C O N T E N T S

Foreword iii

Why Study History? vii

1. WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? 1

2. ON THE TRAIL OF THE EARLIEST PEOPLE 11

3. FROM GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD 22

4. IN THE EARLIEST CITIES 32

5. WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US 43

6. KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC 54

7. NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS 65

8. ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR 75

9. VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS 87

10. TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS 99

11. NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS 111

12. BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS AND BOOKS 122

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

IN THIS BOOK

• You will find that each chapter is introduced by ayoung girl or a boy.

• Each chapter is divided into sections. Read, discussand understand each section before proceeding tothe next.

• Some chapters contain definitions.

• Many chapters contain a portion from a source,clues from which historians write history. Readthese carefully, and discuss the questions theycontain.

• Many of our sources are visual. Each illustrationhas a story to tell.

• You will also find maps. Look at these and try tolocate the places mentioned in the lessons.

• Many chapters contain boxes with interesting,additional information.

• All chapters end with a section titled Elsewhere.This tells you about something that was happeningin another part of the world.

• At the end of each chapter, you will find a list ofkeywords. These are to remind you of importantideas/ themes introduced in the lesson.

• You will also find some dates listed at the end ofeach chapter.

• In each chapter there are intext questions andactivities that are highlighted. Spend some timediscussing these as you go along.

• And there is a small section titled Imagine. This isyour chance to go back into the past and figure outwhat life would have been like.

• You will also find three kinds of activities listed atthe end of each chapter — Let’s recall, Let’s discuss

Elsewhere

Definitions

Additionalinformation

KEYWORDS

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

Imagine

Let’s recall

Let’s discuss

Let’s do

Source

LOOK OUT FOR THESE

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

1

Rasheeda’s questionRasheeda sat reading the newspaper. Suddenly, her eyesfell on a small headline: “One Hundred Years Ago.” How,she wondered, could anyone know what had happenedso many years ago?

Finding out what happened

Yesterday: you could listen to the radio, watchtelevision, read a newspaper.Last year: ask somebody who remembers.But what about long, long ago? Let us see how itcan be done.

What can we know about the past?There are several things we can find out — whatpeople ate, the kinds of clothes they wore, thehouses in which they lived. We can find out aboutthe lives of hunters, herders, farmers, rulers,merchants, priests, crafts persons, artists,musicians, and scientists. We can also find outabout the games children played, the stories theyheard, the plays they saw, the songs they sang.

Where did people live?

Find the river Narmada on Map 1 (page 2). Peoplehave lived along the banks of this river for severalhundred thousand years. Some of the earliestpeople who lived here were skilled gatherers, —that is, people who gathered their food. They knewabout the vast wealth of plants in the surroundingforests, and collected roots, fruits and other forestproduce for their food. They also hunted animals.

CHAPTER 1

WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN?

WHAT, WHERE, HOWAND WHEN?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

2OUR PASTS–I

Now find the Sulaiman and Kirthar hills to thenorthwest. Some of the areas where women andmen first began to grow crops such as wheat andbarley about 8000 years ago are located here.People also began rearing animals like sheep, goat,and cattle, and lived in villages. Locate the Garohills to the north-east and the Vindhyas in centralIndia. These were some of the other areas where

MAP : 1Physical Map of the Subcontinent

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

3

agriculture developed. The places where rice wasfirst grown are to the north of the Vindhyas.

Trace the river Indus and its tributaries(tributaries are smaller rivers that flow into alarger river). About 4700 years ago, some of theearliest cities flourished on the banks of theserivers. Later, about 2500 years ago, citiesdeveloped on the banks of the Ganga and itstributaries, and along the seacoasts.

Locate the Ganga and its tributary called theSon. In ancient times the area along these riversto the south of the Ganga was known as Magadha.Its rulers were very powerful, and set up a largekingdom. Kingdoms were set up in other parts ofthe country as well.

Throughout, people travelled from one part ofthe subcontinent to another. The hills and highmountains including the Himalayas, deserts, riversand seas made journeys dangerous at times, butnever impossible. So, men and women moved insearch of livelihood, as also to escape from naturaldisasters like floods or droughts. Sometimes menmarched in armies, conquering others’ lands.Besides, merchants travelled with caravans orships, carrying valuable goods from place to place.And religious teachers walked from village tovillage, town to town, stopping to offer instructionand advice on the way. Finally, some peopleperhaps travelled driven by a spirit of adventure,wanting to discover new and exciting places. Allthese led to the sharing of ideas between people.

Why do people travel nowadays?Look at Map 1 once more. Hills, mountains andseas form the natural frontiers of the subcontinent.While it was difficult to cross these frontiers, thosewho wanted could and did scale the mountainsand cross the seas. People from across the frontiersalso came into the subcontinent and settled here.

Facing Page : This is amap of South Asia(including the presentcountries of India,Pakistan, Bangladesh,Nepal, Bhutan and SriLanka) and theneighbouring countries ofAfghanistan, Iran, Chinaand Myanmar. South Asiais often called asubcontinent becausealthough it is smallerthan a continent, it isvery large, and isseparated from the restof Asia by seas, hills andmountains.

WHAT, WHERE, HOWAND WHEN?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

4OUR PASTS–I

These movements of people enriched our culturaltraditions. People have shared new ways of carvingstone, composing music, and even cooking foodover several hundreds of years.

Names of the land

Two of the words we often use for our country areIndia and Bharat. The word India comes from theIndus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit. Find Iran andGreece in your atlas. The Iranians and the Greekswho came through the northwest about 2500 yearsago and were familiar with the Indus, called it theHindos or the Indos, and the land to the east ofthe river was called India. The name Bharata wasused for a group of people who lived in the north-west, and who are mentioned in the Rigveda, theearliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about3500 years ago). Later it was used for the country.

Finding out about the past

There are several ways of finding out about thepast. One is to search for and read books thatwere written long ago. These are calledmanuscripts, because they were written by hand(this comes from the Latin word ‘manu’, meaninghand). These were usually written on palm leaf,or on the specially prepared bark of a tree knownas the birch, which grows in the Himalayas.

Over the years, many manuscripts were eatenaway by insects, some were destroyed, but many

A page from a palm leafmanuscript.This manuscript waswritten about a thousandyears ago. The palmleaves were cut intopages and tied togetherto make books. To see abirch bark manuscript,turn to page 45.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

5

have survived, often preserved in temples andmonasteries. These books dealt with all kinds ofsubjects: religious beliefs and practices, the livesof kings, medicine and science. Besides, therewere epics, poems, plays. Many of these werewritten in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit(languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil.

We can also study inscriptions. These arewritings on relatively hard surfaces such as stoneor metal. Sometimes, kings got their ordersinscribed so that people could see, read and obeythem. There are other kinds of inscriptions aswell, where men and women (including kings andqueens) recorded what they did. For example,kings often kept records of victories in battle.

Can you think ofthe advantages ofwriting on a hardsurface? And whatcould have beenthe difficulties?

There weremany otherthings that weremade and used inthe past. Thosewho study theseobjects are calledarchaeologists.They study theremains of buildings made of stone and brick,paintings and sculpture. They also explore andexcavate (dig under the surface of the earth) tofind tools, weapons, pots, pans, ornaments andcoins. Some of these objects may be made of stone,others of bone, baked clay or metal. Objects thatare made of hard, imperishable substances usuallysurvive for a long time.

An old inscription.This inscription dates toabout 2250 years ago,and was found inKandahar, present-dayAfghanistan. It waswritten on the ordersof a ruler namedAshoka. You will readabout him in Chapter 8.When we writeanything, we use ascript. Scripts consist ofletters or signs. Whenwe read what iswritten, or speak, weuse a language. Thisinscription was writtenin two different scriptsand languages, Greek(top) and Aramaic(below), which wereused in this area.

WHAT, WHERE HOWAND WHEN?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

6OUR PASTS–I

Left : A pot from an oldcity.Pots like these wereused about 4700 yearsago.Right : An old silver coin.Coins such as this onewere in use from about2500 years ago.In what ways is the coindif ferent from the oneswe use today?

Archaeologists also look for bones — of animals,birds, and fish — to find out what people ate in thepast. Plant remains survive far more rarely — ifseeds of grain or pieces of wood have been burnt,they survive in a charred form. Do you think clothis found frequently by archaeologists?

Historians, that is, scholars who study the past,often use the word source to refer to the informationfound from manuscripts, inscriptions andarchaeology. Once sources are found, learningabout the past becomes an adventure, as wereconstruct it bit by bit. So historians andarchaeologists are like detectives, who use all thesesources like clues to find out about our pasts.

One past or many?

