Structural Factors Organization and Management Marketing and Sales Production and Efficiency

Technology Restructuring Quality Control

Organisation and ManagementA business affects the life of everybody on a daily basis. Business takes inputs and combines them in the process the business adds value to the inputs, transforming them into an output of goods or services.

People buy these goods or services to satisfy their wants and needs. By selling these, businesses strive to make a profit. The management of the business is responsible for finding the most efficient way of producing goods or services.

Businesses can be government or privately owned. The majority of businesses in Australia are privately owned.

Private Businesses The main types of private businesses are as follows:

Sole traders Partnerships Companies

Sole Trader

Sole Traders own and manage their own business. They have a simple organisation with low costs. The owners of the business have unlimited liability which means that if the business is unable to pay debts, the owner is liable to the extent that they can become bankrupt. Anyone can start up a sole trader enterprise, but some need to be licensed to trade, such as plumbers, builders and electricians.

Sole traders take all the risks and make all the decisions. They have limited capital for expansion and finance is difficult to obtain due to the small and often risky nature of the business.

Partnerships

Partnerships are a group of people (2 or up to 20) who form a collective business organisation to operate the business in common. Each partner is equally liable for the running of the partnership and for the debts incurred.

Advantages:

Expense- Partnerships are the cheapest form of collective business organization to establish Capital- It is easier to borrow funds for a partnership rather than a sole trader due to a larger

capital base Simplicity- Businesses are easy to establish, with or without a partnership agreement

although advised too just in case of dispute Workload- more people to share the workload of management with Taxation- are taxed as individuals (less tax to pay) Reduced Liabilities- Losses incurred by the business can be used to offset liability on income

earned from outside the business

Companies

A company is a special type of business organisation that allows potentially thousands of people to become owners of the enterprise. When a company is formed it is said to be incorporated (legal structure of the business is one with the owner). Companies are established under the Corporation Act (July 1998). This act is controlled by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC).

Companies can also be known as Private or Public. Public is a company that is listed on the ASX for the public to buy shares in. A private company only offers shares in the company to those they decide are worthy. At the end of their name also stands “Pty Ltd.”

Unlimited liability is when the owner of the company has separate finances with the company. For example; when a company goes into debt the owner of the company must pay for the debt.

Limited liability is the opposite. The owner’s finances with the companies are two different things. Therefore if the company goes into debt they won’t lose money.

Advantages of Companies are:

Limited Liability More capital available for large undertakings Strict legal requirements to safeguard shareholders’ interests Funds are attracted from people wanting capital gain Company can afford to employ specialists Franked dividends provide some shareholders with a tax credit

Disadvantages of Companies are:

Division between ownership and management Shareholders rarely participate in decision making

Structure of Industry 1. Hierarchical Organisation Structure

A hierarchical organisation is the traditional form of organising an industry. A hierarchical organisation has the following characteristics:

Clearly Defined chain of command Likened to a pyramid structure: most power is at the top of the pyramid and the least power

at the bottom

Senior management is concerned with broad strategic planning.

Middle management is concerned with forming and implementing tactical and operational plans with quantifiable objectives.

Frontline managers are supervisors who implement operational and tactical plans.

Employee communication with senior management often not practical or even possible. Performance is judged against budgets, benchmarks and peers.

mostpower

leastpower

^^^^Example of Hierarchical Structure^^^

2. Flat organisation structure and teams

This type of management is favoured by most industries today. The Characteristics of a Flat organisation structure are:

Some of middle management removed to allow more communication between workers and top management

Allows formation of informal work groups\team work Allows employees to become multi-skilled and have a greater say in the operations of the

industry

Each department has their own managers\supervisors putting their own plan forward although there is no more extra management in between the workers and the CEO. These workers operate in teams, where they have greater responsibility but also greater accountability.

…Marketing…Definition: Marketing is the promotion of a product or service by an industry. Marketing refers to a far greater range of activities that are undertaken by a business in telling customers about their product and making that product attractive to customers. Marketing can be described as an attempt to get the right goods or services in the right quantity to the right place at the right time- and to make a profit while doing so.

The role of marketing the products involves creating a demand for the product involves creating demand for the product in the hope of creating a demand for the product in the hope of encouraging purchases by customers. Marketing increases sales and market share, so the business is helped to operate profitably and financial goals can be achieved.

Marketing concentrates primarily on the buyers\consumers, determining what their needs and wants are, educating them with the regard to the availability of products and to important product features, developing strategies to persuade them to buy, and, finally, enhancing their satisfaction with a purchase.

It is known that without effective marketing strategies a business\company will not survive. There are many different marketing strategies to embark on when choosing a strategy. For example most companies use the internet and create a website on their company promoting what good or service they sell. Although the site must be effective otherwise it will just be costing the company more money up keeping it then it is making money.

“E-Marketing” is an extremely useful tool and it can easily be done from company computers.

E-marketing is a type of e-commerce (refers to the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks) that can be defined as achieving marketing objectives through the use of electronic communications technology such as the Internet, e-mail, EBook’s, database, and mobile phone. It is a more general term than online marketing which is limited to the use of internet technology to attain marketing objectives.

E-Marketing Tools include:

Pay per click – Companies pay by the amount of times the advertisement is clicked and directed to their website

Search engine optimization- is the improvement of being much more visible in a search engine for example Google.

Press releases - is a written or recorded communication directed at members of the news media for the purpose of announcing something ostensibly newsworthy. Typically, they are mailed, faxed, or e-mailed to assignment newspapers, magazines, radio stations, television stations, and/or television networks.

Web banners - A web banner or banner ad is a form of advertising on the World Wide Web delivered by an ad server. This form of online advertising entails embedding an advertisement into a web page. It is intended to attract traffic to a website by linking to the website of the advertiser. The advertisement known as a "click through". In many cases, banners are delivered by a central ad server.

Link campaign – Linking your website URL onto other well-known website’s to maximise visualisation for consumers

E-mail - a method of exchanging digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or other computer networks. 

Newsletters - A newsletter is a regularly distributed publication generally about one main topic that is of interest to its subscribers. Newspapers and leaflets are types of newsletters. Additionally, newsletters delivered electronically via email (e-Newsletters) have gained rapid acceptance for the same reasons email in general has gained popularity over printed correspondence. Newsletters are given out at schools, to inform parents about things that happen in that school.

Social Media- Twitter, Facebook, Myspace

Exhibitions as a Marketing Tool

Exhibitions are one of the most cost effective marketing methods offering face-to-face contact with thousands of qualified prospective customers. There is compelling evidence for making exhibitions a major focus of any company’s marketing mix.

For example Sony has an Exhibition allowing customers to test try their products and allow them to want to buy the product which is called effective marketing.

10 Reasons why to Exhibit:

1. Meet thousands of new buyers and build leads 2. Launch a new product and generate media interest 3. Develop a personal and direct relationship with your clients

4. Let buyers use all five senses to gain a full appreciation of your product 5. Show your full product range in real life rather than a catalogue 6. Overcome objections and accelerate the buying process 7. Raise your profile in the industry and add value to your brands 8. Get immediate feedback on your product range 9. Sell product at the show 10. Locate new agents and distributions for your products

Identifying a Target Market

A target market is one where the business clearly establishes who the consumers of the product are and the aims its efforts to gain sales towards that market. It is mainly defined by age, gender, geography, socio-economic grouping, or any other combination of demographics.

To establish a target market for your product is important. It enables the business to cater for the needs of their target market satisfying their needs and wants in the product more efficiently.

For example a small grocery store targets local consumers attracted by closeness, convenience and personal service.

