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Organizational Behavior
What are the elements of an organization?
1. People / staff2. Infrastructure / buildings / vehicles..3. Technology / machines, medicines..4. Resources/money and5. Common objective/Goal
Organization
Goals
Objectives
Tasks
Infrastructure People/Staff
& Technology
Resources
People who plan & control
E
E
E
E
E = Environment Social
Economic
Religious
Political/Administrative
People who plan & control an organization are called MANAGERS
Owners of the organization may or may not be managers
An Alternative Definition
• An organization– involves the interactions and efforts of People– in order to achieve Objectives– channelled and coordinated through Structure– directed and controlled via Management
[Mullins 1996]
The Hawthorne Studies
A group of studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western
Electric Company during the late 1920’s and early 1930’s
The Hawthorne Studies
• Elton Mayo hired to explain the results of a study of illumination on productivity and Western Electric
• Conducted two additional studies– Relay Room– Bank Wiring Room
Bank Wiring Room
• Introduced incentive pay system.• Expected individual worker output to
increase.• Found no change in worker output.• Workers established informal norms because
they feared the company would increase their quota.
Impact of the Hawthorne Studies
• Elton Mayo is considered the father of the Human Relations movement
• Human Relations recognizes that there are other factors beyond rational economics that drive individual behavior.
• Productivity and satisfaction are inextricably linked—You cannot forget the human side of the equation
Enter Organizational Behavior
Toward an OB Discipline
Social psychology
Psychology
Behavioural science
Contribution Unit ofanalysis
Output
Anthropology
Sociology
Political science
Study ofOrganizational
Behaviour
Organizationsystem
LearningMotivationPerceptionTrainingLeadership effectivenessJob satisfactionIndividual decision makingPerformance appraisalAttitude measurementEmployee selectionWork designWork stress
Group dynamicsWork teamsCommunicationPowerConflictIntergroup behaviour
Formal organization theoryOrganizational technologyOrganizational changeOrganizational culture
ConflictIntraorganizational politicsPower
Organizational cultureOrganizational environment
Behavioural changeAttitude changeCommunicationGroup processesGroup decision making
Group
Comparative valuesComparative attitudesCross-cultural analysis
Individual
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field
E X H I B I T 1-3a
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field
E X H I B I T 1-3b
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field
E X H I B I T 1-3c
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field
E X H I B I T 1-3d
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field
E X H I B I T 1-3f
FUNDAMENTALS OF
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
PSYCHOLOGIST KURT LEVIN
B = F (P, E)
SO THAT BEHAVIOUR (B) IS A FUNCTION (F) OF A
PERSON (P) AND ENVIRONMENT (E) AROUND HIM.
INHERITED CHARACTERISTICSINHERITED CHARACTERISTICS
• PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• INTELLIGENCE
• SEX
• AGE
• RELIGION
LEARNED CHARACTERISTICS LEARNED CHARACTERISTICS
• PERCEPTION
• ATTITUDE
• PERSONALITY
• VALUES
PERCEPTION LEARNING
PERSONALITY
PERSONALITY CIRCLEPERSONALITY CIRCLE
Personality
• Personality consists of the stable psychological traits and behavioral attributes that gives a person his or her identity.
• The Big Five Personality Dimensions– Extroversion– Agreeableness– Conscientiousness– Emotional stability– Openness to experience
Personality Defined
• Personality represents the unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions characterizing an individual– Identity (internal and subjective)– Reputation (external and objective)
Personality
• A person’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting that is consistent across time and situations
• Relatively enduring underlying dispositions that influence behavior across situations
The Origins of Personality
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITYDETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
HEREDITY• BIOLOGICAL FEATURES• BRAIN STIMULATION• BIO FEEDBACK
ENVIRONMENT• CULTURE• RELIGION• FAMILY• PARENTAL INFLUENCES• SIBLINGS INFLUENCE• SCHOOL• PLACE OF WORK
SITUATION
The Big Five Model of Personality
• Extroversion• Neuroticism• Agreeableness• Conscientiousness• Openness to Experience
The Hierarchical Organization of Personality
Source: Adapted from R. R. McCrae and P. T. Costa, "Discriminant Validity of NEO-PIR Facet Scales,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, pp. 229–237. Copyright 1992. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.
Extroversion
• The tendency to experience positive emotional states and feel good about oneself and the world around one; also called positive affectivity.
• Specific traits include positive emotions, gregariousness, and warmth
Neuroticism
• The tendency to experience negative emotional states and view oneself and the world around one negatively; also called negative affectivity.
• Specific traits include anxiety, self-consciousness, and vulnerability.
Agreeableness
• The tendency to get along well with others.
• Specific traits include trust, straightforwardness and tender-mindedness.
Conscientiousness
• The extent to which a person is careful, scrupulous, and persevering.
