross)streams( trenc$
may be mae closer to roa e%e( or in some cases( o!er embankment ors$ouler of t$e roa&
o ine up of trenc$ woul be suc$ t$at ->3 uct.s will be lai in strai%$tline( bot$ laterally as well as !ertically e7cept at locations w$ere it $as to
necessarily take a ben because of c$an%e in ali%nment or %raient oftrenc$&
o @inimum raius of two meters will be maintaine( w$ere bens arenecessitate&
%uct .a!ing
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%uct .a!ing
o ucts will be lai in a flat bottom trenc$( free from stones( an s$arp e%eebris&
o T$e uct woul be place in trenc$ as strai%$t as possible& -owe!er( at bens$ori5ontal an !ertical minimum benin% raius for uct of 1+00 mm woul bemaintaine&
o ucts will be lai preferably usin% specially esi%ne ispensers&
o ucts s$all be free from twist an collapse portions&
o 3ns of ucts will always be close wit$ 3N >A;S to a!oi in%ress of mu(water or ust&
o >rior to ali%nin% t$e ucts for Dointin%( eac$ len%t$ of t$e ->3 uct will bet$orou%$ly cleane to remo!e all san( ust or any ot$er ebris t$at may clo%(isturb or ama%e t$e optical fiber cable w$en it is pulle or blown at a later sta%e&
o T$e ucts will be Doine wit$ couplers usin% uct cutter ot$er tools an will beti%$tene an secure properly&
o T$e uct Doint will be practically airti%$t to ensure smoot$ cable blowin% usin%cable blowin% mac$ines&
Back Filling
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Back Fillingo Trenc$ will be initially fille wit$ sie!e soil or san in rocky terrain for
about 10 cm w$ic$ will act as a cus$ion / pain% an t$en uct is place%ently o!er it&
o fter t$at anot$er layer of 10 cm of fine sie!e soil or san is poure ant$en entire trenc$ is backfille wit$ e7ca!ate material&
o Aner normal soil conitions uct is irectly lai in trenc$ an backfille&
o eCuate ry compaction will be one before crownin%&
Crowningo G$en backfillin% $as been one up to %roun le!el a $ump of soil is maeto cater for soil settlement&
o 3ntire e7ca!ate soil will be use for back fillin%&
o Brownin% will be confine to wit$ of trenc$ only&
Groundingo T$e armoure layer of t$e fiber is cut own to pro!ie %rounin% to t$e
complete cable pat$ as well as to pro!ie protection from li%$tinin%&
o T$e cut is mae after e!ery 200 metres&
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FMSConnectors
Fiber $anagement
"!stem 4F$"5
"7C B7C
7CFiber Pigtail
7C 2 erminal 7oint Connector
"7C 2 "traight 7oint Closure
B7C- Branch 7oint Closure
T$ Ept*
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T!ank
-Nati$nal Tran"ii$n tea"
#ara Anku!