Defining a target market requires market segmentation the process of pulling apart the entire market as a whole and separating it into manageable, disparate units based on demographics.

The Market Segmentation Process Includes:

1. Determining the Characteristics of Segments in the Target Market. Then separating these segments in the market based on characteristics.

2. Checking to see whether any of this market segments are large enough to support the organizations product. If not the organization must return back to step one OR review product.

3. Once target market picked the organization can develop its marketing strategy to target this market.

Mass MarketingMass Marketing is a type of marketing (attempting to sell through persuasion) of a product to a wide audience. The idea is to broadcast a message that will reach the largest number of people possible. Traditionally mass marketing has focused on radio, television and newspapers as the medium used to reach this broad audience. By reaching the largest audience possible exposure to the product is maximized. In theory this would directly correlate with a larger number of sales or buy in to the product.

For Example Television advertising is one way of Mass Marketing

Production and Efficiency Production is the act of an article being produced by industry; it can be a measure of efficiency.

Efficiency is the effective operation of an industry as measure by a comparison between production and cost.

Efficiency can be measured in terms of a number of different criteria. For example time, material use and cost.

The main aim of a business is to produce an item to sell at a profit. In order to return a profit, an industry needs to become efficient in whatever it does. In becoming efficient, it will also produce more goods, which can be sold for a profit. This profit can then be re-invested in the company to help it become more efficient and so on.

Efficiency

Production

Profit Production is inevitably linked to efficiency. The more efficient and industry is the more it can produce. Then it can make a large profit that reflects the company’s efficiency. This increased production can in turn lead to a company or industry re-investing into its own operations. It may buy more equipment. It will need to do this in order to maintain its competitiveness against other similar companies. If too much of the profit is taken away from the business, then the efficiency of that company as measured against other similar companies is in decline.

Efficiency is dependent upon the company’s resources and its ability to manage these in respect to such areas as:

It’s location Access to surrounding industrial or technological facilities The capabilities of the resources, technology and equipment on site

Skilled and semi-skilled worker’s expertise and training Management expertise and training Access to finance, loans or capital Access to modern assembly techniques and similar technologies Access to labour saving devices A flexible and willing workforce

Some examples of solutions to some efficiency problems include:

Mass production Power tools Robotics (help manufacture quicker) Outsourcing Computer-assisted equipment Multi-skilling

Outsourcing Outsourcing is the contracting out of non-core activities to other businesses. This enables businesses to focus on the core activity, while a specialist performs essential but non-core activities. For example accounting is commonly outsourced by small business people.

Corporate Restructuring Corporate restructuring is necessary when a company needs to improve its efficiency and profitability and it requires expert corporate management. A corporate restructuring strategy involves the dismantling and rebuilding of areas within the organisation that need special attention from the management and CEO.

The process of corporate restructuring often occurs after buy-outs, corporate acquisitions, takeovers or bankruptcy. It can involve a significant movement of an organisations liabilities or assets.

Business may need to restructure for a number of reasons listed below:

New technology (maybe can improve efficiency) New materials New production techniques and processes Development of new products and services To reduce cost and improve profits Changes in workplace culture OH&S The need to reduce waste Environmental considerations

Options when restricting are:

Strategic Alliances Outsourcing Flatter organisation structures- reducing middle management Network Structures- coordination of subcontracted production or marketing

Relocating your Business There are many reasons why a business would want to relocate. Although first the owner must decide if the business can maintain is viability? Relocating must be done with foresight and planning.

Reasons to relocate may include:

Deterioration of an area Business Growth Increasing rents Changes in the direction of a business Personal Circumstances Product Availability Labour needs cannot be meet Shifting Client Base Change in access to local supply chain networks

You will need to assess the location for a number of factors, including:

The possible appeal of your business Potential customers Population Economic base Your competitors The type of market that exists for you The size of the market The realistic pricing which can be achieved The Characteristics of potential customers/clients Current and future market trends Assess potential relocation areas

When looking, consider the following:

Favourable Signs:

Opening of new shops Branches of large commercial and industrial companies setting up in the area Good Schools and other services Well maintained businesses and residential properties Good transport facilities Building activity accompanied by a minimal number of vacant business premises

Danger signals

Necessity for high school students and university graduates to leave the area to find suitable employment

Inability of residents to find local jobs Declining sales and industrial production Apathetic attitudes of local business owners and other residents

Quality Control Quality control is a process that is used to ensure a certain level of quality in a product or service. It might include whatever actions a business deems necessary to provide for the control and verification of certain characteristics of a product or service. Most often, it involves thoroughly examining and testing the quality of products or the results of services. The basic goal of this process is to ensure that the products or services that are provided meet specific requirements and characteristics, such as being dependable, satisfactory, safe and fiscally sound.

Companies that engage in quality control typically have a team of workers who focus on testing a certain number of products or observing services being done. The products or services that are examined usually are chosen at random. The goal of the quality control team is to identify products or services that do not meet a company's specified standards of quality. If a problem is identified, the job of a quality control team or professional might involve stopping production or service until the problem has been corrected. Depending on the particular service or product as well as the type of problem identified, production or services might not cease entirely.

Quality Control can be defined simply as “maintenance of quality at a level that satisfies the customer and that is economical to the producer or seller.”

Process control is part of QC; it means checking the process as distinct from the raw material or finished product, to ensure that all operations on the fish are done correctly and consistently to a set standard that is usually described in the process specification.

Quality can be defined as a “degree of excellence.”

Where and how QC operates

There are four main stages:

1. Drawing up a product specification2. Inspecting or testing raw material 3. Processing 4. Inspecting or testing finished products

The Purpose of QC

The objective of QC is to assist the maintained and improvement of profitably by minimizing customer complaints about quality and hence to avoid the resulting lost business.

Customer complaints mainly arise because quality has fallen therefore the objective of QC is realised by keeping the quality of output at the right level.

Loss of profitability can also occur when manufactured products do not comply with local or national regulations; QC can give protection here. Maintenance of quality is particularly important for branded products, because a brand name becomes associated with a particular quality level, and any lowering of the level causes the customer to lose confidence in the brand; sales of other goods and under the same brand may then also be reduced.

Technical Factors

Mechanisation Specialisation (Division of labour) Automation

Mass Production Emerging Technologies

MechanisationMechanisation is providing human operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements of work. It can also refer to the use of machines to replace manual labour or animals. A step beyond mechanization is automation. The use of hand powered tools is not an example of mechanization. The term is most often used in industry. The addition of powered machine tools, such as the steam powered lathe dramatically reduced the amount of time needed to carry out various tasks, and improves productivity. Today very little construction of any sort is carried out with hand tools.

Specialisation (Division of Labour)In any working environment there are a range of jobs that must be performed. Division of labour involves breaking down tasks to the simplest level and designing jobs and employing people to do these jobs. This dividing up of labour brings advantages to an organisation because as people become more efficient.

In job advertisements today we can identify the specialist skills and training that employers are looking for. The whole workforce specialises in jobs in some way, which has led to workers being interdependent. Workers rely on other people working in their specialised jobs to supply the products and services they need.

Span of Control An important organising concept that has an influence on the number of links the chain of command is the span of control of managers. The ideal span control is said to be around six to nine subordinates; that is, about nine people and their activities is as many as an individual manager can satisfactorily ordinate and look after. Although this number allows for intense supervision and consultation, some managers prefer a much larger span of control.

Chain of CommandThe chain of command refers to the way a business structures its channels authority, power, accountability and responsibility. In a traditional business chain of command starts with the chief executive officer (CEO). Authority and power will move down through various levels of management, supervisors and workers. The chain of command can be shown as an organisation chart and has some linked terms that show the importance of each level.