• Specific traits include competence, order and self-discipline.
Openness to Experience
• The extent to which a person is original, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks.
• Specific traits include fantasy, actions, and ideas.
Traits versus Types
• Traits represent single dimensions of personality
• Types represent constellations of traits
MainMain OppositeOpposite
1. Reserved Outgoing
2. Less intelligent More intelligent
3. Affected by Feelings Emotionally Stable
4. Submissive Dominant
5. Serious Happy-go-lucky
6. Expedient Conscientious
7. Timid Venturesome
SIXTEENSIXTEENPRIMARYPRIMARYTRAITSTRAITS
8. Tough-minded Sensitive
9. Trusting Suspicious
10 Practical Imaginative
11 Forthright Shrewd
12 Self-assured Apprehensive
13 Conservative Experimenting
14 Group-dependent Controlled
15 Uncontrolled Controlled
16 Relaxed Tense
Other Personality Models
• Myers Briggs Type Indicator– Extroversion-Introversion– Thinking-Feeling– Sensing-Intution– Judging-Perceiving
• Scores on each one of these “traits” is less important than your overall type.
Type A/B Personality
• Type A: a behavior pattern involving high levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and irritability
• Type B: a behavior pattern characterized by a casual, laid back style.
• What is the effect of Type on health, personal relations, and task performance?
Positive-Negative Affectivity
• Positive Affectivity: the tendency to experience positive moods regardless of the situation.
• Negative Affectivity: the tendency to experience negative moods regardless of the situation.
• What is the impact of affectivity on performance?
Other Personality Traits at Work
• Self-Efficacy– A person’s beliefs about his or her
capabilities to perform a task.
• Authoritarianism– The extent to which a person believes that
power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations.
JUNGIAN PERSONALITY TYPEJUNGIAN PERSONALITY TYPE
Sensing Sensing Personality (S)Personality (S)
Intuitive Intuitive Personality (N)Personality (N)
Thinking (T)
Rational, logical, empirical, objective, Money-oriented efforts, Risk avoider, short-sighted.
Broad viewer, imaginative, wider options, risk takers, long-sighted.
Feeling (F) Empirical, personal values, subjectivity, considering other views, risk takers, status-conscious.
Broad view of personal situation, people-oriented, subjective, venturesome.
• Locus of Control– The extent to which people believe that
their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them.• People who believe that individuals are
in control of their lives are said to have an internal locus of control.
• People who think that forces beyond their control dictate what happens to them are said to have an external locus of control.
AuthoritarianismPersons having authoritarian personality believe in status and power differences.
Risk PropensityPeople like or dislike risk-taking; that is, people have different risk propensities for assuming or avoiding risks.
DogmatismDogmatism is a traditional view. People are traditional and take routine decisions.
Other Personality Traits at Work
• Machiavellianism– People who possess this personality trait
behave to gain power and control over the behavior of others.
– High mach’s are very similar to psychopaths• Charming with no remorse, guilt, or empathy
• Performance implications?
VALUESVALUES
BASIC CONVICTIONS THAT A SPECIFIC MODE
OF CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE
IS PERSONALLY OR SOCIALLY PREFERABLE TO
AN OPPOSITE OR CONVERSE MODE OF
CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE.
VALUE SYSTEMVALUE SYSTEM
A HIERARCHY BASED ON A RANKING OF AN
INDIVIDUAL’S VALUES IN TERMS OF THEIR
INTENSITY.
ALL OF US HAVE A HIERARCHY OF VALUES
THAT FORMS OUR VALUE SYSTEMVALUE SYSTEM. THIS
SYSTEM IS IDENTIFIED BY THE RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE WE ASSIGN TO SUCH VALUES
AS FREEDOM, PLEASURE, SELF-RESPECT,
HONESTY, OBEDIENCE AND EQUALITY.
SOURCES OF OUR VALUE SYSTEMSOURCES OF OUR VALUE SYSTEM
A SIGNIFICANT PORTION IS GENETICALLY
DETERMINED. THE REST IS ATTRIBUTABLE
TO FACTORS LIKE NATIONAL CULTURE,
PARENTAL DICTATES, TEACHERS, FRIENDS,
AND SIMILAR ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES.
TYPES OF VALUESTYPES OF VALUES
ALLPORT AND ASSOCIATES
THEORETICAL
1. ECONOMIC
2. AESTHETIC
3. SOCIAL
4. POLITICAL
5. RELIGIOUS
ROKEACH VALUE SURVEYROKEACH VALUE SURVEY
TERMINAL VALUES: DESIRABLE END-STATES OF
EXISTENCE; THE GOALS THAT A PERSON WOULD LIKE TO
ACHIEVE DURING HIS OR HER LIFETIME.
INSTRUMENTAL VALUES: PREFERABLE MODES OF
BEHAVIOUR OR MEANS OF ACHIEVING ONE’S TERMINAL
VALUES.
