Origins of the Vietnam War

Before the Second World War Vietnam was ruled by France, during the war the region was conquered by the Japanese. They ruled the area brutally and treated the Vietnamese savagely. As a result a strong anti-Japanese movement called the Viet Minh emerged under the leadership of communists Ho Chi Minh and Vo Nguyen Gap. He had studied communism in the USSR during the 1920’s. In 1930 he had founded the Indochinese communist party. He inspired the Vietnamese people to fight for an independent Vietnam. At the end of the Second World War the Viet Minh controlled the North of the country. The Viet Minh entered the city of Hanoi in 1945 and declared the Vietnamese independent.

Fighting the French

Timeline of early events:

1945- Ho Chi Minh declares Vietnam independent and Democratic.

1946- First major confrontation between the Vietminh and the French. (Haipong) 6000 Vietnamese dead, only 29 French dead. Fighting intensified over the next 8 years, cruelty on both sides. Guerrilla tactics took place mainly at night, Vietminh had control of the Countryside the French had control of the cities.

1949- The Chinese communist party take control in China and their new leader Mao Zedong supported the Vietminh by supplying them with weapons. The USA responded by supporting the French. (They hate Communism.)

1950- The American President Truman gives the French $15 million. $3 billion is given over the next 4 years.

1951- Bigger and stronger attacks on French Strongholds.

1954- The battle of Dien Bien Phu. 13,000 French dead. They surrender and sign an armistice. They leave Vietnam.

The battle of Dien Bien Phu

• November 20th 1953 the first French troops Arrived in Dien Bien Phu.

• Initial successes for the French, 9,000 French and allied troops, and 6 parachute battalions occupied the region.

• Still faced many problems, Dien Bien Phu surrounded by jungle occupied by the Viet Minh.

• January 31st 1954, Viet Minh fired on French troops for the first time.

• March 13th 1954, massive artillery onslaught against a French stronghold, by March 14th the Viet Minh had taken it.

• March 14th, Airstrip so badly damaged by the Viet Minh no plane could land, supplies had to be parachuted in.

• T’ai troops, previously loyal to the French deserted, more strongholds fell. • 5th April, artillery attack on Viet Minh soldiers caught in the open left heavy

casualties. • The Viet Minh advanced slowly and usually countered and French attack, 22nd April

Viet Minh controlled most of the airfield. • May 1st several strong points over run by Viet Minh. • May 7th Giap ordered an all-out attack on French positions; the last position was

captured at nightfall.

Us involvement in Dien Bien Phu

The US secretary of state John Foster Dulles and other members of the Eisenhower administration were shocked by the turn of events at Dien Bien Phu, discussions were held to decide on a course of action. Options included massive conventional air strikes, paratrooper drops and the mining of Haiphong harbour. Eisenhower decided that he would only take action with the help of the British, but Winston Churchill the British Prime Minister refused to be involved in escalating the war. In the end president Eisenhower decided that the situation was too far gone and no action was to be taken to aid the French.

The Geneva agreement- (the armistice formed between France and Vietnam.)

What were the reactions to the Geneva Agreement?

• The Communists were surprised at how much the French had given away. • The North was Left in the hands of the Communists and Ho Chi Minh. • 80,000 communist’s refugees moved to the North of Vietnam.

• The USA were critical of the French, they said they ‘wanted

peace at any price.’ The USA refused to join in any discussions. • It was seen as a defeat for the USA as well as the French. • The USA and the South government refused to sign the agreement. • It seemed like the agreement had tilted the balance of power in favour of the

• France to Grant independence to Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam

• Vietnam to be split into half. Only temporarily by a partition along the 17th parallel

• The strip of land between the two Vietnams will become a demilitarised zone

• Free and democratic elections to be held in 1956 to reunite the North and the South under a single leader.

Geneva Agreement

Communists.

The Elections

No Elections today

• Diem and the Americans were unwilling to take the risk of the communists being elected to rule Vietnam.

• They claimed Ho Chi Minh would rig the elections in the North. • Whoever their reasons and how right they were, their actions were a breach of the

Geneva agreement.

Why was the Geneva agreement so important?