Authority refers to the right a manager has to make certain decisions and require a subordinate to carry out certain tasks in a satisfactory way

Power, on the other hand, is the ability to cause subordinates to do what required of them

Responsibility is the duty an employee has to carry out certain organisational tasks or function.

Automation Automation is the process in industry where various production operations are converted from a manual process, to an automated or mechanised process.

For example: A person is operating a metal lathe. The person collects the stock already cut to size, from a bin. He or she places it in the lathe chuck and moves the various hand-wheels on the machine to create a component; a bolt could be such an item. Once finished the person commences the process again to make another item. This would be a manual process. If this process was automated, a person would place long lengths of bar into the feed mechanism of an automatic lathe. The lathe mechanisms feed the material into the chuck, turn the piece to the correct shape and size, and cut it off the bar before commencing another item. This is an example of an automated machine in a manufacturing process.

Modern automation processes are mostly controlled by computer programs which, through the action of sensors and actuators, monitor progress and control the sequences of events until the process is complete.

Through automated, workers are freed from unpleasant, hazardous, repetitive and tedious work. However, automation means that fewer people are required to complete the same amount of work. Also, higher skill levels are required to setup and operate automated machines and this results in, the displacement from the workplace of semiskilled and unskilled workers. Displaced workers need to be retrained if they are to retain a place in the workforce. Training in computing, electronics and maintenance systems is now required to replace training in machine skills.

Most Australian industries are now highly automated. This has resulted in many thousands of workers being made redundant or retrained to enter new industries.

Mass Production Mass production is the large-scale production of goods in factories.

The increasing demand for consumer goods following the industrial revolution meant that larger numbers of products needed to be manufactured in a more efficient way. To facilitate the mass production process, organisation of the following factors is necessary.

A division of labour, where the manufacturing process is broken down into small specialised tasks that each worker carries out over and over again.

The standardisation of parts across a number of products so that large numbers can be made cheaply and efficiently

The development of machinery to perform standardised tasks and produce components The production process needs to be designed to efficiently integrate the machine processes

and human tasks.

Advantages of mass production include:

Efficiency of production: less time is taken to produce goods “economies of scale’: cheaper to make products in large quantities Workers only need to be trained in one or two tasks

Disadvantages include:

Boredom for the workers Occupational overuse syndrome Low job satisfaction for workers Large stock piles of finished goods waiting to be sold Difficult to change the product’s design quickly to respond to changing styles and consumer

demand

These disadvantages have led to a change in direction for manufacturers to try and be more responsive to changes in the market place.

The development of “just in time” manufacturing has evolved as an appropriate production technique to address the problems of excess stock and lack of responsiveness by manufacturers, to trends in the marketplace.

Just-In-Time Manufacturing Just-in-time manufacturing is a strategy used in the manufacturing industry to reduce costs by reducing the in-process inventory level. It is driven by a series of signals that tell the production line to make the next piece for the product and when it is needed. The signals used are usually simple visual signals, such as the absence or presence of a piece that is needed in the manufacturing process.

In just-in-time manufacturing, reorder levels for certain inventory items are set, and new stock is ordered only when those levels are reached. There is no overstocking of parts or items, which saves on space in the warehouse. This manufacturing strategy can lead to improvements in quality and efficiency. It also can lead to higher profits and a larger return on the company's investment.

Elimination of Waste:

JIT usually identifies seven prominent types of waste to be eliminated:

Waste from overproduction Transportation waste Processing Waste Waste from Product Defects Waste of waiting\idle time Waste of motion

Emerging Technologies H1.2 identifies appropriate equipment, production and manufacturing techniques and describes the impact of new and developing technologies in industry.

The evolution of manufacturing from the use of simple hand tools in cottage industries, through the introduction of machinery in factories during the Industrial Revolution in the mid to late 18oo’s to completely automated, computer controlled processes developed from the mid 1900’s to the present day is well documented in many history books.

Many more technologies are constantly being introduced across a wide range of applications as well as numerous applications that are still in the development stage and will become common place in our life time.

Environmental & Sociological Factors

Recycling: The effects of Technology on the environment Pollution Government Legislation Environmental Impact Studies Sustainable development

The Impact of IT on the EnvironmentThe process of building computers affects the environment. Energy is used and greenhouse gases are produced.

At the present rate of chip development, and hardware and operating system improvements, a computer reaches its use-by date within four years. By 2005, the average life-span of a personal computer is expected to fall to about two years. The waste of human effort and physical resources is enormous. The cycle for government schools is just 3 years. This is a lot of old hardware to find a home for.

Electronic computer equipment is a complicated assembly of more than 1000 items, many of which are highly toxic. The list includes chlorinated and brominated substances, toxic gases, toxic metals, photo-active and biologically active materials, acids, plastics and plastic additives, as well as lead and cadmium in computer circuit boards, lead oxide and barium in the monitor’s cathode ray tubes, mercury in switches and flat screens and brominated flame retardants on printed circuit boards, cables and plastic casings.

Of course IT is used to find solutions to countless environmental problems. We would not know about the problem of the ozone layer and greenhouse gases if information technology had not been used to design, populate and query the databases and draw the charts from which we discovered there was a problem.

The design of the laser printer is centred on the concept of the throw-away mechanism- the rollers, imaging drum and gears are replaced each time the toner runs out. Millions of spent cartridges end up in landfill each year. Yet most of these cartridges would continue to work well for five or four refills. Many companies exist which refurbish and refill old laser toner cartridges.

Environmental effect of Manufacturing TechnologyManufacturing a single personal computer from its raw materials:

Uses about $400 worth of electricity Consumes about 100kg of materials Wasters about 12 tonnes of water

Which all have a significant effect on the environment.

The parts of a computer that causes the most environmental damage during manufacture are the smallest- the microchips that store and process the data. The creation of a microchip weighing just a few grams can easily create 40kg of waste chemicals and polluted water.

Environmental Effect of Using Technology The most obvious cost of running a computer is the electricity is uses. In an office most PC’s are only used for a small amount compared to the time they are left on. More than half of them are on overnight and over the weekend. The electricity they use causes more carbon dioxide to be pumped into the atmosphere. Energy saving mode can help reduce this consumption.

A modern office with computers and a printer encourages people in some way to print more, therefore wasting more paper than needed.

Environmental Effect of Disposal of Obsolete TechnologyOther environmental issues result from dumping computers and other devices. The glass used in VDU’s contains a high amount of lead, a toxic heavy metal. PCB’s use solder, which also contains some lead. In some countries computers have been labelled as hazardous waste so they are not dumped in landfills.

Recycling computer consumables (paper, ink and toner cartridges) will help reduce the wastes but only if collecting them for recycling is as easy and as cheap throwing them away.

Computer Recycling The Earth has a limited supply of natural resources, such as water, metal ores, oil, natural gases and so on. Yet we continue to manufacture new products and consume these resources as if they will never run out.

Recycling as much and as many of these resources as possible has become a necessity.

Recycling involves reprocessing materials into new products, for example, car tyres into paving blocks and also reusing products in their existing state, for example, plastic bags used to carry things over and over.

Governments have encouraged the recycling of materials. Using initiatives such as at the local level of garbage collection for household paper, glass and metal as well as legislation at the industry level to ensure that most waste material is utilised in some way. Industry has also realised that there are financial benefits to their company from recycling and using recycled materials.

Manufacturers are also considering the long-term impact of their products on the environment. Alife cycle analysis of products has led to new approaches such as design for re-manufactureand design for disassembly that allow for the recovery of recyclable materials at the end of the service life of the product.