TERMINAL AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES TERMINAL AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES IN IN ROKEACH VALUE SURVEYROKEACH VALUE SURVEY
Terminal Values • Comfortable life• Exciting life• Sense of accomplishment• World at peace• World of beauty• Equality• Family Security• Freedom• Happiness• Inner harmony• Mature love• National security• Pleasure• Salvation• Self-respect• Social recognition• True friendship• Wisdom
Instrumental Values• Ambitious• Broad-minded• Capable• Cheerful• Clean• Courageous• Forgiving• Helpful• Honest• Imaginative• Independent• Intellectual• Logical• Loving• Obedient• Polite • Responsible• Self-controlled
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 51
LEADERSHIP
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 52
LEADERSHIP IS DEFINED AS INFLUENCE, THAT IS,
THE ART OR PROCES OF INFLUENCING PEOPLE SO
THAT THEY WILL STRIVE WILLINGLY AND
ENTHUSIASTICALLY TOWARDS THE ACHIEVEMENT
OF GROUP GOALS.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 53
LEADERSHIP
THE PROCESS OF DIRECTING AND INFLUENCING THE TASK-RELATED ACTIVITIES OF GROUP MEMBERS.
FIRST, LEADERSHIP INVOLVES OTHER PEOPLE – EMPLOYEES OR FOLLOWERS. BY THEIR WILLINGNESS TO ACCEPT DIRECTIONS FROM THE LEADER, GROUP MEMBERS HELP DEFINE THE LEADER’S STATUS AND MAKE THE LEADERSHIP PROCESS POSSIBLE; WITHOUT PEOPLE TO LEAD, ALL THE LEADERSHIP QUALITIES OF A MANAGER WOULD BE IRRELEVANT.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 54
SECOND, LEADERSHIP INVOLVES AND UNEQUAL
DISTRIBUTION OF POWER BETWEEN LEADERS AND GROUP
MEMBERS. GROUP MEMBERS ARE NOT POWERLESS; THEY
CAN AND DOSHAPE GROUP ACTIVITIES IN A NUMBER OF
WAYS.
A THIRD ASPECT OF LEADERSHIP IS THE ABILITY TO USE THE
DIFFERENT FORMS OF POWER TO INFLUENCE
FOLLOWERS’ BEHAVIORS IN A NUMBER OF WAYS. INDEED,
LEADERS HAVE INFLUENCED SOLDIERS TO KILL AND
LEADERS HAVE INFLUENCED EMPLOYEES TO MAKE
PERSONAL SACRIFICES FOR THE GOOD OF THE COMPANY.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 55
FOURTH ASPECT COMBINES THE FIRST
THREE AND ACKNOWLEDGES THAT
LEADERSHIP IS ABOUT VALUES. MORAL
LEADERSHIP CONCERNS VALUES AND
REQUIRES THAT FOLLOWERS BE GIVEN
ENOUGH KNOWLEDGE OF ALTERNATIVES
TO MAKE INTELLIGENT CHOICES WHEN IT
COMES TIME TO RESPOND TO A LEADER’S
PROPOSAL TO LEAD.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 56
INGREDIENTS OF LEADERSHIP
1. THE ABILITY TO USE POWER EFFECTIVELY AND IN
A RESPONSIBLE MANNER,
2. THE ABILITY TO COMPREHEND THAT HUMAN
BEINGS HAVE DIFFERENT MOTIVATION
FORCES AT DIFFERENT TIMES AND IN DIFFERENT
SITUATIONS
3. THE ABILITY TO INSPIRE, AND
4. THE ABILITY TO ACT IN A MANNER THAT WILL
DEVELOP A CLIMATE CONDUCIVE TO
RESPONDING
TO AND AROUSING MOTIVATIONS.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 57
LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS
THE GROUP-MAINTENANCE AND TASK-RELATED
ACTIVITIES THAT MUST BE PERFORMED BY THE
LEADER, OR SOMEONE ELSE, FOR A GROUP TO
PERFORM EFFECTIVELY.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
THE VARIOUS PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR FAVORED
BY
LEADERS DURING THE PROCESS OF DIRECTING AND
INFLUENCING WORKERS.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 58
THE TRAIT APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
IN SEARCHING FOR MEASURABLE LEADERSHIP
TRAITS,RESEARCHERS HAVE TAKEN TWO
APPROACHES COMPARING THE TRAITS OF THOSE
WHO HAVE EMERGED AS LEADERS WITH THE
TRAITS OF THOSE WHOHAVE NOT; AND (2)
COMPARING THE TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE
LEADERS WITH THOSE OF INEFFECTIVE LEADERS.