Did you notice the title of this book, Our Pasts?We have used the word ‘pasts’ in plural to drawattention to the fact that the past was different fordifferent groups of people. For example, the livesof herders or farmers were different from those ofkings and queens, the lives of merchants weredifferent from those of crafts persons, and so on.Also, as is true even today, people followeddifferent practices and customs in different parts

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

7

of the country. For example, today most peopleliving in the Andaman Islands get their own foodby fishing, hunting, and collecting forest produce.By contrast, most people living in cities dependon others for supplies of food. Differences suchas these existed in the past as well.

Besides, there is another kind of difference.We know a great deal about kings and the battlesthey fought because they kept records of theirvictories. Generally, ordinary people such ashunters, fishing folk, gatherers, farmers orherders did not keep records of what they did.While archaeology helps us to find out about theirlives, there is much that remains unknown.

What do dates mean?

If somebody asks you the date, you will probablymention the day, month and year, 2000 andsomething. These years are counted from thedate generally assigned to the birth of JesusChrist, the founder of Christianity. So, 2000means 2000 years after the birth of Christ. Alldates before the birth of Christ are countedbackwards and usually have the letters BC (BeforeChrist) added on. In this book, we will refer todates going back from the present, using 2000 asour starting point.

WHAT, WHERE, HOWAND WHEN?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

8OUR PASTS–I

Letters with datesBC, we have seen stands for ‘Before Christ.’

You will sometimes find AD before dates. Thisstands for two Latin words, ‘Anno Domini’, meaning‘in the year of the Lord’ (i.e. Christ). So 2005 canalso be written as AD 2005.

Sometimes CE is used instead of AD and BCEinstead of BC. The letters CE stand for ‘CommonEra’ and BCE for ‘Before Common Era’. We usethese terms because the Christian Era is now usedin most countries of the world. In India we beganusing this form of dating from about two hundredyears ago.

And sometimes, the letters BP meaning ‘BeforePresent’ are used.

Find two dates mentioned on page 3. Which setof letters would you use for them?

ElsewhereWe have seen that inscriptions are written on hard surfaces. Many of thesewere written several hundreds of years ago. All inscriptions contain bothscripts and languages. Languages which were used, as well as scripts,have changed over time. So how do scholars understand what was written?This can be done through a process known as decipherment.

K L I O P A D (T) R A

P T O L M I I S

8OUR PASTS–I

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

9

KEYWORDS

travelling

manuscript

inscription

archaeology

historian

source

decipherment

ImagineYou have to interview an archaeologist. Prepare a listof five questions that you would like to ask her/him.

Let’s recall

1. Match the following:

Narmada Valley The first big kingdom

Magadha Hunting and gathering

Garo hills Cities about 2500years ago

Indus and its tributaries Early agriculture

Ganga Valley The first cities

2. List one major difference between manuscripts andinscriptions.

Let’s discuss

3. Return to Rasheeda’s question. Can you think of someanswers to it?

WHAT, WHERE, HOWAND WHEN?

One of the most famous stories of decipherment comes from Egypt, acountry in north Africa where there were kings and queens about 5000years ago.

Rosetta is a town on the north coast of Egypt, and here an inscribedstone was found, which contained inscriptions in three different languagesand scripts (Greek, and two forms of Egyptian). Scholars who could readGreek figured out that the names of kings and queens were enclosed in alittle frame, called a cartouche. They then placed the Greek and the Egyptiansigns side by side, and identified the sounds for which the Egyptian lettersstood. As you can see, a lion stood for L, and a bird for A. Once they knewwhat the letters stood for, they could read other inscriptions as well.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

10OUR PASTS–I

4. Make a list of all the objects that archaeologists mayfind. Which of these could be made of stone?

5. Why do you think ordinary men and women did notgenerally keep records of what they did?

6. Describe at least two ways in which you think thelives of kings would have been different from thoseof farmers.

Let’s do

7. Find the word crafts persons on page 1. List at leastfive different crafts that you know about today. Arethe crafts persons — (a) men (b) women (c) both menand women?

8. What were the subjects on which books were writtenin the past? Which of these would you like to read?

the beginning ofagriculture (8000years ago)

the f irst cities on theIndus (4700 yearsago)

cities in the Gangavalley, a big kingdomin Magadha (2500years ago)

the present (about2000 AD/CE)

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

11

Tushar’s train journeyTushar was going from Delhi to Chennai for his cousin’swedding. They were travelling by train and he hadmanaged to squeeze into the window seat, his nose gluedto the glass pane. As he watched trees and houses flypast, his uncle tapped his shoulder and said: “Do youknow that trains were first used about 150 years ago,and that people began using buses a few decades later?”Tushar wondered, when people couldn’t travel quicklyfrom one place to another, did they spend their entirelives wherever they were born? Not quite.

The earliest people: why were they on themove?

We know about people who lived in thesubcontinent as early as two million years ago.Today, we describe them as hunter-gatherers. Thename comes from the way in which they got theirfood. Generally, they hunted wild animals, caughtfish and birds, gathered fruits, roots, nuts, seeds,leaves, stalks and eggs. The immense variety ofplants in a tropical land like ours meant thatgathering plant produce was an extremelyimportant means of obtaining food.

None of these things was easy to do. There areseveral animals that run faster than us, manythat are stronger. To hunt animals or catch fishand birds, people need to be alert, quick, andhave lots of presence of mind. To collect plantproduce, you need to find out which plants orparts of plants are edible, that is, can be eaten,as many can be poisonous. You also need to findout about the seasons when the fruits ripen.

ON THE TRAIL OF THE EARLIEST PEOPLECHAPTER 2

ON THE TRAIL OF THEEARLIEST PEOPLE

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

12OUR PASTS–I

List the skills and knowledge that the childrenof these communities had.

Do you have these skills and knowledge?There are at least four reasons why hunter-

gatherers moved from place to place.First, if they had stayed at one place for a long

time, they would have eaten up all the availableplant and animal resources. Therefore, they wouldhave had to go elsewhere in search of food.

Second, animals move from place to place —either in search of smaller prey, or, in the case ofdeer and wild cattle, in search of grass and leaves.That is why those who hunted them had to followtheir movements.

Third, plants and trees bear fruit in differentseasons. So, people may have moved from seasonto season in search of different kinds of plants.

Fourth, people, plants and animals need waterto survive. Water is found in lakes, streams andrivers. While many rivers and lakes are perennial(with water throughout the year) others areseasonal. People living on their banks would havehad to go in search of water during the dry seasons(winter and summer). Besides, people may havetravelled to meet their friends and relatives.Remember, they travelled on foot.

How do you come to school?How long would it take you to walk from your

home to school?How long would it take you if you took a bus or

rode a bicycle?

How do we know about these people?

Archaeologists have found some of the thingshunter-gatherers made and used. It is likely thatpeople made and used tools of stone, wood andbone, of which stone tools have survived best.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

13

Some uses of stone tools are given below. Makea list of what these tools were used for and tryand decide which of these tasks could beperformed using a natural pebble. Give reasonsfor your answer.

Some of these stone tools were used to cut meatand bone, scrape bark (from trees) and hides(animal skins), chop fruit and roots. Some mayhave been attached to handles of bone or wood,to make spears and arrows for hunting. Othertools were used to chop wood, which was used asfirewood. Wood was also used to make huts andtools.

Stone toolsA : These are examplesof the earliest stonetools.B : These were madeseveral thousand yearslater.C : These were madelater still.D : These were madeabout 10,000 years ago.E : These are naturalpebbles.

Stone tools may alsohave been used for :Left : Digging the groundto collect edible roots.Right : Stitching clothesmade out of animal skin.

A

B

C

D

E

ON THE TRAIL OF THEEARLIEST PEOPLE

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

14OUR PASTS–I

Choosing a place to live in

Look at Map 2 below. All the places marked withred triangles are sites from which archaeologistshave found evidence of hunter-gatherers. (Hunter-gatherers lived in many more places. Only someare shown on the map). Many sites were locatednear sources of water, such as rivers and lakes.

MAP : 2Some Important Archaeological Sites

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

15

As stone tools were important, people tried tofind places where good quality stone was easilyavailable. Places where stone was found andwhere people made tools are known as factorysites.

How do we know where these factories were?Usually, we find blocks of stone, tools that weremade and perhaps discarded because they werenot perfect, and chips of waste stone left behindat these sites. Sometimes, people lived here forlonger spells of time. These sites are calledhabitation-cum-factory sites.

If you had to describe the place you live in,which of the terms would you choose?