The actions of these anti-communist governments increased opposition to the South Vietnam government amongst ordinary people and amongst influential Buddhist priests. Support amongst ordinary peasants also increased for the communist-led national front for the liberation of South Vietnam, which was set up in December 1960. This movement is also known as the Viet Cong. The Viet Cong included opponents of the South Vietnamese government, and communist Vietnamese form the North. Peasants who did not support the Viet Cong faced intimidation and violence. The Viet Cong also started a Guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese government, using the Ho Chi Minh trail the Viet Cong sent reinforcements to the Guerrilla fighters. By 1962

President Kennedy was sending military personal to fight the Viet Cong. In 1963 and 1964 tensions between North and South had increased, and so had American involvement. 11,500 troops by 1962; 23,000 by the end of 1964. After the assassination of JFK in 1963, his

• Ho Chi Minh was confident that when the free elections were held the communists would win.

• The leader of the south Emperor Ngo Dinh Diem created a republic and placed himself as leader.

• Diem was a nationalist and supported by the Americans.

successor Lyndon Johnson was even more prepared to commit the USA to full scale conflict in Vietnam.

Increasing US involvement

Why did the USA become increasingly involved in

Vietnam?

President Eisenhower and his secretary of state JF Dulles believed that China and the USSR were planning to spread communism throughout Asia. This is known as the Domino theory. If Vietnam fell to Communism; Laos, Cambodia, Burma, Thailand and even India might also fall. The Americans wanted to resist the spread of communism and they believed that Vietnam was the first domino in the row.

A controversial view by some historians is that the USA wanted a war. In 1961, Eisenhower himself had warned that America had developed a powerful, ‘military-industrial complex.’ The government gave huge budgets to military commanders. These budgets were spent on weapons contracts which went to huge corporations. Therefore both the military and big businesses both gained form war. In Eisenhower’s last speech as president he warned the American people not to let these groups become too influential. Some historians believe that this was a factor in

Containment meant stopping the advance of communism wherever it looked like it was gaining ground. For example, the USA supported the French in Vietnam as they thought the Vietnamese were allies of communist China. They also wanted to keep the support of the French against communism in Europe. The Cold war, the soviet domination of Eastern Europe and the Berlin Blockade were also events happening at this time.

Political issues back in the USA also played a role in their involvement in Vietnam. The Americans elect a new president every four years; in the 1950’s and 1960’s for all candidates it was a sure vote winner to talk tough about communism. For example in the 1960 election campaign, John F Kennedy promised to continue the tough policies of President Eisenhower.

Vietnamese Tactics

• They fought a guerrilla war, ambushing US patrols, setting booby traps and landmines, and planting bombs in towns. They mingled in with the peasants, wearing ordinary clothes. The Americans couldn't identify who the enemy was.

• They were supplied with rockets and weapons by China and Russia. They used the Ho Chi Minh Trail - a jungle route through Laos and Cambodia - to supply their armies. The Americans couldn't attack their supply routes without escalating the war.

• Their tactic was "hanging onto the belts" of the Americans - staying so close to the Americans so they could not use air or artillery backup without killing their own men.

What is Guerrilla Warfare?

The basic aim of guerrilla warfare is to avoid a pitched battle with the enemy. The Vietcong used this as they could never hope to defeat the might of US forces in a battle. Their aim was to attack US troops in small groups, and then disappear into the surrounding countryside. The success of guerrilla warfare depended upon the support of local people; to hide the Vietcong, as well as provide food and shelter.

Why Use Guerrilla Warfare?

• To wear Down the Enemy - destroying Moral would result in the USA Leaving Vietnam and the War ending.

• The Vietnamese had seen how successful Guerrilla tactics had been used in China - This was because Emperor Mao had used these exact same tactics to achieve a communist victory in 1949 and they looked to China for direction and guidance because they were trying to achieve the same thing.

• The use of Guerrilla tactics made it impossible for the American to fight back - they deliberately used tactics that made them invisible, they blended into the background as they dressed as civilians and were hard to tell apart from the peasants. They were helped by the Ho Chi Minh Trail and from underground supply lines.

Viet Cong Code of Conduct

Viet Cong tunnel complex: to avoid the worst effects of American air power, the Viet Cong built a vast network of underground tunnels, probably around 240km of them. These tunnels catered for all the needs of the VC, they included weapon stores, sleeping quarters, kitchens and hospitals. They were strongly protected. As well as being difficult to find, they were booby trapped and trip wired at the entrances and throughout the tunnel. There were also wells and blast deflection walls to stop the whole tunnel being affected by a grenade.

Puji Sticks: Sharpened bamboo sticks which were covered in faeces. They were set to hit soldiers or placed in dug-out covered holes underground. These sticks would either kill a solider or lead to a really bad infection and amputation.