• LEADERS AND NONLEADERS
• EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE LEADERS
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 59
LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND STYLES
1. LEADERSHIP BASED ON THE USE OF AUTHORITY,
2. LIKERT’S FOUR SYSTEMS OF MANAGING,
3. THE MANAGERIAL GRID, AND
4. LEADERSHIP INVOLVING A VARIETY OF STYLES,
RANGING FROM A MAXIMUM TO A MINIMUM USE
OF POWER AND INFLUENCE.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 60
AUTOCRATIC LEADER
FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER
DEMOCRATICOR
PARTICIPATIVE LEADER
FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER
FREE-REINLEADER
FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER
THE FLOW OF INFLUENCE WITH THREE LEADERSHIP STYLES
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 61
MANAGERIAL GRID
DEVELOPED SOME YEARS AGO BY ROBERT BLAKE AND JANE
MOUTON.
GRID DIMENSIONS
THE GRID HAS TWO DIMENSIONS: CONCERN FOR PEPOLE AND
CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 62
FOUR EXTREME STYLES
1.1 STYLE (REFERRED TO AS “IMPOVERISHED
MANAGEMENT”)
9.9 MANAGERS – TEAM MANAGERS
1.9 MANAGEMENT (CALLED “COUNTRY CLUB
MANAGEMENT” BY SOME)
9.1 MANAGERS (SOMETIMES REFERRED TO
“AUTOCRATIC TASK MANAGERS”)
5.5 MANAGERS AUTOCRATIC ATTITUDE TOWARD
PEOPLE
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 63
The Management Grid
9-
8-
7-
6-
5-
4-
3-
2-
1-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1,1Impoverished managementExertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership.
9,1Authority-obedienceEfficiency in operations resultsFrom arranging conditions ofWork in such a way that humanElements interfere to a minimum degree.
5.5Organization man managementAdequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.
1,9Country club managementThoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relation-ships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmos-phere and work tempo.
9,9Team managementWork accomplishment is from committed people, interdepen-dence through a “common stake” in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 64
FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
FRED E. FIEDLER AND HIS ASSOCIATES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
ILLINOIS HAVE SUGGESTED A CONTINGENCY THEORY OF
LEADERSHIP. THE THEORY HOLDS THAT PEOPLE BECOME LEADERS
NOT ONLY BECAUSE OF THE ATTRIBUTES OF THEIR PERSONALITIES
BUT ALSO BECAUSE OF VARIOUS SITUATIONAL FACTORS AND THE
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN LEADERS AND GROUP MEMBERS.
CRITICAL DIMENSIONS OF THE LEADERSHIP SITUATION
1. POSITION POWER
2. TASK STRUCTURE
3. LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS
LEADERSHIP STYLES
FAVORABLENESS OF SITUATION
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 65
PATH-GOAL MODEL
A LEADERSHIP THEORY EMPHASIZING THE LEADER’S
ROLE IN CLARIFYING FOR SUBORDINATES HOW THEY
CAN ACHIEVE HIGH PERFORMANCE AND ITS ASSOCIATED
REWARDS.
A PATH-GOAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 66
PATH-GOAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS
THE PATH-GOAL THEORY SUGGESTS THAT THE MAIN FUNCTION OF
THE LEADER IS TO CLARIFY AND SET GOALS WITH SUBORDINATES,
HELP THEM FIND THE BEST PATH FOR ACHIEVING THE GOALS,AND
REMOVE OBSTACLES.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP SHOULD
INCLUDE:
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBORDINATES, SUCH AS THEIR NEEDS,
SELF-CONFIDENCE, AND ABILITIES; AND
2. THE WORK ENVIORNMENT, INCLUDING SUCH COMPONENTS AS
THE TASK, THE REWARD SYSTEM, AND THE RELATIONSHIP WITH
COWORKERS.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 67
CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
CONTINGENCY APPROACHTHE VIEW THAT THE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE THAT BEST CONTRIBUTES TO THE ATTAINMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS MIGHT VARY IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SITUATIONS OR CIRCUMSTANCES.
SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODELAN APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP DEVELOPED BY HERSEYAND BLANCHARD THAT DESCRIBES HOW LEADERSSHOULD ADJUST THEIR LEADERSHIP STYLE IN RESPONSETO THEIR SUBORDINATES’ EVOLVING DESIRE FORACHIEVEMENT, EXPERIENCE, ABILITY, AND WILLINGNESSTO ACCEPT RESPONSIBILITY.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 68
LEADERSHIP STYLE AND THE WORK SITUATION: THE FIEDLER MODEL
LEAST PREFERRED CO-WORKER (LPC)
FIEDLER’S MEASURING INSTRUMENT FOR LOCATING A
MANAGER ON THE LEADERSHIP-STYLE CONTINUUM.
LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS
THE QUALITY OF THE INTERACTION BETWEEN A LEADER
AND HIS OR HER EMPLOYEES; ACCORDING TO FIEDLER,
THE MOST IMPORTANT INFLUENCE ON THE MANAGER’S
POWER.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 69
TASK STRUCTURE
A WORK SITUATION VARIABLE THAT, ACCORDING TO
FIEDLER, HELPS DETERMINE A MANAGER’S POWER. IN
STRUCTURED TASKS, MANAGERS AUTOMATICALLY
HAVE HIGH POWER; IN UNSTRUCTURED TASKS, THEIR
POWERIS DIMINISHED.
POSITION POWER
THE POWER, ACCORDING TO FIEDLER, THAT IS
INHERENT IN THE FORMAL POSITION THE LEADER
HOLDS. THIS POWER MAY BE GREAT OR SMALL,
DEPENDING ON THESPECIFIC POSITION.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 70
THE FUTURE OF LEADERSHIP THEORY
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS
LEADERS WHO DETERMINE WHAT SUBORDINATES NEED
TO DO TO ACHIEVE OBJECTIVES, CLASSIFY THOSE
REQUIREMENTS, AND HELP SUBORDINATES BECOME
CONFIDENT THEY CAN REACH THEIR OBJECTIVES.
TRANSFORMED LEADERS
LEADERS WHO, THROUGH THEIR PERSONAL VISION AND
ENERGY, INSPIRE FOLLOWERS AND HAVE A MAJOR
IMPACT ON THEIR ORGANIZATINOS; ALSO CALLED
CHARISMATIC LEADERS.
AIMA-PGCM-GM11 71
A CHARISMATIC LEADER
OCCASIONALLY A LEADER EMERGES WHOSE HIGH
VISIBILITY AND PERSONAL CHARISMA CATCHES THE
PUBLIC CONSCIOUSNESS. NOW-RETIRED AUTO-
INDUSTRY EXECUTIVE LEE LACOCCA, WHO LED
CHRYSLER CORPORATION BACK FROM THE EDGE OF
BANKRUPTCY, ENGENDERED CONSIDERABLE PUBLIC
RECOGNITION AND SUPPORT.
ATTITUDESATTITUDES
ATTITUDESATTITUDES
EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS OR JUDGMENTS
CONCERNING OBJECTS, PEOPLE, OR
EVENTS.
COGNITIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDECOGNITIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE
THE OPINION OR BELIEF SEGMENT OF AN
ATTITUDE.
AFFECTIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDEAFFECTIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE
THE EMOTIONAL OR FEELING SEGMENT OF AN
ATTITUDE.
BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDEBEHAVIORAL COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE
AN INTENTION TO BEHAVE IN A CERTAIN WAY
TOWARD SOMEONE OR SOMETHING.
TYPES OF ATTITUDETYPES OF ATTITUDE
A PERSON CAN HAVE THOUSANDS OF ATTITUDES, BUT
OB FOCUSES OUR ATTENTION ON A VERY LIMITED
NUMBER OF JOB-RELATED ATTITUDES. THESE JOB-
RELATED ATTITUDES TAP POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE
EVALUATIONS THAT EMPLOYEES HOLD ABOUT ASPECTS
OF THEIR WORK ENVIRONMENT. MOST OF THE
RESEARCH IN OB HAS BEEN CONCERNED WITH THREE
ATTITUDES: JOB SATISFACTION, JOB INVOLVEMENT,
AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT.
JOB SATISFACTIONJOB SATISFACTION
THE TERM JOB SATISFACTION REFERS TO AN
INDIVIDUAL’S GENERAL ATTITUDE TOWARD HIS
OR HER JOB. A PERSON WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF JOB
SATISFACTION HOLDS POSITIVE ATTITUDES TOWARD THE JOB; A
PERSON WHO IS DISSATISFIED WITH HIS OR HER JOB HOLDS
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES ABOUT THE JOB.
JOB INVOLVEMENTJOB INVOLVEMENT
THE DEGREE TO WHICH A PERSON IDENTIFIES WITH
HIS OR HER JOB, ACTIVELY PARTICIPATES IN IT, AND
CONSIDERS HIS OR HER PERFORMANCE IMPORTANT
TO SELF-WORTH.
EMPLOYEES WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF JOB INVOLVEMENT
STRONGLY IDENTIFY WITH AND REALLY CARE ABOUT
THE KIND OF WORK THEY DO. HIGH LEVELS OF JOB
INVOLVEMENT HAVE BEEN FOUND TO BE RELATED TO
FEWER ABSENCES AND LOWER RESIGNATION RATES.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENTORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
THE DEGREE TO WHICH AN EMPLOYEE
IDENTIFIES WITH A PARTICULAR ORGANIZATION
AND ITS GOALS,
AND WISHES TO MAINTAIN MEMBERSHIP IN THE
ORGANIZATION.