(a) habitation(b) factory(c) habitation-cum-factory(d) any other

Bhimbetka (in present-day Madhya Pradesh).Some sites, known ashabitation sites, areplaces where peoplelived. These includecaves and rock shelterssuch as the one shownhere. People chose thesenatural caves becausethey provided shelterfrom the rain, heat andwind. Natural caves androck shelters are foundin the Vindhyas and theDeccan plateau. Theserock shelters are closeto the Narmada valley.Can you think of whypeople chose to live here?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

16OUR PASTS–I

Sitesare places where the remains of things (tools, pots,buildings etc.) were found. These were made, usedand left behind by people. These may be found onthe surface of the earth, buried under the earth, orsometimes even under water. You will learn moreabout different sites in later chapters.

Making stone tools

Stone tools were probably made using twodifferent techniques:

1. The first is called stone on stone. Here, thepebble from which the tool was to be made (alsocalled the core) was held in one hand. Anotherstone, which was used as a hammer was held inthe other hand. The second stone was used tostrike off flakes from the first, till the requiredshape was obtained.

2. Pressure flaking: Here the core was placedon a firm surface. The hammer stone was usedon a piece of bone or stone that was placed onthe core, to remove flakes that could be shapedinto tools.

Finding out about fire

Find the Kurnool caves on Map 2 (page14). Tracesof ash have been found here. This suggests thatpeople were familiar with the use of fire. Fire couldhave been used for many things: as a source oflight, to cook meat, and to scare away animals.What do we use fire for today?

A changing environment

Around 12,000 years ago, there were majorchanges in the climate of the world, with a shiftto relatively warm conditions. In many areas, thisled to the development of grasslands. This in turn

How stone tools weremade : one of the twotechniques is shown inthe illustration.Try and identify it. ©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

17

led to an increase in the number of deer, antelope,goat, sheep and cattle, i.e. animals that survivedon grass.

Those who hunted these animals now followedthem, learning about their food habits and theirbreeding seasons. It is likely that this helpedpeople to start thinking about herding and rearingthese animals themselves. Fishing also becameimportant.

This was also a time when several grain bearinggrasses, including wheat, barley and rice grewnaturally in different parts of the subcontinent.Men, women and children probably collectedthese grains as food, and learnt where they grew,and when they ripened. This may have led themto think about growing plants on their own.

Names and datesArchaeologists have given lengthy names for the time that we are studying.They call the earliest period the Palaeolithic. This comes from two Greekwords, ‘palaeo’, meaning old, and ‘lithos’, meaning stone. The name pointsto the importance of finds of stone tools. The Palaeolithic period extendsfrom 2 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago. This long stretch oftime is divided into the Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. This longspan of time covers 99% of human history.

The period when we find environmental changes, beginning about12,000 years ago till about 10,000 years ago is called the Mesolithic (middlestone). Stone tools found during this period are generally tiny, and arecalled microliths. Microliths were probably stuck on to handles of bone orwood to make tools such as saws and sickles. At the same time, oldervarieties of tools continued to be in use.

Look at the illustration on page13. Do you notice any difference in thetools belonging to these periods?

The next stage, from about 10,000 years ago, is known as the Neolithic.You will be learning about the Neolithic in Chapter 3.

What do you think the term Neolithic means?We have also mentioned the name of some places. You will find the

names of many more places in later chapters. Very often, we use present-day names of the places where people lived in the past, because we do notknow what they called them.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

18OUR PASTS–I

Rock paintings and what they tell us

Many of the caves in which these early peoplelived have paintings on the walls. Some of thebest examples are from Madhya Pradesh andsouthern Uttar Pradesh. These paintings

show wild animals, drawn with great accuracyand skill.

Who did what?

We have seen that the earliest people hunted,gathered plant produce, made stone tools, andpainted on cave walls. Is there any way of finding outwhether women hunted, or men made stone tools,whether women painted or men gathered fruits andnuts? At present, we do not really know. However,there are at least two possibilities. It is likely thatboth men and women may have done many of thesethings together. It is also possible that some taskswere done only by women and others only by men.And again, there could have been different practicesin different parts of the subcontinent.

Ostriches in India!Ostriches were found in India during thePalaeolithic period. Large quantities of ostrich eggshells were found at Patne in Maharashtra. Designswere engraved on some pieces, while beads werealso made out of them.

What do you think the beads could have beenused for?

Where do we find ostriches today?

A closer look – Hunsgi

Find Hunsgi on Map 2 (page14). A number of earlyPalaeolithic sites were found here. At some sites,a large number of tools, used for all sorts ofactivities, were found. These were probably

A painting from a rockshelter.Describe the painting.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

19

habitation-cum factory sites. In some of the other,smaller sites, there is evidence to suggest thattools were made. Some of the sites were close tosprings. Most tools were made from limestone,which was locally available.

Can you think of a term for the second type ofsites?

ElsewhereFind France in your atlas. The painting below isfrom a cave in France. This site was discovered byfour school children more than a hundred yearsago. Paintings like this were made between 20,000and 10,000 years ago. Many of these were ofanimals, such as wild horses, aurochs (an older,wild form of cattle), bison, woolly rhinoceros,reindeer and bear, painted in bright colours.

These colours were made from minerals like ochreor iron ore, and charcoal. It is possible that thesepaintings were done on ceremonial occasions. Orperhaps they were made for special rituals, performedby hunters before they went in search of prey?

Can you think of any other reasons?

ON THE TRAIL OF THEEARLIEST PEOPLE

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

20OUR PASTS–I

ImagineYou live in a rock shelter like the one shown on page15about 12,000 years ago. Your uncle is painting one ofthe inner walls of the cave and you want to help him.Will you mix the colours, draw the lines, fill in thecolours? What are the stories he might tell you?

Let’s recall

1. Complete the sentences:

(a) Hunter-gatherers chose to live in caves and rockshelters because ————————.

(b) Grasslands developed around ———————— yearsago.

(c) Early people painted on the ———————— of caves.

(d) In Hunsgi, tools were made of ————————.

2. Look at the present-day political map of thesubcontinent on page 136. Find out the states whereBhimbetka, Hunsgi and Kurnool are located. WouldTushar’s train have passed near any of these sites?

Let’s discuss

3. Why did the hunter-gatherers travel from place toplace? In what ways are these similar to/different fromthe reasons for which we travel today?

4. What tools would you use today for cutting fruit? Whatwould they be made of?

5. List three ways in which hunter-gatherers used fire(see page16). Would you use fire for any of thesepurposes today?

KEYWORDS

hunter-gatherer

site

habitation

factory

Palaeolithic

Mesolithic

microliths

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

21

Let’s do

6. Make two columns in your notebook. In the left handcolumn, list the foods hunter-gatherers ate (see page11). In the right hand column, list some of the foodsyou eat. Do you notice any similarities/differences?

7. If you had a natural pebble like the ones shown onpage 13, what would you use it for?

8. List two tasks that are performed by both men andwomen at present. List another two that are performedonly by women, and two that are performed only bymen. Compare your list with that of any two of yourclassmates. Do you notice any similarities/differencesin your lists?

ON THE TRAIL OF THEEARLIEST PEOPLE

the Mesolithic period

(12,000-10,000 years

ago)

the beginning of the

Neolithic

(10,000 years ago)

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

22OUR PASTS–I

Neinuo’s lunchNeinuo was eating her favourite food — boiled rice,squash, pumpkins, beans and meat. Her grandmotherhad grown the squash, pumpkin and beans in the littlegarden plot at the back of her house. She rememberedthe food had been so different when she had been toMadhya Pradesh as part of a school trip. It was hot andspicy. Why was that so?

Varieties of foods

Today, most of our food such as fruit, vegetables,grain, milk and meat comes from plants that aregrown and animals that are reared. Different plantsgrow in different conditions — rice, for example,requires more water than wheat and barley. Thisexplains why farmers grow some crops in someareas and not in other areas. Different animalstoo, prefer different environments — for instance,sheep and goat can survive more easily than cattlein dry, hilly environments. But, as you saw inChapter 2, women and men did not always producetheir own food.

The beginnings of farming and herding

We have seen in Chapter 2 that the climate of theworld was changing, and so were plants andanimals that people used as food. Men, womenand children probably observed several things: theplaces where edible plants were found, how seedsbroke off stalks, fell on the ground, and new plantssprouted from them. Perhaps they began lookingafter plants — protecting them from birds andanimals so that they could grow and the seedscould ripen. In this way people became farmers.

CHAPTER 3

FROM GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

23

Women, men and children could also attractand then tame animals by leaving food for themnear their shelters. The first animal to be tamedwas the wild ancestor of the dog. Later, peopleencouraged animals that were relatively gentle tocome near the camps where they lived. Theseanimals such as sheep, goat, cattle and also thepig lived in herds, and most of them ate grass.Often, people protected these animals from attacksby other wild animals. This is how they becameherders.

Can you think of any reasons why the dog wasperhaps the first animal to be tamed?