Ho Chi Minh Trail: a supply route linking North Vietnam to South Vietnam through neighbouring countries, Laos and Cambodia. It was over 600 miles in length and 50 miles wide. There were also dummy routes to trick American aerial photography. It also ran through dense tropical forests which provide good cover.

AK47: The Viet Cong used the old Fashioned AK47 which was imported from China, although this rifle was less accurate than

the American M16. It was more reliable and easier to maintain in the Vietnamese terrain.

Viet Cong Soldiers: The Viet Cong lived and worked in the villages and were part of the community, by following the code of conduct they won the support of the people. Villagers would hide the Viet Cong. They also targeted South Vietnam government who were unpopular with the people. The Vietcong also managed to get jobs at US camps doing simple tasks like cooking and cleaning.

One officer bitterly wrote: “What’s a civilian? Somebody who works for us during the day and puts on VC pyjamas at night?”

-In early 1965 the VC had about 170,000 soldiers. Government of N Vietnam used conscription to maintain the size of its army. Every year Hanoi sent 100,000 troops to the South

-Fighting for two causes- communism and reunification

-Prepared to accept a heavy body count. They lost between 500,000 and 900,000 in the war

-Knew the terrain

-Won support of the peasants in the south- ‘search and destroy’ alienated them

-Aided by the Soviet Union and China. They had about $2 billion between 1965 and 1968

-VC bases were well hidden and booby traps were successful

-Not everyone in North Vietnam was enthusiastic about the war. There was a traditional hostility between the North and South

-They lacked the air power and military resources of the USA

-The VC recognised that that they were scared of the sheer force of the US and their weaponry

-They lost a lot of their younger generation. They became prepared to die: ‘Born in the North to die in the South’

American Tactics

Chemical Warfare: The aim of Chemical Warfare was to flush the Viet Cong out of hiding in the jungle. Chemical were sprayed throughout the jungle to kill of the foliage so the Viet Cong couldn’t hide anywhere. They were also used to destroy crops to starve the Viet Cong out. The most used chemicals were Agent Orange and Napalm.

Operation Rolling Thunder: Intended to destroy North Vietnam’s supply routes to the VC in the South. They hoped it would starve the VC out of supplies and persuade them to give up. Supposed to last 8 weeks, it lasted 3 years. 8 million tons of bombs dropped between ’65 and ’73, 300 tons for every man, woman and child in Vietnam.

Search and Destroy: Idea of General Westmoreland- the American would Search out and Destroy the Enemy, Westmoreland thought it was really successful since the kill ratio was 1:8 (1 American for every 8 Communists killed). Example- in 1965 in a battle at Ia Drang Valley 1800 VC/Communist forces were killed against 240 US

soldiers before the Communists retreated.

Body Count: Westmoreland was convinced that the war would be won by killing large numbers of the enemy. They would draw out the enemy with ‘bait’ patrols, who would then be reinforced with air strikes and artillery fire, but the Viet Cong took their dead with them it was difficult to know if they were successful and the count was always low.

-Almost unlimited economic resources

-Advanced technology

-Air power

-Theoretically had a vast supply of troops- through conscription and the draft system

-Inexperience of Viet Cong tactics and jungle warfare

-After 1967- majority of troops were not skilled army men- but were men who were drafted in

-Hostility between officers and troops. Many of the soldiers wanted just to survive their one-year duty. Fragging- 1970-71 700 cases of fragging

-Failure to win over the ‘hearts and minds’ of South Vietnamese. Failure in destroying the morale of the North Vietnamese potentially increased their morale.

-Use of marijuana- 1971 5,000 men treated for combat wounds, 20,000 for drug abuse

-US public starts to oppose the war and are not happy with the body count

-Many US soldiers did not feel they were fighting for democracy and didn’t care

-Almost unlimited economic resources

-Advanced technology

-Air power

-Theoretically had a vast supply of troops through conscription and the draft system

-inexperience of Viet Cong tactics and jungle warfare

-After 1967- majority of troops were not skilled army men but were men who were drafted in

-Hostility between officers and troops. Many cases of Fragging 1970-71 there was 700 cases of Fragging

-Many of the soldiers wanted just to survive their one-year duty

-Failure to win over the ‘hearts and minds’ of South Vietnamese. Failure to destroy the morale of the North Vietnamese this potentially increased their morale

-Use of marijuana- 1971 5,000 men treated for combat wounds, 20,000 for drug abuse

-US public starts to oppose the war and are not happy with the body count

-Many US soldiers did not feel they were fighting for democracy and

Life in Vietnam

• Draft- men were conscripted into the Army. Blacks, Hispanics and poor White people made up the Majority. Criticised as racist and unfair. These soldiers weren’t committed to the cause.