Computer PollutionComputers and computer monitors in the US are responsible for the unnecessary production of millions of tons of greenhouse gases every year, according to the Environmental Protection Agency. In US companies alone, more than $1 billion a year is wasted on electricity for computer monitors that are turned on when they shouldn’t be.

Energy-Saving Tips

Turn off computer and monitor when not in use for more than an hour Screen savers do not save electricity When purchasing new or replacement computers, consider buying efficient flat screen and

laptops bearing the ‘Energy Star” label.

Sustainable Environment:Sustainability refers to a quality and system of life that allows people to meet their current needs without compromising the resources available for future generations to meet their future needs. Sustainability rests on the belief that we can coexist with the environment if we work to ensure our actions are not harmful to it. Essentially, it means ensuring that we leave our environment no worse than we found it (and if possible, better). There are generally two different areas where sustainability is referred to—the environment and economics. Environmental sustainability encompasses actions to ensure the health and continuation of ecological systems. Sustainability can also refer to sustainable development, or the belief that economic growth and environmental protection can go hand in hand. Supporters of sustainable development believe green business practices need not inhibit economic growth, and that green business practices are essential to continued economic growth. Thus, sustainability necessitates an interrelationship of the social, economic and environmental needs of a developing world.

Government LegislationH1.2 identifies appropriate equipment, production and manufacturing techniques and describes the impact of new and developing technologies in industry

H7.1 explains the impact of the focus area industry on the social and physical environment

When a business, whether a manufacturing or service industry, is setting up in an area they are required to comply with relevant laws and regulations set down by state and local governments. Typically, regulations cover the zoning of the land, hours of operation, storage of materials, transport limits, noise levels, pollution, waste controls, hazardous materials handling and disposal. Government regulations also cover Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) requirements.

Not only do industries have regulations that govern initial set up of a business, but laws are in place to ensure that the day to day operations comply with pollution, emission and waste controls. For example;

The NSW government has a department devoted to the Environment, Climate Change and Water and that there are several government agencies set up to control a range of environmental concerns.”

Some of these agencies are:

Department of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability http://www.deus.nsw.gov.au/   has responsibility for the safety and performance of energy networks, water and energy policy and promotes affordable, safe, reliable and sustainable water and energy for NSW.

Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water http://www.dec.nsw.gov.au/index.htm   was established in September 2003 to bring the Environment Protection Authority (EPA), National Parks and Wildlife Service, Resource NSW and Botanic Gardens Trust together into a single Department.

Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resourceshttp://www.dipnr.nsw.gov.au/   "drives, co-ordinates and streamlines land-use, transport planning, infrastructure development and natural resource management in NSW." It incorporates the previous departments of Land and Water Conservation and Planning NSW.

Department of Landshttp://www.lands.nsw.gov.au/   is responsible for the management of Crown lands; titling, valuation and surveying of land; Native Title; Aboriginal land claims; soil services including conservation and testing; Land Boards and Emergency Information Co-ordination Unit.

Department of Local Governmenthttp://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/dlg_index.asp   is a central website from which information and links are available for all Local Councils in NSW.

Department of State and Regional Development http://www.business.nsw.gov.au/   "provides information, advice and assistance to foster business growth, industry and innovation in Sydney and NSW.

Environmental Issues http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/environmentalissues.htm   monitors and enforces policies to reduce pollution, waste and emissions in NSW homes and industries and is now incorporated into the Department of Environment and Conservation.

Waste Avoidance and Resource recovery http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/warr/index.htm/index-RNSW.htm   who"s role is "to develop, co-ordinate and evaluate strategies and programs for resource conservation and waste reduction".

Sociological Effects of IndustryWhen an industry affects the physical or emotional wellbeing of people in an area these are referred to as the sociological effects. Sociological effects can be things that have a positive effect on people as well as those things that are negative.

Some positive sociological effects include a boost in community morale when new work opportunities are offered by an industry, the provision of subsidised housing and support for community projects

Some negative sociological effects include noise pollution that affects sleep, effluents that have an impact on health, restructuring decisions that affect employment levels, job security, and career paths.

Personnel Factors Industrial Relations – Equity/EEO

Entry-level training (people in the industry)

Equal employment Multiskilling Retraining Unions EEO Issues:

o Copyright

o Piracy o Intellectual Property o Codes of Practice o Privacy and Security o Inappropriate Use o Accuracy, Validity, Bias o Changing Nature of Work o Equity, access and control

Rights and Responsibilities or EmployersEmployers employ workers to undertake certain tasks to the best of their ability. As a general rule the relationship of employees adding value through labour ensures that a profit will be made by the employer. The rights of an employer relate to the behaviour and attitudes of employees. Employees must:

Follow rules, policies and instructions of the workplace Maintain and safely use buildings, equipment and other items Be accountable to management for items Be aware of and follow policies and laws relating to occupational health and safety Behave in ethical manner Act in a manner that ensures confidentiality of the business’s dealings

An employer’s responsibilities to an employee include:

Providing a non-discriminatory environment Paying an agreed amount of money through either award or enterprise agreement or a

contract Reimbursing employees for expenses incurred during normal duties Providing work that is of a continuous nature Providing a safe working environment Ensuring that the business has a policy in place to protect employees against unfair dismissal

These rights and responsibilities have their basis in government legislation that sets out the duty of care that the employer has towards employees.

Rights and Responsibilities of Employees The employee is often in a more vulnerable position that the employer. An employee’s rights include:

Receiving payment and conditions that are set out in an award or have been negotiated through enterprises bargaining or a contract

Having policies in place to insure that unfair dismissal does not occur Provided with a safe environment Environment free of discrimination Equal opportunity Freedom to join or be part of a union or professional group if desired by the employee.

These rights are balanced by the employee’s responsibility to:

Act and behave in a correct and proper manner Use care and exercise skills that are appropriate in the performance of the job Follow and obey lawful and reasonable instructions to with the job Behave in a manner which shows honesty, integrity and keeps confidentiality

Labour Contract The labour or employment contract is the formal, legally binding agreement between the employer and the employee. In most cases some form of “signing on” occurs and the employee is officially accepted as being part of the business’s workforce.

Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Equal employment opportunity is the process of providing legislative support which ensures that all employees are treated with fairness and respect in the workplace and are not subjected to any form of discrimination or harassment. EEO also means that all employees have equal access to the opportunities that are available at the workplace. This includes promotion possibilities, over-time availability, leave entitlements, etc. EEO is particularly enforced when it comes to job advertisements.

What is EEO about?

Making sure that workplaces are free from all forms of unlawful discrimination and harassment and

Providing programs to assist member of EEO groups to overcome past or present disadvantage people because they belong to particular groups

This means having workplace rules, policies, practices and behaviours that are fair and do not disadvantage people because they belong to particular groups.

EEO groups are people who are affected by past or continuing disadvantage or discrimination in employment. As a result they may be more likely to be unemployed or working in lower paid jobs. These groups are:

Women Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders Members of racial, ethnic and ethno-religious minority groups and People with a disability

EEO Outcomes

The NSW Public Sector equity and diversity programs are designed to achieve: a diverse and skilled workforce improved employment access and participation by disadvantaged groups a workplace culture displaying fair workplace practices and behaviours.

The Public Service Commission is committed to ensuring that the skills, knowledge and diversity of the NSW community are represented and valued and that principles of merit selection are applied to attract and retain the best available people in our diverse communities to deliver high quality services.

Who Benefits from EEO?