Domesticationis the name given to the process in which people grow plants and lookafter animals. Very often, plants and animals that are tended by peoplebecome different from wild plants and animals. This is because peopleselect plants and animals for domestication. For example, they selectthose plants and animals that are not prone to disease. They also selectplants that yield large-size grain, and have strong stalks, capable ofbearing the weight of the ripe grain. Seeds from selected plants arepreserved and sown to ensure thatnew plants (and seeds) will havethe same qualities.

Amongst animals, those that arerelatively gentle are selected forbreeding. As a result, gradually,domesticated animals and plantsbecome different from wild animalsand plants. For example, the teethand horns of wild animals areusually much larger than those of domesticated animals.

Look at these two sets of teeth. Which do you think belongs to a wildpig and which to a domesticated animal?

Domestication was a gradual process that took place in many parts ofthe world. It began about 12,000 years ago. Virtually all the plant andanimal produce that we use as food today is a result of domestication.Some of the earliest plants to be domesticated were wheat and barley.The earliest domesticated animals include sheep and goat.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

24OUR PASTS–I

A new way of life

If you plant a seed, you will notice that it takessome time to grow. This may be for several days,weeks, months and in some cases years. Whenpeople began growing plants, it meant that theyhad to stay in the same place for a long timelooking after the plants, watering, weeding, drivingaway animals and birds — till the grain ripened.And then, the grain had to be used carefully.

As grain had to be stored for both food andseed, people had to think of ways of storing it. Inmany areas, they began making large clay pots,or wove baskets, or dug pits into the ground. Doyou think hunter-gatherers would have made andused pots? Give reasons for your answer.

‘Storing’ animals

Animals multiply naturally. Besides, if they arelooked after carefully, they provide milk, which isan important source of food, and meat, wheneverrequired. In other words, animals that are rearedcan be used as a ‘store’ of food.

Apart from food, what are the other things thatcould have been obtained from animals?

What are animals used for today?

Finding out about the first farmers andherders

Turn to Map 2 (page14). You will notice a numberof blue squares. Each marks a site from wherearchaeologists have found evidence of earlyfarmers and herders. These are found all over thesubcontinent. Some of the most important onesare in the north-west, in present-day Kashmir,and in east and south India.

To find out whether these sites were settlementsof farmers and herders, scientists study evidence

WAYS IN WHICHGRAIN WAS USED

AS SEED

AS FOOD

AS GIFTS

STORED FOR FOOD

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

25

Grain and Bones SitesWheat, barley, sheep, goat, Mehrgarh (in present day-Pakistan)cattle

Rice, fragmentary Koldihwa (in present-day Uttar Pradesh)animal bones

Rice, cattle Mahagara (in present-day Uttar Pradesh)(hoof marks on clay surface)

Wheat and lentil Gufkral (in present-day Kashmir)

Wheat and lentil, dog, cattle, Burzahom (in present-day Kashmir)sheep, goat, buffalo,

Wheat, green gram, barley, Chirand (in present-day Bihar)buffalo, ox

Millet, cattle, sheep, goat, pig Hallur (in present-day Andhra Pradesh)

Black gram, millet, cattle, Paiyampalli (in present-day Andhrasheep, pig Pradesh)

These are just some of the sites from which grain and bones havebeen found.

of plants and animal bones. One of the mostexciting finds includes remains of burnt grain.(These may have been burnt accidentally or onpurpose). Scientists can identify these grains, andso we know that a number of crops were grown indifferent parts of the subcontinent. They can alsoidentify the bones of different animals.

Look at the table below to see where evidenceof grain and bones of domesticated animals havebeen found.

FROM GATHERING TOGROWING FOOD

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

26OUR PASTS–I

Towards a settled life

Archaeologists have found traces of huts or housesat some sites. For instance, in Burzahom (inpresent-day Kashmir) people built pit-houses,which were dug into the ground, with steps leadinginto them. These may have provided shelter in coldweather. Archaeologists have also found cookinghearths both inside and outside the huts, whichsuggests that, depending on the weather, peoplecould cook food either indoors or outdoors.

Draw a pit house.Stone tools have been found from many sites

as well. Many of these are different from the earlierPalaeolithic tools and that is why they are calledNeolithic. These include tools that were polishedto give a fine cutting edge, and mortars and pestlesused for grinding grain and other plant produce.Mortars and pestles are used for grinding graineven today, several thousand years later. At thesame time, tools of the Palaeolithic typescontinued to be made and used, and remember,some tools were also made of bone.

Many kinds of earthen pots have also beenfound. These were sometimes decorated, and wereused for storing things. People began using pots

New stone tools.Compare these with thetools shown on page 13(Chapter 2).Can you see anysimilarities ordif ferences?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

27

for cooking food, especially grains like rice, wheatand lentils that now became an important part ofthe diet. Besides, they began weaving cloth, usingdifferent kinds of materials, for example cotton,that could now be grown.

Did things change everywhere and all at once?Not quite. In many areas, men and women stillcontinued to hunt and gather food, and elsewherepeople adopted farming and herding slowly, overseveral thousand years. Besides, in some casespeople tried to combine these activities, doingdifferent things during different seasons.

What about other customs and practices?

Archaeology does not tell us directly about these.Scholars have studied the lives of present-dayfarmers who practise simple agriculture. Theyhave also studied the lives of herders. Many ofthese farmers and herders live in groups calledtribes. Scholars find that they follow certaincustoms and practices that may have existedearlier as well.

What do you think couldhave been stored in thisjar?

TribesUsually two to three generations live together in small settlements orvillages. Most families are related to one another and groups of suchfamilies form a tribe.• Members of a tribe follow occupations such as hunting, gathering,

farming, herding and fishing. Usually, women do most of theagricultural work, including preparing the ground, sowing seeds,looking after the growing plants and harvesting grain. Children oftenlook after plants, driving away animals and birds that might eat them.Women also thresh, husk, and grind grain. Men usually lead largeherds of animals in search of pasture. Children often look after smallflocks. The cleaning of animals and milking, is done by both men andwomen. Both women and men make pots, baskets, tools and huts. Theyalso take part in singing, dancing and decorating their huts.

27FROM GATHERING TOGROWING FOOD

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

28OUR PASTS–I

A closer look — (a) Living and dying inMehrgarh

Find Mehrgarh on Map 2 (page14). This site islocated in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass,which is one of the most important routes intoIran. Mehrgarh was probably one of the placeswhere women and men learnt to grow barley andwheat, and rear sheep and goats for the first timein this area. It is one of the earliest villages thatwe know about.

Archaeologists who excavated the site foundevidence of many kinds of animal bones from theearliest levels. These included bones of wildanimals such as the deer and pig. In later levels,they found more bones of sheep and goat, and instill later levels, cattle bones are most common,suggesting that this was the animal that wasgenerally kept by the people.

• Some men are regarded as leaders. They may be old and experienced, oryoung, brave warriors, or priests. Old women are respected for theirwisdom and experience.

• Tribes have rich and unique cultural traditions, including their ownlanguage, music, stories and paintings. They also have their own godsand goddesses.

• What makes tribes different from many other societies you will bestudying about is that land, forests, grasslands and water are regardedas the wealth of the entire tribe, and everybody shares and uses thesetogether. There are no sharp differences between the rich and the poor.

Make a list of all the activities performed by men in tribal societies.What do women do?Are there any activities that are done by both men and women?

VillageOne of thedistinctive

features of avillage is thatmost people

who live thereare engaged

in foodproduction.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

29

Earlier and later levelsWhen archaeologists are digging at an excavation site, how do theyknow which level is earlier and which is later?

Look at the illustration.Suppose people first start living on flat land (layer 4). Over the years,

the surface will gradually rise, because people discard waste material,and generally stay and rebuild houses in the same place. After hundredsof years, this leads to the formation of a mound. So, when this moundis dug up, what is found from the upper layers of the mound is generallyfrom a later time than what is found from the lower layers of the mound,which are older.

These upper and lower layers are often referredto as levels.

Look at layers 2 and 3. Which do youthink is the earlier level?

A house in Mehrgarh.This is what a house inMehrgarh may havelooked like.In what ways is this housesimilar to the one in whichyou live?

Other finds at Mehrgarh include remains ofsquare or rectangular houses. Each house hadfour or more compartments, some of which mayhave been used for storage.

When people die, their relatives and friendsgenerally pay respect to them. People look afterthem, perhaps in the belief that there is someform of life after death. Burial is one sucharrangement. Several burial sites have beenfound at Mehrgarh. In one instance, the deadperson was buried with goats, which wereprobably meant to serve as food in the next world.

