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Optical Mineralogy
Texture of mare basalt 12002. Rounded and speckled phenocrysts of olivine andlarge elongate phenocrysts of clinopyroxenes.
Groundmass consists of intergrown plagioclase, pyroxenes and ilmenite.NASA Lunar Educational Petrographic Thinsection set.
C. Meyer 2003. With kind permission of NASA and C. Meyer.
Ane Books Pvt. Ltd.New Delhi ® Chennai ® Mumbai
Bengaluru ® Kolkata ® Thiruvananthapuram ® Lucknow
Optical Mineralogy
Pramod K. Verma Ph.D.
Professor of GeologyUniversity of Delhi
Senior FacultySIBER School of Management, Kolhapur
Optical Mineralogy
Pramod K. Verma
© Ane Books Pvt. Ltd., 2010
Published by
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Preface
Over the last several decades, the increasing use of microprobe techniques, such aselectron probe, ion probe, raman laser probe, etc., has been replacing optical mineralogytechniques as the method of choice for investigation. However, the need to understandand resolve rock textures under microscopes has resulted in a renewed interest in opticalmineralogy. In particular, the thermobarometry of inclusions in phenocrysts andporphyroblasts requires a thorough microscopic examination of rocks. Consequently,after a gap of nearly 30 years or so, when such classics as Roger and Kerr (later byKerr), Winchell, and Whalstorm were the common textbooks, new textbooks in thisfield have come out. Important among them are those written by Phillips and Griffen,Gribble and Hall, Deer, Howie & Zussmann (student addition), and by Nesse.
These books cover the subject matter in an exceedingly comprehensive manner forselected topics. Students of geology face a unique problem as often pointed out. Theyprefer a book of the right size, with the right details, that can be brought to a classroom,a laboratory, as well as on field trips across difficult terrains. They would like the bookto reflect the new applications, but without losing on the details of the fundamentalprinciples. To meet this varied and diverse requirement is not an easy task though Ihave, through this book, attempted to fill this important void. It is the culmination ofnearly four decades of my teaching career. The book reflects my approach to teachingOptical Mineralogy, an approach that has involved continuous experimentation on theteaching methodology, and feedback from many brilliant students. Following severalauthors, like Kerr and Nesse, this book too is divided into two parts. Part I deals withthe theory and techniques, and, Part II provides a description of optical properties ofcommon minerals. Determinative tables assembled as Appendices should help studentsin identification when tutors are not around. While it is assumed that students havesome basic knowledge of optical mineralogy, as provided in standard mineralogytextbooks such as Dana’s Manual of Mineral Sciences, 23rd edition (Cornelius Kleinand Elizabeth Dutrow: John Wiley), some important requisite back material on Opticshas also been included as Technical Text Boxes. At the end of Part I, a chapter has beenadded to acquaint freshman students about the applications of optical mineralogy whichthey might employ in their career.
A number of my former students have earned reputation country-wide for theirskill in handling rocks and minerals. Every one of them has been of great help to me in
1
writing this book. In particular, I would like to mention Naresh Pant, Amitav Kundu,Sarbari Nag, Preeti Singh, and Balakrishnan for their constant cooperation and wordsof encouragement. Kulanand Kandwal, the Museum Curator of Geology Department atDelhi University, has been assisting me in arranging laboratory materials for myundergraduate and graduate courses for the past 25 years. He along with K.K. Singhwas always eager to help, and I am indebted to them for their co-operation. Thanks arealso due to Prof. A.M. Bhola, Head of the Geology Department for allowing me to usethe facilities. To those who provided material and accorded permission to their use inthe book, I shall remain obliged. These friends and agencies are acknowledged in thebody of the text. I have often received instant guidance from the notes given in Wikepediaon the internet; I am sure most students also fall back on this and other sources frominternet.
I am indebted to the undergraduate students of Geology at Delhi University, Classof 2009, particularly the group at Ram Lal Anand College, for their strong insistencethat I bring out this book.
I shall be failing in my duties if I don’t express sense of gratitude towards Sh. SunilSaxena and Sh. Jai Raj Kapoor of Ane Books Pvt. Ltd. who pulled me out of their poolof acquaintance, and put me on the path that led to the completion of the book. Theireditor Nishant Saini, and their master graphic expert R.K. Majumdar have done awonderful job. I must express my thanks to Cathy Giacari of Taylor and Francis fordevoting her expertise in bringing this book to its final shape. In particular, I would liketo thank the future readers of this book in advance for any feedback on the book.
My family members pitched in for me during the two years of its preparation. SonAmit was always helpful with his comments, daughter Abhilasha and daughter-in-lawTejal cheered me up and provided frequent internet accesses, as well as help with theirknowledge of MS Office, wife Surinder’s often repeated challenge that I would neverfinish this work, did the trick!