• Morale- Soldiers were there because they had to be, they weren’t committed to the war like the Vietnamese. By 1968, soldiers didn’t even have the support of people from home; they were seen as murders, and rapists. There were 503,000 incidents of desertion.

• Psychological- Trained to see the enemy as less than human (easier to kill); the enemy were referred to as gooks. ‘Kill a Gook a day’ was a well-known phrase. Most men only served a year in Vietnam, replacement men ‘Cherries, found it hard to fit in. They also brought danger to themselves and their platoon as they were inexperienced.

• Fragging- there was often hostility between soldier and officers. This lead to solider killing their officers (fragging). 700 officers were killed between 1970-1971.

• Drug abuse- many soldiers turned to drugs to deal with the trauma of war. Marijuana, Heroin and cocaine were used to keep soldier awake on night patrol and to boost morale. 1971- 5,000 soldier treated for combat wounds, 20,000 treated for drug abuse.

US military operations

The My Lai Massacre: May Lai was a small Hamlet in Son my, the assault happened at 8am led by Lieutenant William Calley, the US met no opposition they went into the village and committed a massacre.

Events of My Lai:

• March 1968 a unit of soldiers called Charlie Company were sent on a Search and Destroy mission.

• They were told that Son My was a Vietcong fortress, with 200 guerrillas there. • Leaflets had been dropped to order all non- Viet Cog to flee. • Soldiers were told to destroy all homes, foodstuff and livestock. • The soldiers were told that all villagers would be at market by 7am, many were

under the impression that they had to kill everyone. • Soldiers were told that all the people there were Viet Cong or Viet Cong

sympathisers.

• In 4 hours over 400 civilians were killed, mostly women, children and old men. • No Viet Cong were found, only 3 weapons. • At the time the army considered this a success, and claimed that only 20 civilians

were killed, the rest were Viet Cong. • 1969- 12 months later a letter arrived in offices of 30 politicians, written by Ronald

Ridenhour a US soldier, stating the he had evidence of something ‘Dark and bloody.’ • Life magazine soon published pictures. • September 1969- Lieutenant Calley charged with the Murder of 109 people-

sentenced to 20 years, released in 1974 after serving 3 years. • November 1969- 700,000 anti-war protesters demonstrated, largest in history.

The Tet Offensive: on the 31st January 1968 70,000 communists launched an offensive against the south and the Americans. It was a surprise attack and fought using conventional battles.

• In military terms, the offensive was a disaster for the Viet Cong, 45,000 fighters were killed, and it took them year to recover. It was 3 years until they were able to launch another attack.

• Experienced leaders and fighters were killed and could not be replaced. • Whilst they might have lost, they met at least one of their aims, with the help of

American media; the American people saw the war as pointless, one that couldn’t be won.

• The news showed guerrilla fighters, fighting in the grounds of the US embassy. • An American journalist when he saw it commented ‘What the hell is going on, I

thought we were winning this war.’ • Johnson commented that if he had lost the support of the journalists then he had

definitely lost the support of the ordinary American.

• The execution of a Viet Cong fighter shown on American television.

Vietnam in the Media

• Initially the media supported the Vietnam War, the relationship between the government, the army and the press was good. Journalists were even allowed to visit Vietnam and report on the war through the creation of the MACV, (Military assistance command Vietnam.

• By 1967 improved technology meant that lightweight camera equipment could be taken into Vietnam, and a first-hand account of US brutality could be shown on the news.

• Walter Cronkite a famous TV reporter declared the war as ‘unwinnable’ after the Tet Offensive- this shaped many people views.

• Daniel Hallin wrote- that the media brought the ‘horror of the war’ night after night into people’s homes. He also argued that any war publicised without restriction through the media would lose public support.

• People claimed that the media crippled the war effort. However… attitudes in America were changing anyway

• The media only reflected changed in people’s attitudes not created them. • Casualties were the main reason why support dropped. • Shocking scenes were rarely seen through television. Less than 25% of reports

showed the dead or injured • In a sample of 800 news reports, only 16% held criticism from journalists, the

majority were from the public and officials.