FROM GATHERING TOGROWING FOOD

A burial from Mehrgarh.Can you identify theskeletons of the goats?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

30OUR PASTS–I

A closer look — (b) Daojali Hading

Find Daojali Hading on Map 2 (page14). This is asite on the hills near the Brahmaputra Valley,close to routes leading into China and Myanmar.Here stone tools, including mortars and pestles,have been found. These indicate that people wereprobably growing grain and preparing food fromit. Other finds include jadeite, a stone that mayhave been brought from China. Also common arefinds of tools made of fossil wood (ancient woodthat has hardened into stone), and pottery.

ElsewhereFind Turkey in your atlas. One of the most famousNeolithic sites, Catal Huyuk, was found in Turkey.Several things were brought from great distances—flint from Syria, cowries from the Red Sea, shellsfrom the Mediterranean Sea — and used in thesettlement. Remember, there were no carts — mostthings would have been carried on the backs of packanimals such as cattle or by people.

What do you think cowries and shells would havebeen used for?

ImagineYou are in charge of a small plot of land and have todecide what food crops to grow. What are the plantsyou would choose? Where would you get the seedsfrom? How would you plant them? How would youlook after your plants? And when would they be readyfor harvesting?

KEYWORDS

domestication

farmers

herders

Neolithic

pots

tribes

village

houses

burials

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

31

Let’s recall

1. Why do people who grow crops have to stay in thesame place for a long time?

2. Look at the table on page 25. If Neinuo wanted to eatrice, which are the places she should have visited?

3. Why do archaeologists think that many people wholived in Mehrgarh were hunters to start with and thatherding became more important later?

4. State whether true or false:

(a) Millets have been found at Hallur.

(b) People in Burzahom lived in rectangular houses.

(c) Chirand is a site in Kashmir.

(d) Jadeite, found in Daojali Hading, may have beenbrought from China.

Let’s discuss

5. List three ways in which the lives of farmers andherders would have been different from that of hunter-gatherers.

6. Make a list of all the animals mentioned in the table(page 25). For each one, describe what they may havebeen used for.

Let’s do

7. List the cereals that you eat.

8. Do you grow the cereals you have listed in answerno. 7? If yes, draw a chart to show the stages in growingthem. If not, draw a chart to show how these cerealsreach you from the farmers who grow them. FROM GATHERING TO

GROWING FOOD

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

Beginnings of

domestication

(about 12,000 years

ago)

Beginning of

settlement at

Mehrgarh (about

8000 years ago)

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

32OUR PASTS–I

Saving an old buildingJaspal and Harpreet were playing cricket in the laneoutside their home when they noticed the people whowere admiring the dilapidated old building that thechildren called the haunted house.“Look at the architecture!” said one of the men.“Have you seen the fine wood carving?” asked one of thewomen.“We must write to the Minister so that she makesarrangements to repair and preserve this beautiful house.”Why, they wondered, would anybody be interested inthe old, run down house?

The story of Harappa

Very often, old buildings have a story to tell. Nearlya hundred and fifty years ago, when railway lineswere being laid down for the first time in thePunjab, engineers stumbled upon the site ofHarappa in present-day Pakistan. To them, itseemed like a mound that was a rich source ofready made, high quality bricks. So they carriedoff thousands of bricks from the walls of the oldbuildings of the city to build railway lines. Manybuildings were completely destroyed.

Then, about eighty years ago, archaeologistsfound the site, and realised that this was one ofthe oldest cities in the subcontinent. As this wasthe first city to be discovered, all other sites fromwhere similar buildings (and other things) werefound were described as Harappan. These citiesdeveloped about 4700 years ago.

Very often, old buildings are pulled down tomake way for new construction. Do you think itis important to preserve old buildings?

CHAPTER 4

IN THE EARLIEST CITIES

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

33

What was special about these cities?

Many of these cities were divided into two or moreparts. Usually, the part to the west was smallerbut higher. Archaeologists describe this as thecitadel. Generally, the part to the east was largerbut lower. This is called the lower town. Very oftenwalls of baked brick were built around each part.The bricks were so well made that they have lastedfor thousands of years. The bricks were laid in aninterlocking pattern and that made the wallsstrong.

In some cities, specialbuildings were constructed onthe citadel. For example, inMohenjodaro, a very specialtank, which archaeologists callthe Great Bath, was built in thisarea. This was lined with bricks,coated with plaster, and madewater -tight with a layer ofnatural tar. There were stepsleading down to it from twosides, while there were roomson all sides. Water was probablybrought in from a well, anddrained out after use. Perhapsimportant people took a dip inthis tank on special occasions.

Other cities, such asKalibangan and Lothal hadfire altars, where sacrificesmay have been performed. Andsome cities like Mohenjodaro,Harappa, and Lothal hadelaborate store houses.

These cities were found inthe Punjab and Sind inPakistan, and in Gujarat,Rajasthan, Haryana andthe Punjab in India.Archaeologists have founda set of unique objects inalmost all these cities: redpottery painted withdesigns in black, stoneweights, seals, specialbeads, copper tools, andlong stone blades.

MAP : 3The Earliest Citiesin the Subcontinent

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

34OUR PASTS–I

Houses, drains and streets

Generally, houses were either one or two storeyshigh, with rooms built around a courtyard. Mosthouses had a separate bathing area, and somehad wells to supply water.

Many of these cities had covered drains. Noticehow carefully these were laid out,in straight lines. Although youcannot see it, each drain had agentle slope so that water could flowthrough it. Very often, drains inhouses were connected to those onthe streets and smaller drains ledinto bigger ones. As the drains werecovered, inspection holes wereprovided at intervals to clean them.All three — houses, drains andstreets — were probably plannedand built at the same time.

List at least two dif ferencesbetween the houses described hereand those that you studied aboutin Chapter 3.

The Great Bath

How bricks werearranged to build walls inHarappan cities ©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

35

Life in the city

A Harappan city was a very busy place.There were people who planned theconstruction of special buildings in the city.These were probably the rulers. It is likelythat the rulers sent people to distant landsto get metal, precious stones, and otherthings that they wanted. They may havekept the most valuable objects, such asornaments of gold and silver, or beautifulbeads, for themselves. And there werescribes, people who knew how to write, whohelped prepare the seals, and perhapswrote on other materials that have notsurvived.

Besides, there were men and women,crafts persons, making all kinds of things— either in their own homes, or in specialworkshops. People were travelling todistant lands or returning with rawmaterials and, perhaps, stories. Manyterracotta toys have been found and a longtime ago children must have played with these.

Make a list of the people who lived in the city.Were any of these people listed as living in

villages such as Mehrgarh?

IN THE EARLIESTCITIES

Top : A street inMohenjodaro with adrain.Above : A well.

Far Left : A Harappanseal. The signs on the topof the seal are part of ascript. This is the earliestform of writing known inthe subcontinent.Scholars have tried toread these signs but westill do not know exactlywhat they mean.Left : Terracotta toys.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

36OUR PASTS–I

New crafts in the city

Let us look at some of the objects that were madeand found in Harappan cities. Most of the thingsthat have been found by archaeologists are madeof stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze,gold and silver. Copper and bronze were used tomake tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.Gold and silver were used to make ornamentsand vessels.

Perhaps the most striking finds are those ofbeads, weights, and blades.

The Harappans also made seals out of stone.These are generally rectangular (See illustrationon page 35) and usually have an animal carvedon them.

The Harappans also made pots with beautifulblack designs, such as the oneshown on page 6.

Was metal used in the villagesyou learnt about in Chapter 3?

Was stone used to makeweights?

Cotton was probably grownat Mehrgarh from about 7000years ago. Actual pieces ofcloth were found attachedto the lid of a silver vase andsome copper objects atMohenjodaro. Archaeologistshave also found spindle whorls,

Top : Stone weights.Notice how carefully andprecisely these weightsare shaped. These weremade of chert, a kind ofstone. These wereprobably used to weighprecious stones ormetals.

Right : Beads.Many of these weremade out of carnelian, abeautiful red stone. Thestone was cut, shaped,polished and finally ahole was bored throughthe centre so that astring could be passedthrough it.

Far right : Stone blades.

Bottom Right :Embroidered cloth.A stone statue of animportant man foundfrom Mohenjodaroshows him wearing anembroidered garment.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

37

made of terracotta and faience. These were usedto spin thread.

Many of the things that were produced wereprobably the work of specialists. A specialist is aperson who is trained to do only one kind of work,for example, cutting stone, or polishing beads, orcarving seals. Look at the illustration (page 36)and see how well the face is carved and howcarefully the beard is shown. This must have beenthe work of an expert crafts person.

Not everybody could have been a specialist. Wedo not know whether only men were specialistsor only women were specialists. Perhaps somewomen and men may have been specialists.