SO HIGH JOB INVOLVEMENT MEANS
IDENTIFYING WITH
ONE’S SPECIFIC JOB; HIGH ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMITMENT MEANS IDENTIFYING WITH
ONE’S
EMPLOYING ORGANIZATION.
MODELS OF ATTITUDEMODELS OF ATTITUDE
• COGNITIVE MODEL
• OBJECT MODEL
• BEHAVIOUR MODEL
• PERFORMANCE MODEL
ATTITUDE FORMATIONATTITUDE FORMATION
• CLASSICAL ATTITUDE FORMATION
• INSTRUMENT OR OPERANT ATTITUDE FORMATION
• COGNITIVE ATTITUDE FORMATION
ATTITUDE CHANGEATTITUDE CHANGE
• CHANGING MOTIVES OF EMPLOYEES
• ADMIRING EMPLOYEES
• COMPARING CONFLICTING ATTITUDES
• CHANGING THE BELIEFS
““HAPPY EMPLOYEE IS A PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEE”HAPPY EMPLOYEE IS A PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEE”
Job satisfaction can be defined as the extent of positive feelings or
attitudes that individuals have towards their jobs. When a person
says that he has high job satisfaction, it means that he really likes
his job, feels good about it and values his job highly.
WHAT DETERMINES JOB SATISFACTION? WHAT DETERMINES JOB SATISFACTION?
• Mentally challenging work.
• Equitable rewards.
• Supportive working conditions.
• Supportive colleagues
• Don’t forget the personality – Job fit.
SOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTIONSOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTION
1. Organizational factors.
2. Work environmental factors.
3. Factors related to work itself.
4. Personal factors.
1.1. ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS
• Salaries and wages
• Promotions
• Company policies
2.2. WORK ENVIRONMENTWORK ENVIRONMENT
• Supervisory style
• Work group
• Working conditions
3.3. WORK ITSELFWORK ITSELF
The job content has two aspects. One is the “job scope” that
involves the amount of responsibility. The second aspect is
variety. It has been found that a moderate amount of variety
is most effective.
4.4. PERSONAL FACTORSPERSONAL FACTORS
THE EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION THE EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCEON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
• Satisfaction and Productivity
• Satisfaction and Absenteeism
• Satisfaction and Turnover
HOW EMPLOYEES CAN EXPRESS DISSATISFACTIONHOW EMPLOYEES CAN EXPRESS DISSATISFACTION
Active
Passive
Destructive Constructive
EXIT VOICE
NEGLECT LOYALTY
Responses to Job DissatisfactionResponses to Job Dissatisfaction
ExitExitDissatisfaction expressed through behavior directed toward leaving the organization.
VoiceVoiceDissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts to improve conditions.
LoyaltyLoyaltyDissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve.
NeglectNeglectDissatisfaction expressed through allowing conditions to worsen.
CONSEQUENCES OF JOB DISSATISFACTIONCONSEQUENCES OF JOB DISSATISFACTION
• Employee unrest
• Absenteeism
• Tardiness
• Employee turnover
• Union activity
• Early retirement
• A job satisfaction
PERCEPTION
Chronological Development of Law
Notion
Perception
Conception
Assumption
Theory
Law
PERCEPTIONPERCEPTION
• A PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS ORGANIZE
AND INTERPRET THEIR SENSORY IMPRESSION IN
ORDER TO GIVE MEANING TO THEIR
ENVIRONMENT
Perception• Perception
– The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting environmental information.
– Based on internal factors (e.g., personality) and external factors (e.g., accuracy of information).
– Self-esteem describes how individuals perceive themselves.
Factors in the perceiver• Attitudes• Motives• Interests • Experience• Expectations
Perception
Factors in the target• Novelty• Motion• Sounds• Size• Background• Proximity
Factors in the situation• Time• Work setting• Social setting
Factors that Influence PerceptionFactors that Influence Perception
THE PERCEIVERTHE PERCEIVER• WHEN AN INDIVIDUAL LOOKS AT A TARGET
AND ATTEMPTS TO INTERPRET WHAT HE OR SHE SEES, THAT INTERPRETATION IS HEAVILY INFLUENCED BY PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PERCEIVER.
• A MAJOR REASON IS THAT THEY HOLD
DIVERGENT ATTITUDES CONCERNING LARGE
CLASSES.
• UNSATISFIED NEEDS OR MOTIVES STIMULATE
INDIVIDUALS AND MAY EXERT A STRONG
INFLUENCE
ON THEIR PERCEPTIONS.
• THE FOCUS OF OUR ATTENTION APPEARS TO
BE INFLUENCED BY OUR INTERESTS.
• EXPECTATIONS CAN DISTORT YOUR
PERCEPTIONS IN THAT YOU WILL SEE WHAT
YOU EXPECT TO SEE.