Employees benefit by:

working in a fair environment which is free from unlawful discrimination and harassment equal access to jobs, training and other development opportunities, and fair processes to deal with work-related complaints and grievances

Managers Benefit by:

more co-operative workplace relations and reduced workplace conflict increased employee job satisfaction and morale and increased productivity

Agencies benefit by:

a more productive workplace improved efficiency of staff and better services to customers through the selection of the

best applicants skilled staff are encouraged to remain improved quality of work

Customers benefit by:

an efficient and effective Public Sector and services which are responsive to the needs of our diverse community

Anti-Discrimination Workplaces, societies and governments throughout the world have become increasingly aware of the need to provide a safe working environment. This involves not only physical safety, but the need for employees of different backgrounds to feel safe emotionally. Laws have been enacted to ensure

that workers are not disadvantages or threatened. The anti-discrimination process applies from when an employee goes through the selection process, through to working, promotion and dismissal or separation from the workplace.

The New South Wales state government defines discrimination as:

“Treating someone unfairly because they happen to belong to a particular group of people. Most of us have prejudices against, or negative view of, groups of people who are different from ourselves. If we aren’t careful these feelings can easily lead us to discriminate against people who belong to those groups.”

Categories of discrimination are:

Sex Race Age Marital Status Homosexual or Lesbian Disability Transgender Relative (Or associate)

Affirmative ActionAffirmative action refers to a legislated process that aims to remove barriers to the promotion of certain groups of people and implement programs so that these groups can be groomed and selected for promotion within organisations. The process is based on the Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women) Act 1986. Under the act, private companies, community organisations, non-government schools, unions and higher education institutions with 100 or more people have to establish affirmative action programs.

Affirmative action programs should remove any discriminatory employment barriers and promote equal employment opportunity for women in the workforce. Programs need to address issues in the following areas:

Training and development Pay equity Sexual harassment Work and family Recruitment, promotion and separation Occupation segregation

Multiskilling Multiskilling – noun the development of a number of skills from which workers may earn a livelihood.

A more common definition of multiskilling is where labour organisation is structured so that workers possess a range of skills appropriate for use on a project or within an organisation.

A multiskilled worker is an individual who possesses or acquires a range of skills and knowledge and applies them to work tasks that may fall outside the traditional boundaries of his or her original training. This does not necessarily mean that a worker obtains or possesses high-level skills in multiple technology areas. However, the worker can be an effective and productive contributor to the work output of several traditional training disciplines.

Some of the reasons for the introduction of multiskilling include:

to increase labour productivity cater for the declining number of tradespeople and cater for a critical skill shortage create a more flexible labour force able to meet challenges, improve project performance and better

utilise the current pool of skilled workers to utilise labour so that workers possess a range of skills suitable for more than one work process develop competency within the workforce and allow full deployment of qualifications across the

industry assign workers tasks based on their ability to perform the needed skill and not restricted by

traditional job descriptions or work boundaries.

Problems that affect multiskilling are both basic and practical. Basic problems are difficult to overcome and include limits on human skill retention and the difficulty of maintaining a multiskilled workforce from a management and financial viewpoint. Practical impediments include the organisational requirements, production management structure, resistance to change, qualifications requirements and the acceptance of multiskilling in both union and non-union work sites.

Advantages of multiskilling

Flexibility

Workers who are able to perform a large number of tasks can fill in for other workers, increasing workforce flexibility.

CommunicationKnowledge of various tasks can increase the understanding of other tasks and improve coordination.

Positive effects on innovationThe processes of improving design concepts are easier because of the individuals ‘multi’ knowledge.

Employment securityA multiskilled workforce is not as threatened if skills become obsolete because of new technology.

Project efficiencyThrough the increased level of multiskilling, work can be reorganised so that it can be performed most efficiently. Multiskilled workers carry projects through, sometimes all the way from start to finish often taking ‘project ownership’.

Competitive marketCost saving are passed onto the customer, through the decrease of labor cost due to reduction of turnaround time and number of workers involved.

Management effectivenessMultiskilling is most valuable in the areas of management. Here it effects the reduction of product completion time (e.g. reduced subsequent production line delays), the decrease of project planning time (e.g. only one employee has to learn the details of the project), and the cutback of administration costs (e.g. faster completion of pay claims and materials billing).

People in the Industry (Career Entry) Drivers of Change

New Technology New working practices Organisational restructuring\delaying New Business approach and corporate culture

Role Changes

Manual to conceptual work More monitoring, interpreting diagnosis and problem solving Greater process knowledge Flexibility and multiskilling Blurring of occupational boundaries More decision making: independently and within teams

Skill Requirements

Numeracy and literacy IT skills: communication, teamworking and interpersonal skills Technical understanding, engineering skills, problem solving, analytical skills, standards,

admin and business awareness Personal hygiene, flexibility able to learn

Skill Caps

Basic numeracy and literacy Team working and interpersonal skills Problem solving Technical and engineering skills Attitude to work

Change is occurring all the time in the career path of IT many are expanding, others are becoming out-dated and others are being created.

Unions in the Workplace A union is an association of workers, from a similar field of employment, which uses its strengths of numbers to initiate changes in working conditions, by bringing areas of concern to the attention of the employer.

Unions develop to protect workers from being exploited by unscrupulous employers who expect long hours of work for low rates of pay.

Terminology:

Arbitration is a method of dispute settlement in which an independent third party considers the arguments of both sides and then makes a ruling that is binding on the parties in a dispute.

Award An award is a legal document setting out the minimum rates of pay and conditions of employment that apply to employees in a particular industry.

Conciliation is a dispute settling method in which a third party, usually an independent, seeks to bring the disputants to the point where they can reach agreement. The conciliator acts as an 'honest broker' in the negotiations. In Australia, agreements produced through formal conciliation lead to changes in award provisions. If the conciliator is unsuccessful in settling some or all of the issues that are in dispute, these items can be referred to arbitration. Conciliation is not necessarily a precondition for arbitration.

An enterprise agreement sets out the minimum conditions of employment for employees engaged in particular types of work in the same way as an award. However unlike most awards, enterprise agreements are specific to a particular enterprise or project. Enterprise agreements are negotiated voluntarily between an employer and either the employees concerned or a union on behalf of those employees (the parties).

Equal employment opportunity (EEO) means that everyone should have fair and equitable access to jobs, employment conditions, training and promotional opportunities. It does not assume that everyone has the same abilities but aims to ensure that everyone has a fair chance to demonstrate their abilities, to use them, improve them and benefit from them. EEO is consistent with the principle of merit. It means that the best person is chosen for the job, promotion or training opportunity and that they are selected only on criteria that are relevant.

Industrial dispute: The term can refer to any disagreement in industrial relations, and primarily to those that arise between employers and employees. The term is also used synonymously with strikes and other particular forms of industrial action.

Redundancy is the permanent displacement of some part of the workforce of an organisation as a result of plant closure, organisational or technological changes. A redundancy agreement can be reached between a union and an organisation that proposes to terminate the employment of a number (perhaps all) of the employees. Such agreements generally involve paying out the employees, in lieu of continued employment, according to a formula based upon the length of service of each employee. The longer the period of continuous employment the larger the severance payment a worker will be entitled to.

Severance pay is the final payment made to an employee when their employment is terminated. It includes amounts for accrued leave, leave loadings, and accrued pay for time already worked. In instances of redundancy, severance pay can also include redundancy pay.

An example of a Union is:

The Australian Industrial Relations Commission (AIRC) is an independent national tribunal dealing with employment issues.

From 1 July 2009 Fair Work Australia assumed many of the functions of the AIRC.