Author
vi Optical Mineralogy
Preface v
1. Properties of Light 3
Introduction 4Dual Nature of Light 4Light as Transverse Waves 7Wave Surfaces 8Optical Phenomena 10Polarization of Light 12Double Refraction 13Interference of Light 14• Summary 17• Important Terms 18• Questions 18
2. Sample Preparation for Transmitted Microscopy 19
Introduction 20The Polarizing Microscope – Primary Equipment for Optical Mineralogy 20The Purpose of Sample Preparations 21Nature of Samples 21Size of Samples 22Thickness of a Sample and the Concept of Transparency 24Polishing and Mounting Rock Chips 25• Summary 29• Important Terms 30
• Questions 30
3. Refractometry 31
Introduction 32
Principles and Techniquesof Optical Mineralogy PART I
Contents
viii Optical Mineralogy
Relief 32
Becke Line 33Oblique Illumination Method 40Refractometers 41• Summary 45• Important Terms 45
• Questions 46
4. Optical Crystallography 47
Introduction 48
Isotropic Optics 48Uniaxial Optics 50Biaxial Optics 56• Summary 60• Important Terms 61
• Questions 61
5. The Polarizing Microscope 63
Introduction 64
The Compound Microscope 64The Polarizing Microscope 70Use and Care of Polarizing Microscopes 76• Summary 81• Important Terms 81
• Questions 82
6. Microscopic Examination of Minerals I:Orthoscopic Condition 83
Introduction 84
Examination in Ordinary Light 84Under Plane Polarized Light 92Crossed Polars 93• Summary 102• Important Terms 103
• Questions 103
7. Microscopic Examination of Minerals II 105
Examination in Crossed Polars (Contd.) 106
ixContents
Measurement of Extinction Angle 112
Twinning 112Zoning and Overgrowth 116Optical Anomalies 118Properties Requiring the Use of Compensators 119• Summary 126• Important Terms 127
• Questions 127
8. Microscopic Examination of Minerals III:Conoscopic Condition 129
Introduction 130
The Microscope as a Conoscope 130Uniaxial Crystals 132Biaxial Crystals 134Dispersion 140Optic Sign Determination 144• Summary 146••••• Important Terms 147
••••• Questions 148
9. Reorienting Techniques 149
Introduction 150
Spindle Stage 151Universal Stage 158Fundamental Principle 163• Summary 173••••• Important Terms 173
••••• Questions 174
10. New Frontiers in Microscopy 175
Introduction 176
Fluid Inclusion Studies 176Image Analysis System 177Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 182Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 184
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 188
x Optical Mineralogy
• Summary 190
••••• Important Terms 191
••••• Questions 191
11. Nesosilicates 195
Olivine 196Monticellite 199Garnet 200Vesuvianite (Idocrase) 202Zircon 204Andalusite 206Kyanite 208Sillimanite 210Mullite 212Staurolite 213Sphene 215Topaz 217
Chloritoid 219
12. Sorrosilicates and Cyclosilicates 221
Zoisite 222
Clinozoisite – Epidote Series 224Allanite (Orthite) 227Piemontite 229Pumpellyite 230Lawsonite 232Beryl 233Tourmaline 235
Cordierite 237
13. Inosilicates 241
Orthopyroxenes Series 242
Pigeonite 245
Diopside – Hedenbergite Series 246
Systematic Description ofCommon Rock Forming
MineralsPART II
xiContents
Augite 249
Omphacite 252Jadeite 254Aegirine to Aegirine – Augite 255Wollastonite 257Sapphirine 259Anthophyllite 261Cummingtonite–Grunerite 263Tremolite – Actinolite Series 264Calcic Amphibole (“Common” – Hornblende) 267Glaucophane 271
Riebeckite 274
14. Phyllosilicates 277
Serpentine 278
Talc 280Muscovite 282Paragonite 284Biotite 286Chlorite 289Gluconite 292Apophyllite 294Stilpnomelane 295
Prehnite 297
15. Tektosilicates 299
α-Quartz 300
α-Tridymite 303
α-Cristobalite 305
Coesite 306
The Sanidine – High Albite Series 308
The Orthoclase – Low Albite Series 311
SILICA GROUP
ALKALI FELDSPAR GROUP
xii Optical Mineralogy
The Microcline – Low Albite Series 314
Plagioclase Feldspar 317
Leucite 326
Sodalite 327
Scapolite 328
Natrolite 330
Chabazite 331
Heulandite 332
Stilbite 334
Laumontite 335
16. Non-silicates 337
Corundum 338
Rutile 339
Spinel 341
Perovskite 343
Barite 344
Gypsum 345
Anhydrite 347
Calcite 348
Dolomite 351
Aragonite 352
Apatite 354
Monazite 355
Xenotime 357
Fluorite 358
Halite 359
Appendices 361
Michel Levy Chart 369
NEPHELINE GROUP
ZEOLITE GROUP
Abbreviations and Symbols
Å Ångstrom units (10–10m)
a cell edge in the x-direction
at. per cent atoms per cent, percentage on atomic basis
apfu atoms per formula unit
b cell edge in the y-direction
Bxa
acute bisectrix
c cell edge in the z-direction
d interplanar spacing
Fe* total Fe2+ + Fe3+
M1, M
2 etc. Metal sites in a crystal structure
n refractive index of glass and isometric minerals
OAP optic axial plane
pfu per formula unit
ppm parts per million
ppb parts per billion
R metal ions
RE, REE rare earth, rare earth elements
r < v dispersion; indicating
wt per cent weight per cent, percentage on a weight basis
x, y, z crystallographic directions
XFetotal
Total iron as mole fraction
Z number of formula units per unit cell
2V optic axial angle
2Vα optic axial angle with α optic direction as bisectrix
2Vγ optic axial angle with γ optic direction as bisectrix
α, β, γ optic directions, refractive indices along these directions;α < β < γ by convention
δ birefringence
ε extraordinary ray, refractive index of extraordinary ray
ω ordinary ray, refractive index of ordinary ray
���
xiv Optical Mineralogy
cont inue
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