In search of raw materials

Raw materials are substances that are eitherfound naturally (such as wood, or ores of metals)or produced by farmers or herders. These are thenprocessed to produce finished goods. For example,cotton, produced by farmers, is a raw materialthat may be processed to make cloth. While someof the raw materials that the Harappans used wereavailable locally, many items such as copper, tin,gold, silver and precious stones had to be broughtfrom distant places.

The Harappans probably got copper frompresent-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman in IN THE EARLIEST

CITIES

FaienceUnlike stone or shell, that are found naturally,faience is a material that is artificially produced.A gum was used to shape sand or powderedquartz into an object. The objects were then glazed,resulting in a shiny, glassy surface. The coloursof the glaze were usually blue or sea green.

Faience was used to make beads, bangles,earrings, and tiny vessels.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

38OUR PASTS–I

How were goods carriedfrom one place toanother?Look at the illustrations.One shows a toy and theother is a seal.Can you suggest what themodes of transport used bythe Harappans were?Did you come acrossillustrations of wheeledvehicles in earlier lessons?

West Asia. Tin, which was mixed withcopper to produce bronze, may have beenbrought from present-day Afghanistanand Iran. Gold could have come all theway from present-day Karnataka, andprecious stones from present-dayGujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.

Food for people in the cities

While many people lived in the cities, others livingin the countryside grew crops and reared animals.These farmers and herders supplied food to craftspersons, scribes and rulers in the cities. We knowfrom remains of plants that the Harappans grewwheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseedand mustard.

A new tool, the plough, was used to dig theearth for turning the soil and planting seeds. Whilereal ploughs, which were probably made of wood,have not survived, toy models have been found.As this region does not receive heavy rainfall, someform of irrigation may have been used. This means

that water was stored andsupplied to the fields when theplants were growing.

The Harappans reared cattle, sheep,goat and buffalo. Water and pastures wereavailable around settlements. However, in the drysummer months large herds of animals wereprobably taken to greater distances in search ofgrass and water. They also collected fruits like

A toy plough.Today, in many farmingcommunities, only menuse the plough. We donot know whether theHarappans followed suchcustoms or not.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

39

ber, caught fish and hunted wild animals like theantelope.

A closer look — Harappan towns in Gujarat

The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beytin the Rann of Kutch, where there was fresh waterand fertile soil. Unlike some of the other Harappancities, which were divided into two parts, Dholavirawas divided into three parts, and each part wassurrounded with massive stone walls, withentrances through gateways. There was also a largeopen area in the settlement, where publicceremonies could be held. Other finds include largeletters of the Harappan script that were carved outof white stone and perhaps inlaid in wood. This isa unique find as generally Harappan writing hasbeen found on small objects such as seals.

The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary ofthe Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf ofKhambat. It was situated near areas where rawmaterials such as semi-precious stones wereeasily available. This was an important centre formaking objects out of stone, shell and metal.There was also a store house in the city. Manyseals and sealings (the impression of seals onclay) were found in this storehouse.

A dockyard at Lothal.This huge tank may havebeen a dockyard, whereboats and ships came infrom the sea and throughthe river channel. Goodswere probably loadedand unloaded here.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

40OUR PASTS–I

A building that was found here was probably aworkshop for making beads: pieces of stone, halfmade beads, tools for bead making, and finishedbeads have all been found here.

Seals and sealingsSeals may have been used to stamp bags or packetscontaining goods that were sent from one place toanother. After a bag was closed or tied, a layer ofwet clay was applied on the knot, and the seal waspressed on it. The impression of the seal is knownas a sealing.

If the sealing was intact, one could be sure thatthe goods had arrived safely.

Seals are used even today. Find out what theyare used for.

The mystery of the end

Around 3900 years ago we find the beginning ofa major change. People stopped living in many ofthe cities. Writing, seals and weights were nolonger used. Raw materials brought from longdistances became rare. In Mohenjodaro, we findthat garbage piled up on the streets, the drainagesystem broke down, and new, less impressivehouses were built, even over the streets.

Why did all this happen? We are not sure. Somescholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Otherssuggest that there was deforestation. This couldhave happened because fuel was required forbaking bricks, and for smelting copper ores.Besides, grazing by large herds of cattle, sheepand goat may have destroyed the green cover. Insome areas there were floods. But none of thesereasons can explain the end of all the cities.Flooding, or a river drying up would have had aneffect in only some areas.

KEYWORDS

city

citadel

ruler

scribe

crafts person

metal

seal

specialist

raw material

plough

irrigation

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

41

It appears as if the rulers lost control. In anycase, the effects of the change are quite clear.Sites in Sind and west Punjab (present-dayPakistan) were abandoned, while many peoplemoved into newer, smaller settlements to the eastand the south.

New cities emerged about 1400 years later. Youwill read about them in Chapters 6 and 9.

ElsewhereFind Egypt in your atlas. Most of Egypt is a dry desert, except for thelands along the river Nile.

Around 5000 years ago, kings ruled over Egypt. These kings sent armiesto distant lands to getgold, silver, ivory,timber, and preciousstones. They alsobuilt huge tombs,known as pyramids.

When they died,the bodies of kingswere preserved andburied in thesepyramids. Thesecarefully preservedbodies are known as‘mummies’. A large number of objects were also buried with them. Theseincluded food and drink, clothes, ornaments, utensils, musical instruments,weapons and animals. Sometimes even serving men and women were buriedwith the rulers. These are amongst the most elaborate burials known inworld history.

Do you think kings would have needed these things after death?

ImagineYou are travelling with your parents, about 4000 yearsago, from Lothal to Mohenjodaro. Describe how youwould travel, what your parents might carry with them,and what you would see in Mohenjodaro. IN THE EARLIEST

CITIES

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

42OUR PASTS–I

Let’s recall

1. How do archaeologists know that cloth was used inthe Harappan civilisation?

2. Match the columns

Copper Gujarat

Gold Afghanistan

Tin Rajasthan

Precious stones Karnataka

3. Why were metals, writing, the wheel, and the ploughimportant for the Harappans?

Let’s discuss

4. Make a list of all the terracotta toys shown in the lesson.Which do you think children would have enjoyedplaying with the most?

5. Make a list of what the Harappans ate, and put a tickmark against the things you eat today.

6. Do you think that the life of farmers and herders whosupplied food to the Harappan cities was different fromthat of the farmers and herders you read about inChapter 3? Give reasons for your answer.

Let’s do

7. Describe three important buildings in your city orvillage. Are they located in a special part of thesettlement (e.g. the centre)? What are the activitiesthat take place in these buildings?

8. Are there any old buildings in your locality? Find outhow old they are and who looks after them.

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

Cotton cultivation at

Mehrgarh (about

7000 years ago)

Beginning of cities

(about 4700 years

ago)

Beginning of the end

of these cities (about

3900 years ago)

The emergence of

other cities (about

2500 years ago)

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

43

Mary in the libraryAs the bell rang, the teacher asked the students to followhim, because they were going to the library for the firsttime. When Mary stepped inside, she found that thelibrary was much larger than their classroom. And therewere so many shelves, all full of books. In one cornerwas a cupboard filled with large, old volumes. Seeingher trying to open the cupboard, the teacher said, “Thatcupboard has very special books on different religions.Did you know that we have a set of the Vedas?”What are the Vedas? Mary wondered. Let us find out.

One of the oldest books in the world

You may have heard about the Vedas. There arefour of them – the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurvedaand Atharvaveda. The oldest Veda is the Rigveda,composed about 3500 years ago. The Rigvedaincludes more than a thousand hymns, calledsukta or “well-said”. These hymns are in praiseof various gods and goddesses. Three gods areespecially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra,a warrior god; and Soma, a plant from which aspecial drink was prepared.

These hymns were composed by sages (rishis).Priests taught students to recite and memoriseeach syllable, word, and sentence, bit by bit, withgreat care. Most of the hymns were composed,taught and learnt by men. A few were composedby women. The Rigveda is in old or Vedic Sanskrit,which is different from the Sanskrit you learn inschool these days.

CHAPTER 5

WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US

WHAT BOOKS ANDBURIALS TELL US

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

44OUR PASTS–I

Sanskrit and other languages

Sanskrit is part of a family of languages known as Indo-European.Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiriand Sindhi, and many European languages such as English, French,German, Greek, Italian and Spanish belong to this family. They arecalled a family because they originally had words in common.

Take the words ‘matr’ (Sanskrit), ‘ma’ (Hindi) and ‘mother’ (English).Do you notice any similarities?Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different

families. For instance, those used in the north-east belong to theTibeto-Burman family; Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belongto the Dravidian family; and the languages spoken in Jharkhand andparts of central India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family.