Legal Issues Copyright

Those who develop software, like those who write poetry have a right to control the production to their own work and to receive benefits from their work. This right is called copyright. For some software programs when you pay for the software you do not actually own it. What you have purchased is a licence to install it and use it. In the field of information technology, copyright laws are used to legally license a range of software programs and, in doing so, protect the intellectual property of the people who have created them.

Piracy

The unauthorised copying of software is referred to as piracy. Most retail programs are licensed for one computer or one user at any time. People who sell software that they have copied without authorisation are considered to be selling stolen goods.

Intellectual Property

Most people agree that laws in our society which discourage theft or property are important. Yet many of the same people have difficulty applying those principals to intellectual property- to the creative and innovative ideas that a person has worked on and on which their income may depend on it. Intellectual property can be referred to as a product of the intellect that has commercial value. Under the law you have automatic protection of your intellectual property for 50 years from the date of its creation.

Security and Protection

There are also laws designed to protect information systems and to prosecute people who create and spread computer viruses. A virus is a software program or a piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without your knowledge and may damage\destroy other programs that areon your computer.

Codes of Practice and Conduct

Codes of practice and conduct are developed by business and industry groups in order to promote honesty and fairness in their dealings with the public and other clients. A code of conduct is basically

a set of rules which sets out, for customers and staff, the standards of service to be provided and what can be done it these standards are not met.

Inappropriate use of Information and Software Technology

There is a widespread concern about the inappropriate use of computers, particularly hacking. Hacking is a colloquial term which refers to unauthorised access to computer systems. This can involve:

The electronic theft of money The theft of information Deliberate vandalism, such as creating and spreading computer viruses

Accuracy, Validity and Bias of Data

Other ethical issues that need to be considered in relation to information and software technology include accuracy, validity and bias of data.

Data accuracy simply refers to the extent to which data is free of errors. The occurrence of inaccurate data is usually a mistake, but sometimes it takes place deliberately. It is not always possible to know whether or not data is accurate. Data can also be manipulated in order to present one-sided view, this is called data bias.

Most problems with accuracy arise from incorrect data entry using a keyboard. There are a number of ways to improve accuracy for example:

Spelling check Read over

Changing Nature of Work

Information and software technology has had a major influence on the way people earn a living. It has altered the nature of work and enterprise to the extent that most jobs in the developed world now involve computers and some workers have been made redundant as a result of new technology.

On a more positive note, information and software technology is more likely to have changed someone’s work rather than have eliminated it completely. The development of information and software technology has also led to many new jobs, such as computer technicians, programmers, web designers and system analysts.

Employment trends, such as telecommunicating, videoconferencing and the introduction of the virtual office have also changed the nature of work and enterprise. Telecommuting involves working from home, using modern technology to keep in touch with your place of employment. Jobs can be relocated to places where it is more comfortable, more convenient or less expensive to live.

Some of the benefits that telecommuting provides employers include:

Reduction of office running costs Elimination of travel related problems which may lead to the late arrival of employees

Employee benefits:

Flexibility to work around family Elimination of time, cost and stress associated with travelling to and from work

Although some negative effects of telecommuting is that there is less opportunity to meet and share ideas. Teamwork is also difficult and there may be more temptation to spend time on non-work-related activates.

Video conferencing also raises the issue of loss of personal contact

Equity, Access and Control

Equity and access refer to the belief that all people should have equal rights and all people should enjoy the benefits that information and software technology offers. Control refers to the power to make decisions about who does and does not gain access to information and software technology. Unfortunately not all people may be able to benefit from IT as they may not be able to afford a computer or because of a disability.

Advantages of Computer Technology A speedy aid to the way work is done Jobs that are more varied, enjoyable and rewarding, thereby boosting staff morale Reduction in drudgery when routine calculations and other repetitive jobs are undertaken New career opportunities New job titles Increase in salary Change in responsibility Improved accuracy Increase efficiency and productivity Improved customer relations Competitiveness with other organisations Instant communication

Disadvantages of Computer Technology Huge capital outlay on installation Redundancy and job loss due to the need for fewer member of staff Health problems such as occupational overuse syndrome and eyestrain if correct

occupational health and safety procedures are not followed Difficulties by some staff in adjusting to retraining

Computer Crime Hardware theft Theft of computer time Malicious damage to data

Manipulation of programs or data for personal gain Software piracy Introduction of viruses

Occupational Health and Safety Safety Issues Safety Signage

Materials Handling Workplace Culture

Safety Issues Work related accidents result in a heavy economic and sociological cost to the country. The number of deaths from workplace incidents is greater than the number of deaths from motor accidents. It is therefore of great importance that all workplaces are safe and that risks are minimised to ensure the wellbeing of all employees.

The Government has legislated that all employers will provide a safe working environment for their employees.

This involves:

ensuring work practices are safe and do not pose a threat to the health of workers ensuring that all tools, equipment and machinery are in safe working order ensuring that the handling, storage and transport ofhazardous materials is carried out safely ensuring that workers are adequately trained and that there is safety

information signage throughout the workplace to help avoid accidents consulting with workers and/or their representatives about safety concerns regularly checking and monitoring the workplace for safety hazards and keeping

adequate records of procedures.

All workplaces are expected to have an OH&S committee that will:

ensure that the organisation has adequate safety policies and safe working procedures be aware of the safety and health issues related to that organisation advise management on risk reduction in the workplace regularly check working procedures for hazardous practices provide health and safety training resolve disagreements or problems.

Safety Signage

Work related accidents result in a heavy economic and sociological cost to the country. The number of deaths from workplace incidents is greater than the number of deaths from motor accidents. It is therefore of great importance that all workplaces are safe and that risks are minimised to ensure the wellbeing of all employees.

The Government has legislated that all employers will provide a safe working environment for their employees.

This involves:

ensuring work practices are safe and do not pose a threat to the health of workers ensuring that all tools, equipment and machinery are in safe working order ensuring that the handling, storage and transport ofhazardous materials is carried

out safely ensuring that workers are adequately trained and that there is safety

information signage throughout the workplace to help avoid accidents

consulting with workers and/or their representatives about safety concerns regularly checking and monitoring the workplace for safety hazards and keeping

adequate records of procedures.

All workplaces are expected to have an OH&S committee that will:

ensure that the organisation has adequate safety policies and safe working procedures

be aware of the safety and health issues related to that organisation advise management on risk reduction in the workplace regularly check working procedures for hazardous practices provide health and safety training resolve disagreements or problems.

Safety Signage

The communication of important information and safety warnings is essential in the workplace.

The design of safety signage must ensure that information is easy to read, easy to understand(non-ambiguous) and must be able to be interpreted the same way by people of all languages.

That is why signs are created to an internationally recognised standard.

Messages are conveyed using different colours, standard shapes and graphics depending on the purpose of the sign.

WARNING signs use these symbols and colours:

PROHIBITION signs use a red circle with a slash through it.

INFORMATION signs are always in blue rectangles.

Workplace SignageSigns and symbols are used in a workplace to convey information to workers and visitors to the site. Being able to move or navigate around the workplace independently and safely to perform tasks or access meal and bathroom facilities can be critical to an individual’s success and productivity at work.There are a range of signs in the workplace that allow a person to move around safely and with confidence.

Safety signs

There are three main types of safety signs used in the workplace:

Picture signs using symbols or pictures.

Signs with only text based messages.

Picture signs with a short message.

Picture signs are used as they reach as many people as possible in the workplace, including workers with low reading ability or people from non-English speaking backgrounds.