THE TARGETTHE TARGET•CHARACTERISTICS IN THE TARGET THAT IS BEING OBSERVED CAN AFFECT WHAT IS PERCEIVED.• BECAUSE TARGETS ARE NOT LOOKED AT IN ISOLATION.• THE RELATIONSHIP OF A TARGET TO ITS BACKGROUND INFLUENCES PERCEPTION, AS DOES OUR TENDENCY TO GROUP CLOSE THINGS AND SIMILAR THINGS TOGETHER
THE SITUATIONTHE SITUATION• THE CONTEXT IN WHICH WE SEE OBJECTS OR
EVENTS IS IMPORTANT. ELEMENTS IN THE SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCE OUR PERCEPTIONS.
• THE TIME AT WHICH AN OBJECT OR EVENT IS SEEN CAN INFLUENCE
ATTENTION, AS CAN LOCATION, LIGHT, HEAT, OR ANY NUMBER OF SITUATIONAL FACTORS.
Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others
Attribution theory
This theory has been proposed to develop explanations of the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behavior.
Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.
Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others,
Determinants:
1. Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.
2. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
3. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Determinants:
1. Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.
2. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
3. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Attribution Theory
Errors and Biases in Attributions
Errors and Biases in Attributions
BARRIERS TO PERCEPTUAL BARRIERS TO PERCEPTUAL ACCURACYACCURACY
Selective Perception
• People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
Halo Effect
• Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic.
Selective Perception
• People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
Contrast Effects
• Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.
Projection
• Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.
Stereotyping
• Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group
to which that person belongs.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
• When one person inaccurately perceives a second person and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception.
Overcoming Biases• Don’t overlook external causes of
others’ behavior• Identify and confront your
stereotypes• Evaluate people based on objective
factors• Avoid making rash judgments
SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS
• EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW
• PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS
• PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
• EMPLOYEE EFFORT
• EMPLOYEE LOYALTY
Specific Applications of Shortcuts in Organization
• Employment Interview– Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of
interviewers’ judgments of applicants.• Performance Expectations
– Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.
• Performance Evaluations– Appraisals are subjective perceptions of
performance.
• Employee Effort– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective
judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.
• Employee Loyalty– Employee support towards the organization.
• Whistle-Blowers– Individuals who report unethical practices by
their employer to outsiders.
Motivation• The willingness to exert high
levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.
Need
• Some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive
Work Motivation: The psychological forces that
determine the direction of a person’s behavior in an organization, a person’s level of effort, and a person’s level of persistence.
Work Motivation
• Direction of Behavior - Which behaviors does a person choose to perform in an organization?
• Level of Effort - How hard does a person work to perform a chosen behavior? (Arousal)
Work Motivation
• Level of Persistence - When faced with obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls, how hard does a person keep trying to perform a chosen behavior successfully? (Maintaining)
Early Theories of Motivation
Need-Based Theories of Motivation
The basic premise of need theories is that humans are motivated primarily by deficiencies in one or more important needs or need categories.
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s.
• Maslow believed that people have an innate desire to satisfy a given set of needs.
• Maslow believed that these needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, with the most basic needs at the foundation of the hierarchy.
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow believed that each need level must be satisfied before the level above it becomes important.
• The escalation up the hierarchy continues until the self-actualization needs become the primary motivators.
The Hierarchy of Needs
Self-
actualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Physiological
Security
• Lower Order Needs: Needs that are satisfied externally;
physiological and safety needs.
Higher Order Needs:Needs that are satisfied internally;
social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
The Hierarchy of Needs• Physiological Needs:
Adequate wages, ventilation, and comfortable temperatures and working conditions are measures taken to satisfy this most basic level of need.
• Security Needs:Security needs can be satisfied by such things as job
continuity, a grievance system, and an adequate insurance and retirement system.
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Affiliation Needs– Managers can help satisfy these needs by
fostering a sense of group identity and interaction among employees.
• Esteem Needs– These needs are met at least partially by job
titles, choice offices, merit pay increases, awards, and other forms of recognition.
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Self-Actualization Needs
– The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.
– Achieved when people meet their full potential.
– These needs are the hardest to understand and the most difficult to satisfy.
ERG Theory
–Represents an extension and refinement of the need hierarchy theory by Clayton Alderfer.
–The ERG theory describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs.
Existence
Concerned with providing our basic
material existence requirements. It
includes the items that Maslow considered
physiological and safety needs.
Relatedness
The desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. The social and status desires require interaction with others if they are re-satisfied and they align with Maslow’s social need and external component of Maslow’s esteem classification.
Growth
An intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow’s esteemed category and the characteristics included self-actualization.
ERG theory
–The ERG theory suggests that if people become frustrated trying to satisfy one set of needs, they will regress back to the previously satisfied set of needs.