Protest: Types of protest

• Sit in’s • University lectures gave teach in’s against

the war. • Marches and demonstrations, poster and

slogans. • Burning the draft and draft dodgers, in

1969 there were 34,000 draft dodgers wanted by the police.

Civil rights campaigns

• The war demonstrated the inequality faced by African Americans.

• Lyndon B Johnson promised to create a ‘Great society’- better living standards and healthcare. Due to the never ending cost of war he was unable to deliver these promises.

• 30% of African Americans were drafted compared to 19% of white Americans. • 22% of all US casualties were black, even though they only made up 11% of the

army. Muhammad Ali- “No, I am not going 10,000 miles to help murder kill and burn other people to simply help continue the domination of white slave masters over dark people the world over. This is the day and age when such evil injustice must come to an end."

• Ali was sentenced to five years imprisonment and a $10,000 fine, as well as being stripped of his world heavy

weight title.

Kent State university protest

• By 1969 250,000 people had protested against the Vietnam War.

• In 1970 the Kent state university protest took place, where students protesting were shot.

• On 2nd May 1970 over 800 students protested over what they saw as an escalation of the war in Vietnam, with the invasion of Cambodia.

• National guardsmen were brought in to deal with the protest. • The students were told that they weren’t allowed to group together, a skirmish

broke out between some students and the guardsmen. The guardsmen fired some Gas cylinders into the crowd of guardsmen.

• The guardsmen became encircled and started to retreat. As the students continued to get closer to them they fired at them.

The Aftermath…

• 4 students were killed and 10 others wounded. • The Governor of Ohio had called them ‘communists’, other people claimed they

were nothing of the sort. • It sparked widespread protest against the war and what many called a massacre. • All the protests put extra pressure on the US to find a peaceful way out of Vietnam.

Paris Peace talks

• Peace talks begin in 1968 in Paris. • January 1969, President Johnson is replaced by Nixon who promises to bring an end

to the war as soon as possible. • January 1969 North Vietnam demand that there should be a complete withdrawal of

US troops from Vietnam, a return to the Geneva agreement of 1954. The south should be left alone and reunification of Vietnam without any foreign interference.

• June 1969 Nixon announces the withdrawal of 25,000 troops from Vietnam- the policy of Vietnamisation.

• April 1970 further 150,000 US troops leave Vietnam. • March 1970 Nixon ordered ‘friendly’ invasion of Cambodia to drive the NVA (North

Vietnamese army) out of hiding. • End of 1971, US army had withdrawn 400,000 troops from Vietnam- only 140,000

remained (the rest he promised would leave by 1972). • 30 March 1972 war erupted in Vietnam when the NVA led a massive invasion on the

South using Soviet tanks. • April 1972 Nixon responded by ordering the air-force to bomb north Vietnam- this

devastated much of the North’s infrastructure, aiming to persuade the North to give in to the negotiations in Paris.

• December 1972 (after months of bombing) there was a breakthrough at the Paris Peace Talks- the talks stalled.

• December 1972- after the stalling of further talks, Nixon organises the largest bombing campaign of North Vietnam in the entire war. Over 36,000 tonnes of bombs were dropped in days causing enormous damage.

• January 1973- the bombing worked, the North agreed to further peace talks.

• 27 January 1973 Peace is agreed between the USA and North Vietnam.

What was decided?

Exam Practice

Typical 4 mark questions –

• What was the Vietcong? • What was the Tet Offensive? • What was the domino theory? • What military tactics did America use in the Vietnam War? • Describe American involvement in Vietnam up to 1963.

Typical 6 mark questions -

• Why were American methods to defeat the VC unsuccessful? (6) • Explain why the Vietcong was an effective fighting force. (6) • Why did the Vietnam War become increasingly unsuccessful in America? (6) • Explain why US involvement increased from 1954 to 1964 (6)

Typical 10 mark questions –

• Why did America withdraw from Vietnam? (10) • The tactics of the USA are the main reason for its failure in Vietnam. How far do you agree?

(10) • Media coverage was more important than protest movements in causing America to

withdraw from Vietnam. How far do you agree? (10)

• Cease fire to take effect of 28 Jan 1973

• US armed forces to completely withdraw

• NVA to remain in the areas of the South they controlled at the time of the ceasefire

• All foreign forces to leave Cambodia and Laos

• Elections aimed at reuniting Vietnam were to be held

• US prisoners of war to be returned to the US

• US would clear all their mines

• North Vietnam would recognise the government of the South

• Ceasefire would be monitored by Commission for Control and Supervision (Canada, Hungary, Poland)