Colour and shape

There are seven categories of safety signs identified by colour and shape:

Prohibition signs – these are signs that indicate something that you must not do: They are made up of a red circle border with a line through it, a white background and black symbol

Mandatory signs – these signs tell you that you must wear some special safety equipment: They are made up of a blue solid circle, white symbol, with no border.

Restriction signs – these signs tell of a limitation placed on an activity or use in the area concerned. They are made up of a red circular border, no crossbar, and a white background.

Hazard warning signs – these signs warn you of a danger or risk to your health: They are made up of a yellow triangle with a black border, and a black symbol.

Danger hazard signs – these signs warn of a particular hazard or hazardous condition that is to be life-threatening: They are made up of a white rectangular background, with the word DANGER in white on a red background, and black border and black text.

Emergency information signs – these signs show where emergency safety equipment is kept: They are made up of a green solid rectangle, with a white symbol or text.

Fire signs – these signs tell you the location of fire alarms and firefighting facilities: They are made up of a red solid rectangle, with white text.

Health Signs

The following examples show wall charts which are placed in the workplace to remind and encourage workers to follow safe work practices.

Signage of electrical equipment

Testing of all tools is now a legal requirement in Australia on all worksites. Any piece of electrical equipment, inmcluding extension leads must be checked and tagged by a qualified person. The correct tag looks like the following:

Material safety data sheets (MSDS)

All containers that have a substance that is deemed dangerous must be labelled appropriately. MSDS provide information required for labelling a container and where possible an MSDS is to be attached to the container. The label on a hazardous substance should draw the attention of an employee who is using the substance to the significant hazards involved. It should take into account all the hazards which are likely to occur from the use of the substance.

The MSDS must:

1. be readily available to personnel using the substance with information provided in a form that is easily understood by the user

2. identify that the substance is a designated hazardous substance3. meet the needs of those persons with language or literacy difficulties.

Placement of signs

Signs should be located where they are clearly visible to all concerned so as to attract attention and be read or interpreted easily.

The height of a sign should be at the normal line of sight for a standing adult.

Signs should not be placed on movable objects such as a sliding door.

Regulation and hazard type signs should be positioned in relation to the hazard to allow a person plenty of time to view the sign and take notice of the warning.

Materials HandlingCorrect handling of materials is paramount for ensuring a safe working environment. When handling materials one should consider the properties of the material as well as the correct method for their lifting and movement. Material handling in the workplace is an important issue that must to be considered in all focus areas.

Hazardous materials used in the workplace need to be effectively identified and handled to ensure safe working conditions.

1. Describe the problems that can result from the incorrect handling of hazardous materials.The problems that can result from the incorrect handling of hazardous materials include cancers and other diseases such as a skin condition known as dermatitis.

2. Identify specific materials that are considered to be hazardous in the work place.Specific substances that are considered to be hazardous in the work place include solvents, pesticides, paints, adhesives, petroleum products, heavy metals or any other substance that is hazardous to health. Hazardous substances can take many forms: - liquids, solids, vapours, gases, fumes or dusts.

3. Identify specific materials that are considered to be hazardous in the work place.For a substance to be described as being hazardous, the concentrations of the ingredients present must be known to cause health effects.

4. Outline the information that is contained in Material Safety Data Sheets.Information contained in Material Safety Data Sheets includes the health effects of the substance as well as safe use and storage of the substance. Details of emergency procedures are also outlined in Material Safety Data Sheets.

5. Identify the easiest way of determining if a material is a potential hazard.The easiest way of determining if a substance is a potential hazard is to look on the label for the words "hazardous", "warning", "poison", "dangerous poison", "harmful", "corrosive" or other advice about specific health effects.

6. Outline ways in which hazardous materials can enter ones body if they are not correctly handled.Hazardous substances can enter ones body if they are not correctly handled by the following "means: by breathing in the substance (inhalation) absorption through the skin (dermal) accidental swallowing (ingestion), for example by eating or smoking with contaminated hands.

7. Identify and describe the type of equipment that should be worn when handling hazardous materials.The type of equipment that should be worn when handling hazardous materials is personal protective equipment (PPE). This equipment commonly includes respirators, gloves and eye protection. PPE must be suitable for the type of substance that is being handled. It must be correctly fitted to the worker and comply with relevant Australian Standard

OHSFor industry to operate effectively and efficiently there is a need for certain industry standards to be set. These standards govern the way an industry operates in much the same way as standards for road use (the 'rules of the road') govern how people drive on the roads.

Some standards are developed by industry to assist in the smooth and safe operation of that industry, while other standards are set by government and cover all industries.

One of the most important standards for any industry is government legislation relating to safety in the workplace.

In NSW, the Department of Industrial Relations represents the government in formulating structures relating to Occupational Health and Safety. Correspondingly, WorkCover as a statutory authority has the responsibility for enforcing legislation and providing educational support for the legislation.

The NSW Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000, and the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001, aim to protect people at work. The legislation is written in terms of health, safety and the welfare of people in a work environment.

The legislation contains provisions that require the employer to consult with employees on issues of safety, health and welfare. It applies to large and small business and also to the self employed.

Industry standards may be described in the form of duties and categorised as responsibilities. In the case of Occupational Health and Safety:

The responsibilities of the employer include:

ensuring that the places of work under their management are safe ensuring that risk management procedures for the safe use, handling, storage and transport

of plant materials are established for their workplace

ensuring that systems of work and the work environments are safe, without risks to health ensuring that information, instruction, training and supervision is provided to support the

safety of employees ensuring the provision of adequate facilities for the welfare of employees. The responsibilities of the employee include: taking reasonable care of the health and safety of themselves and others cooperating with employers in their efforts to comply with occupational, health and safety

requirements. Breaches of the legislation can result in serious penalties for an individual and the business.

First aid

Incorporated within the OHS legislation is a series of clauses relating to first aid. The employer has the responsibility of providing first aid facilities to assist with immediate treatment that may arise at a place of work. When the workforce exceeds 25 people the employer must provide personnel trained in a WorkCover approved first aid course.

Safety training and human factors

In 1998 the WorkCover Authority introduced a code of practice for occupational health and safety induction training.

Induction training can be delivered through a registered education or training provider. The purpose of this training is to standardise safety instruction relevant to the needs of the appropriate work site, ensuring the same expectations for OHS.

It is the responsibility of employers to ensure OHS induction training is undertaken by its employees as they are not permitted to undertake tasks or enter work site areas without having completed this training.

Self employed persons are not permitted to undertake tasks on a work site without having completed safety induction training.

Materials handling

Occupational health and safety encompasses many areas. People automatically think about the safety of the working environment in terms of the individual and how plant and equipment is positioned and operated. Whilst the work environment is important, it can only be as safe as the materials being used, handled, stored and transformed within it.

Materials handling incorporates the physical materials - how they are transported, and stored. It also includes the processes undertaken in any manufacturing system together with the impact of these processes on the health and safety of the workers.

Hazardous Substances Regulation 1996 provides information about legislation and the implications for personnel, training in risk assessment and information for those working with hazardous materials where risks should be assessed, controlled and recorded. WorkCover assists companies in the development of risk management procedures for hazardous materials.

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are the basic source for all hazardous materials containing risk and safety information. The MSDS is required under the Hazardous Substance Regulation to be supplied by manufactures and suppliers. The MSDS contains:

name and address of the manufacturer and or supplier contact information in case of emergency name of the product, trade, commercial or chemical classification with haz-chem code or poisons schedule

Dangerous Goods Legislation provides information regarding storage labelling, licensing and the transport of dangerous goods.

Manual and automated handling

Work-related back injury is the largest area of concern to our medical and insurance system. National data estimates that 95% of injuries in the workplace are preventable and that a reduction of up to 80% can be achieved through risk management.