How does ERG Theory differ from Maslow’s
In contrast to hierarchy of need theory, the ERG Theory demonstrates:
1. More than one need may be operative at the same time.
2. If the gratification of higher level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy lower-level need increases.
The Dual-Structure Theory (Motivation –Hygiene Theory)
• Developed by Frederick Herzberg• Herzberg conceptualized motivation as a
dual structure phenomenon consisting of motivation factors and hygiene factors.
–Motivation factors are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition. These factors cause motivation and satisfaction.
The Dual-Structure Theory
• Motivation and hygiene factors (continued)– Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself and
include factors such as pay and job security. – These factors do not necessarily lead to
satisfaction. If inadequate, however, these factors can lead to dissatisfaction.
The Dual-Structure Theory
Motivation Factors Hygiene Factors
- Achievement
- Recognition
- The work itself
- Responsibility
- Advancement
- Supervision
- Working Conditions
- Pay and Job Security
- Company Policies
- Relationships
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Achievement power, and affiliation are three
important needs that help to understand motivation.
Learned Needs Theory (nAch)
• Most frequently associated with the work of David McClelland.– Need for Achievement (nAch)– Need for Affiliation (nAff)– Need for Power (nPow)
The Need for Achievement
• The need for achievement is the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than in the past.
The Need for Affiliation
• The need for human companionship.• Individuals with a high need for affiliation
tend to want reassurance and approval from others and usually are genuinely concerned about others’ feelings.
• People with a high need for affiliation often work in jobs with a lot of interpersonal contact.
The Need for Power
• The desire to control the resources in one’s environment.
• People with a high need for power can be successful managers if three conditions are met:– They must seek power for the betterment of the
organization rather than for their own interests.
The Need for Power
• Three Conditions (continued)– They must have a fairly low need for affiliation
(fulfilling a personal need for power may well alienate others in the workplace).
– They need plenty of self-control to curb their desire for power when it threatens to interfere with effective organizational or interpersonal relationships.
Equity Theory
A process theory about work motivation that focuses on workers’ perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes and inputs.
Equity Theory
According to equity theory, what is important to motivation is the way a worker perceives his or her outcome / input ratio compared to that of another person.
Outcome / input ratio
Outcome / input ratio is the relationship between
what a worker gets from a job and what the worker
contributes to the job.
Two Basic Types of Inequity
Overpayment inequity exists when a person perceives that their outcome / input ratio is greater than the ratio of the referent.
Underpayment inequity exists when a person perceives that their outcome / input ratio is less than the ratio of the referent.
Four referent comparisons an employee can use:
• Self-inside
• Self-outside
• Other-inside
• Other-outside
Employee perceive an inequity Employee perceive an inequity they can be predictedthey can be predicted
• Change their inputs• Change their outcomes• Distort perceptions of self• Distort perceptions of others• Choose a different referent• Leave the field
Ways to Restore Equity
• Workers change their inputs or outcomes.
• Workers change the referents’ inputs or outcomes.
• Workers change their perceptions of inputs and outcomes.
• Workers change the referent.
• Workers leave the job or organization or force the referent to leave.
Expectancy Theory
• A process theory about work motivation that focuses on how workers make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of effort.
• The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Theory focuses on three relationships
1. Effort-performance relationship
2. Performance-reward relationship
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
Expectancy Theory
Individual Individual Organizational Personaleffort performance rewards goals
1. Effort-performance relationship
2. Performance-reward relationship
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
Expectancy Theory - Key Terms
• Valence: the desirability of an outcome to an individual.
• Instrumentality: a perception about the extent to which performance of one or more behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome.
• Expectancy: a perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance.
Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal-Setting Theory suggests that an individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior.
• Developed by Locke and Latham.
Components of Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal Difficulty– The extent to which a goal is challenging and requires
effort.– Difficult, yet realistic, goals are typically the most
effective.
• Goal Specificity– The clarity and precision of a goal.– Specific, rather than vague, goals are typically the most
effective.
Components of Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal Acceptance– The extent to which a person accepts a goal as his
or her own.
• Goal Commitment– The extent to which a person is personally
interested in reaching a goal.
Reinforcement Theory
• In Reinforcement Theory we have a behavioristic
approach which argues that reinforcement
conditions behavior.
• Behavior is being environmentally caused.
• Theory ignores the inner state of individual and
constraint solely on what happens to a person when
he or she takes some action.
Theory Theory XX Theory Theory YY
• Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings: one basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically positive, labeled Theory Y.
• After viewing the way in which managers dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior toward subordinates according to these assumptions.
Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers:Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers:
1. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will
attempt to avoid it.
2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
3. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction
whenever possible.
4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with
work and will display little ambition.
McGregor listed four positive assumptions, which McGregor listed four positive assumptions, which
he called Theory Y:he called Theory Y:
1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are
committed to the objectives.
3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
4. The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed
throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province
of those in management positions.