List the languages you have heard about and try and identify thefamilies to which they belong.

The books we use are written and printed. TheRigveda was recited and heard rather than read.It was written down several centuries after it wasfirst composed, and printed less than 200 yearsago.

How historians study the Rigveda

Historians, like archaeologists, find out about thepast, but, in addition to material remains, theyexamine written sources as well. Let us see howthey study the Rigveda.

Some of the hymns in the Rigveda are in theform of dialogues. This is part of one such hymn,a dialogue between a sage named Vishvamitra,and two rivers, (Beas and Sutlej) that wereworshipped as goddesses.

Find the rivers on Map 1 (page 2), then read on:

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

45

A page from amanuscript of theRigveda.This manuscript of theRigveda, on birch bark,was found in Kashmir.About 150 years ago, itwas used to prepare oneof the earliest printedtexts of the Rigveda, aswell as an Englishtranslation. It is nowpreserved in a library inPune, Maharashtra.

Vishvamitra and the RiversVishvamitra: O rivers, come down from the mountains like two swift horses,like two shining cows that lick their calves.

You move like chariots to the sea, through the power of Indra. You arefull of water and wish to unite with one another.

The rivers: We, who are full of water, move along the path the gods havemade for us. Once we start flowing, we cannot be stopped. Why do youpray to us, o sage?

Vishvamitra: O sisters, please listen to me, the singer who has comefrom a distance with his chariots and carts. Let your waters not rise aboveour axles, so that we can cross safely.

The rivers: We will listen to your prayers so that you can cross safely.Historians point out that this hymn was composed in the area where theserivers flow. They also suggest that the sage lived in a society where horsesand cows were valued animals. That is why the rivers are compared tohorses and cows.

Do you think chariots were also important? Give reasons for your answer.Read the verses and find out what are the modes of transport that arementioned.

Other rivers, especially the Indus and its other tributaries, and theSarasvati, are also named in the hymns. The Ganga and Yamuna arenamed only once.

Look at Map 1 (page 2) and list 5 rivers that are not mentioned in theRigveda.

WHAT BOOKS ANDBURIALS TELL US

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

46OUR PASTS–I

Cattle, horses and chariots

There are many prayers in the Rigveda for cattle,children (especially sons), and horses. Horseswere yoked to chariots that were used in battles,which were fought to capture cattle. Battles werealso fought for land, which was important forpasture, and for growing hardy crops that ripenedquickly, such as barley. Some battles were foughtfor water, and to capture people.

Some of the wealth that was obtained was keptby the leaders, some was given to the priests andthe rest was distributed amongst the people. Somewealth was used for the performance of yajnas orsacrifices in which offerings were made into thefire. These were meant for gods and goddesses.Offerings could include ghee, grain, and in somecases, animals.

Most men took part in these wars. There wasno regular army, but there were assemblies wherepeople met and discussed matters of war andpeace. They also chose leaders, who were oftenbrave and skilful warriors.

Words to describe people

There are several ways of describing people — interms of the work they do, the language theyspeak, the place they belong to, their family, theircommunities and cultural practices. Let us seesome of the words used to describe people foundin the Rigveda.

There are two groups who are described interms of their work — the priests, sometimescalled brahmins, who performed various ritualsand the rajas.

These rajas were not like the ones you will belearning about later. They did not have capitalcities, palaces or armies, nor did they collect taxes.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

47

Generally, sons did not automatically succeedfathers as rajas.

Read the previous section once more and seewhether you can find out what the rajas did.

Two words were used to describe the people orthe community as a whole. One was the wordjana, which we still use in Hindi and otherlanguages. The other was vish. The word vaishyacomes from vish. You will learn more about thisin Chapter 6.

Several vish or jana are mentioned by name.So we find reference to the Puru jana or vish, theBharata jana or vish, the Yadu jana or vish, andso on.

Do any of these names sound familiar?Sometimes, the people who composed the

hymns described themselves as Aryas and calledtheir opponents Dasas or Dasyus. These werepeople who did not perform sacrifices, andprobably spoke different languages. Later, theterm dasa (and the feminine dasi) came to meanslave. Slaves were women and men who were oftencaptured in war. They were treated as the propertyof their owners, who could make them dowhatever work they wanted.

While the Rigveda was being composed in thenorth-west of the subcontinent, there were otherdevelopments elsewhere. Let us look at some ofthese.

Silent sentinels—the story of the megaliths

Look at the illustration on the next page.These stone boulders are known as megaliths

(literally big stones). These were carefully arrangedby people, and were used to mark burial sites. Thepractice of erecting megaliths began about3000 years ago, and was prevalent throughoutthe Deccan, south India, in the north-east andKashmir. WHAT BOOKS AND

BURIALS TELL US

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

48OUR PASTS–I

Some important megalithicsites are shown on Map 2(page14). While somemegaliths can be seen on thesurface, other megalithicburials are often underground.

Sometimes, archaeologistsfind a circle of stone bouldersor a single large stonestanding on the ground.These are the only indicationsthat there are burials beneath.

There were several thingsthat people did to make megaliths. We have madea list here. Try and arrange them in the correctorder: digging pits in the earth, transportingstones, breaking boulders, placing stones inposition, finding suitable stone, shaping stones,burying the dead.

All these burials have some common features.Generally, the dead were buried with distinctivepots, which are called Black and Red Ware. Alsofound are tools and weapons of iron andsometimes, skeletons of horses, horse equipmentand ornaments of stone and gold.

Was iron used in the Harappan cities?

Iron equipment found from megalithic burials.Left top : Horse equipment.Left below : Axes.Below : A dagger.

Top : This type ofmegalith is known as acist. Some cists, like theone shown here, haveport-holes which couldbe used as an entrance.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

49

Finding out about social differences

Archaeologists think that objects found with askeleton probably belonged to the dead person.Sometimes, more objects are found in one gravethan in another. Find Brahmagiri on Map 2(page 14). Here, one skeleton was buried with 33gold beads, 2 stone beads, 4 copper bangles, andone conch shell. Other skeletons have only a fewpots. These finds suggest that there was somedifference in status amongst the people who wereburied. Some were rich, others poor, some chiefs,others followers.

Were some burial spots meant for certainfamilies?

Sometimes, megaliths contain more than oneskeleton. These indicate that people, perhapsbelonging to the same family, were buried in thesame place though not at the same time. The bodiesof those who died later were brought into the gravethrough the portholes. Stone circles or bouldersplaced on the surface probably served as signpoststo find the burial site, so that people could returnto the same place whenever they wanted to.

A special burial at Inamgaon

Find Inamgaon on Map 2 (page14). It is a site onthe river Ghod, a tributary of the Bhima. It wasoccupied between 3600 and 2700 years ago. Here,adults were generally buried in the ground, laidout straight, with the head towards the north.Sometimes burials were within the houses.Vessels that probably contained food and waterwere placed with the dead.

One man was found buried in a large, fourlegged clay jar in the courtyard of a five-roomedhouse (one of the largest houses at the site), in WHAT BOOKS AND

BURIALS TELL US

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

50OUR PASTS–I

the centre of the settlement. This house alsohad a granary. The body was placed in a cross-legged position.

Do you think this was the body of a chief?Give reasons for your answer.

What skeletal studies tell usIt is easy to make out the skeleton of a child from its small size. However,there are no major differences in the bones of a girl and a boy.

Can we make out whether a skeleton was that of a man or awoman?

Sometimes, people decide on the basis of what is found with theskeleton. For instance, if a skeleton is found with jewellery, it issometimes thought to be that of a woman. However, there areproblems with this. Often, men also wore ornaments.

A better way of figuring out the sex of a skeleton is to look at thebone structure. The hip or the pelvic area of women is generallylarger to enable child bearing.

These distinctions are based on modern skeletal studies.About 2000 years ago, there was a famous physician named

Charaka who wrote a book on medicine known as the CharakaSamhita. There he states that the human body has 360 bones. Thisis a much larger number than the 200 bones that are recognised inmodern anatomy. Charaka arrived at this figure by counting theteeth, joints and cartilage.

How do you think he found out about the human body in suchgreat detail?

Occupations at Inamgaon

Archaeologists have found seeds of wheat, barley,rice, pulses, millets, peas and sesame. Bones of anumber of animals, many bearing cut marks thatshow they may have been used as food, have alsobeen found. These include cattle, buffalo, goat,sheep, dog, horse, ass, pig, sambhar, spotted deer,blackbuck, antelope, hare, and mongoose, besidesbirds, crocodile, turtle, crab and fish. There isevidence that fruits such as ber, amla, jamun, datesand a variety of berries were collected.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

51

Use this evidence to list the possibleoccupations of the people at Inamgaon.