Workplace cultureOccupational health and safety in the workplace is about ensuring people are aware of the potential dangers and the means of reducing risk. All accidents should be viewed as preventable.

It is the responsibility of the employer to cultivate a safe workplace culture and for the employer and employee to maintain this safe culture.

The formation of an OHS workplace committee offers the opportunity for a collaborative approach to workplace safety where the safe culture of the workplace can be developed.

Different organisations of any type, even those producing the same product or service, can be very different places to work. They will have different ‘atmospheres’, different ways of doing things, different attitudes, different values and so on, and each of these can impact on the overall contentment of the people in those workplaces.

We can refer to these aspects of the workplace as ‘workplace culture’. Workplace culture can probably be best described as the attitudes people within the workforce have toward their work, and their workmates.

Many issues can impact positively or negatively on workplace culture. The attitudes and expectations of the senior management of an organisation can have the greatest impact on workplace culture, and workplace culture can be very different when there is a change of management.

Perhaps the greatest area of concern of an organisation’s culture is that which influences the application of Occupational Health and Safety processes. Management needs to be aware of all aspects of the OH&S Regulation and have policies which implement necessary strategies such as safety training, risk management and OHS committees.

In addition, workplaces must embrace new, flexible ways of doing things that allow for the changing nature of the workforce and the need for better work/home/family balances.

Graphics Colours and File Formats

Colour Channels The actual colour data of an image is stored as arrays of values, known as channels. Typically

an image will have at least 3 channels, representing red, green, and blue colour values. Three main channel types (or colour models) exist;1. RGB2. CMYK3. HSV

RGB An RGB image has three channels: Red Green Blue RGB channels roughly follow the colour receptors in the human eye, and are used in

computer displays and image scanners.

CMYK A CMYK image has four channels: Cyan Magenta Yellow Black CMYK is the standard for print.

HSV- Hue, Saturation, Value HSV stores colour information in three channels, just like RGB, but one channel is devoted to

brightness (Value), and the other two convey colour information. Hue – another name for colour Saturation - is how pure the colour is. A fully saturated colour is the truest version of that

colour. Primary colours (red, yellow, and blue) are "true", so they are also fully saturated. Value /Brightness - the amount of light or white it contains, the intensity of light present.

Alpha Channels Are transparent Alpha channels are masks through which you can display images. The alpha channel is an 8-bit channel, which means it has 256 levels of grey from 0 (black) to

255 (white). White acts as the visible area; black acts as the transparent area (you see the background

behind the image when displayed). The level of grey in between determines the level of visibility.

File Formats Image file formats are standardized means of organizing and storing digital images. Image files are composed of either bitmap pixels, vector (geometric) data Bitmap - Need to store the information for each and every pixel in the image, this is what

causes the large memory requirements for this type of graphic.

Compression There are two types of image file compression algorithms:

1. lossless - 2. lossy

-Lossless algorithms reduce file size without losing image quality, though they are not compressed

into as small a file as a lossy compression file. When image quality is valued above file size, lossless algorithms are typically chosen.

-Lossy algorithms take advantage of the inherent limitations of the human eye and discard invisible

information. simply eliminate "unnecessary" bits of information, tailoring the file so that it is smaller. you can't get the original file back after it has been compressed. You're stuck with the

compression program's reinterpretation of the original.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Lossless and Lossy CompressionIt's lossless, so you don't lose any information, and the output is an exact copy of the input. But it uses more memory that loosy compression, that is, the compression ratio is not as good.

Lossy compression compresses files to a smaller size but there is some data lost. It is a part of music that is (supposed to be) inaudible to your ears, but experts say they can hear the lost part.  

One other problem with lossy compression is that repeated compression and expansion causes serious sound artefacts to appear. Especially if different algorithms are used. And music can under go easily 3 cycles of compression — expansion, for example, once from digital audio transmission, once for storage on disk, once for recording on CD.

Bitmap/Raster File Formats

Graphic Format Name

Ext Description

Bit-Map BMP Format used by windows applications

Tagged Image File Format

TIFF A format used for scanned images

Picture PCX/PICT metafile format of the Apple Macintosh. Both Raster and Vector

Joint Photographic Experts Group

JPG/JPEG A compression format used for high-quality still images.

Graphics Interchangeable Format

GIF A format used mainly for web graphics. Limited to 256 colours.

Portable Networks Graphic

PNG Successor to GIF but with 16 million colours.

Vector Graphic Formats

Graphic Format Name

Ext Description

Computer Graphics Metafile

CGM A international Standard for Vector Graphics

Encapsulated Postscript

EPS A postscript format for publishing

Windows Metafile Format

WMF A format used in Windows Apps

Scalable Vector Graphics

SVG Designed for www, based on XML

Drawing File DRW Format used by multiple software programs.

Calculating Image Size Calculating Image File size is an important issue for multimedia designers. In the past Download times were an issue Increases in Storage Space and Bandwidth Formula: File size =

horizontal pixels × vertical pixels × bit depth-------------------------------------------8(to convert to bytes) × 1024 (kilobytes)

How many Bits in a Byte?8 Bits = 1 Byte1024 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte1024 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte1024 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte1024 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte

Black and White Images file size =

208 × 182 x 1 -------------8 × 1024

= 37856

------8192

= 4.62 KB

Colour Depth Colour depth describes the maximum number of colours an image can contain. This is dependent on the bit depth of its pixels. The higher the bit depth value, the more

colour information each pixel can display and the greater the number of colours the image can contain.

The file size of an image is proportional to its colour depth. Since each bit represents 2 colours, it is easy to work out the number of colours for the

various colour depths. The number of possible colours would be 2 to the power of the number of bits per pixel

A 1-bit pixel can display two colours: black and white. An 8-bit pixel displays 256 colours. Each bit can be on or off (2 states). When combined in eight different ways

(2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2 or 28) it can display up to 256 colours.

Colour Calculation

Bit Depth(Bits Per Pixel)

Number of Coloursor Tones

Where do # of Colours Come From?

1 2 21=22 4 22=43 8 23=84 16 24=166 64 26=648 256 28=25616 65 536 216=65 53624 16 777 216 224= 16 777 21632 4 294 967

296 232= 4 294 967 296

Graphics Two types of computer graphics

1. Vector2. Raster (bitmap)

Bitmap/Raster Graphics Bitmap images (also known as raster images) are made up of pixels in a grid. Pixels are picture elements; tiny dots of individual colour that make up what you see on your

screen. Bitmap images are resolution dependent and therefore resizing reduces quality. Reduce size of image, throw away pixels, increase size guess work with adding more pixels When creating pixels, the software must estimate the colour values of the new pixels based

on the surrounding pixels. This process is called interpolation. Restricted to a rectangular shape.

Common Bitmap Formats • BMP • GIF• JPEG, JPG• PNG• PCX• TIFF • PSD (Adobe Photoshop)

Vector Graphics Also known as object-oriented graphics made up of many individual, scalable objects. These

objects are defined by mathematical equations rather than pixels. Objects may consist of lines, curves, and shapes with editable attributes such as color, fill,

and outline. Objects are scalable Resolution Independent and can generally be resized without any image quality loss.

As such, vector images are ideal for graphics such as maps and company logos that often require scaling.

no background – they are transparent cartoon-like inappropriate for photo-realistic images

Vector Formats • AI (Adobe Illustrator)• CDR (CorelDRAW)• CMX (Corel Exchange) • CGM Computer Graphics Metafile • DXF AutoCAD • WMF Windows Metafile

Look at the difference between them!