ElsewhereFind China in your atlas. Around 3500 years ago,we find some of the first evidence of writing in China.

These writings were on animal bones. These arecalled oracle bones, because they were used topredict the future. Kings got scribes to writequestions on the bones — would they win battles?Would the harvest be good? Would they have sons?The bones were then put into the fire, and theycracked because of the heat. Then fortunetellersstudied these cracks, and tried to predict the future.As you may expect, they sometimes made mistakes.

These kings lived in palaces in cities. Theyamassed vast quantities of wealth, including large,elaborately decorated bronze vessels. However, theydid not know the use of iron.

List one difference between the raja of the Rigvedaand these kings.

ImagineYou live in Inamgaon, 3000 years ago, and the chiefhas died last night. Today, your parents are preparingfor the burial. Describe the scene, including how foodis being prepared for the funeral. What do you thinkwould be offered?

KEYWORDS

Veda

language

hymn

chariot

sacrifice

raja

slave

megalith

burial

skeletal

iron

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

52OUR PASTS–I

Let’s recall

1. Match the columns

Sukta Stone boulder

Chariots Sacrifice

Yajna Well-said

Dasa Used in battles

Megalith Slave

2. Complete the sentences:

(a) Slaves were used for ————————

(b) Megaliths are found in ————————

(c) Stone circles or boulders on the surface wereused to ————————

(d) Port-holes were used for ————————

(e) People at Inamgaon ate ————————

Let’s discuss

3. In what ways are the books we read today differentfrom the Rigveda?

4. What kind of evidence from burials do archaeologistsuse to find out whether there were social differencesamongst those who were buried?

5. In what ways do you think that the life of a raja wasdifferent from that of a dasa or dasi?

Beginning of the

composition of the

Vedas (about 3500

years ago)

Beginning of the

building of megaliths

(about 3000 years

ago)

Settlement at

Inamgaon (between

3600 and 2700 years

ago)

Charaka (about 2000

years ago)

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

53

Let’s do

6. Find out whether your school library has a collectionof books on religion, and list the names of five booksfrom this collection.

7. Write down a short poem or song that you havememorised. Did you hear or read the poem or song?How did you learn it by heart?

8. In the Rigveda, people were described in terms of thework they did and the languages they spoke. In thetable below, fill in the names of six people you know,choosing three men and three women. For each ofthem, mention the work they do and the languagethey speak. Would you like to add anything else tothe description?

NAME WORK LANGUAGE ANYTHING ELSE

WHAT BOOKS ANDBURIALS TELL US

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

54OUR PASTS–I

Election dayShankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready togo and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach thepolling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, werethey so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfatherexplained: “We can choose our own rulers today.”

How some men became rulers

Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is somethingthat has become common during the last fiftyyears or so. How did men become rulers in thepast? Some of the rajas we read about in Chapter5 were probably chosen by the jana, the people.But, around 3000 years ago, we find somechanges taking place in the ways in which rajaswere chosen. Some men now became recognisedas rajas by performing very big sacrifices.

The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was onesuch ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freelyand it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horsewandered into the kingdoms of other rajas andthey stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowedthe horse to pass, it meant that they acceptedthat the raja who wanted to perform the sacrificewas stronger than them. These rajas were theninvited to the sacrifice, which was performed byspecially trained priests, who were rewarded withgifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice wasrecognised as being very powerful, and all thosewho came brought gifts for him.

The raja was a central figure in these rituals.He often had a special seat, a throne or a tigerskin. His charioteer, who was his companion inthe battle field and witnessed his exploits,

CHAPTER 6

KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

55

chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especiallyhis wives and sons, had to perform a variety ofminor rituals. The other rajas were simplyspectators who had to sit and watch theperformance of the sacrifice. Priests performedthe rituals including the sprinkling of sacred wateron the king. The ordinary people, the vish orvaishya, also brought gifts. However, some people,such as those who were regarded as shudras bythe priests, were excluded from many rituals.

Make a list of all those who would be presentat the sacrifice. Which are the categories that aredescribed in terms of their occupation?

KINGDOMS, KINGS ANDAN EARLY REPUBLIC

VarnasWe have many books that were composed in north India, especially inthe areas drained by the Ganga and the Yamuna, during this period.These books are often called later Vedic, because they were composedafter the Rigveda about which you learnt in Chapter 5. These includethe Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, as well as other books.These were composed by priests, and described how rituals were to beperformed. They also contained rules about society.

There were several different groups in society at this time — priestsand warriors, farmers, herders, traders, crafts persons, labourers, fishingfolk, and forest people. Some priests and warriors were rich, as weresome farmers and traders. Others, including many herders, craftspersons, labourers, fishing folk and hunters and gatherers, were poor.

The priests divided people into four groups, called varnas. Accordingto them, each varna had a different set of functions.

The first varna was that of the brahmin. Brahmins were expected tostudy (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts.

In the second place were the rulers, also known as kshatriyas. Theywere expected to fight battles and protect people.

Third were the vish or the vaishyas. They were expected to be farmers,herders, and traders. Both the kshatriyas and the vaishyas couldperform sacrifices.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

56OUR PASTS–I

Painted Grey Ware.Plates and bowls are themost common vesselsmade out of PaintedGrey Ware. These areextremely f ine to touch,with a nice, smoothsurface. Perhaps thesewere used on specialoccasions, for importantpeople, and to servespecial food.

Janapadas

The rajas who performed these big sacrifices werenow recognised as being rajas of janapadas ratherthan janas. The word janapada literally meansthe land where the jana set its foot, and settleddown. Some important janapadas are shown onMap 4 (page 57).

Archaeologists have excavated a number ofsettlements in these janapadas, such as Purana

Qila in Delhi, Hastinapur near Meerut, andAtranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are inUttar Pradesh). They found that people livedin huts, and kept cattle as well as otheranimals. They also grew a variety of crops— rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane,sesame and mustard.

Is there a crop in this list that was notmentioned in Chapter 4?

Last were the shudras, who had to serve the other three groups andcould not perform any rituals. Often, women were also grouped with theshudras. Both women and shudras were not allowed to study the Vedas.

The priests also said that these groups were decided on the basis ofbirth. For example, if one’s father and mother were brahmins one wouldautomatically become a brahmin, and so on. Later, they classified somepeople as untouchable. These included some crafts persons, huntersand gatherers, as well as people who helped perform burials andcremations. The priests said that contact with these groups was polluting.

Many people did not accept the system of varna laid down by thebrahmins. Some kings thought they were superior to the priests. Othersfelt that birth could not be a basis for deciding which varna peoplebelonged to. Besides, some people felt that there should be no differencesamongst people based on occupation. Others felt that everybody shouldbe able to perform rituals. And others condemned the practice ofuntouchability. Also, there were many areas in the subcontinent, suchas the north-east, where social and economic differences were not verysharp, and where the influence of the priests was limited.

Why did people oppose the system of varnas?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

57

They made earthen pots. Some of these weregrey in colour, others were red. One special typeof pottery found at these sites is known as PaintedGrey Ware. As is obvious from the name, thesegrey pots had painted designs, usually simplelines and geometric patterns.

Mahajanapadas

About 2500 years ago, some janapadas becamemore important than others, and were known asmahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, manyof these were fortified. This means that huge wallsof wood, brick or stone were built around them.

MAP : 4Important Janapadas,

Mahajanapadas and Cities

57KINGDOMS, KINGS ANDAN EARLY REPUBLIC

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

58OUR PASTS–I

Forts were probably built because people wereafraid of attacks from other kings and neededprotection. It is also likely that some rulers wantedto show how rich and powerful they were bybuilding really large, tall and impressive wallsaround their cities. Also in this way, the land andthe people living inside the fortified area could becontrolled more easily by the king. Building suchhuge walls required a great deal of planning.Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stone had tobe prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour,provided, possibly, by thousands of men, womenand children. And resources had to be found forall of this.

The fortif ication wall atKaushambi.This is a picture ofremains of a wall made ofbrick, found nearpresent-day Allahabad(Uttar Pradesh). A partof it was probably builtabout 2500 years ago. ©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

59

The new rajas now began maintaining armies.Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintainedby the king throughout the year. Some paymentswere probably made using punch marked coins(see the illustration on page 92). You will readmore about these coins in Chapter 9.

List two ways in which the rajas of themahajanapadas were dif ferent from thosementioned in the Rigveda.

Taxes

As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were(a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies,they needed more resources. And they neededofficials to collect these. So, instead of dependingon occasional gifts brought by people, as in thecase of the raja of the janapadas, they startedcollecting regular taxes.

• Taxes on crops were the most important. This wasbecause most people were farmers. Usually, the taxwas fixed at 1/6th of what was produced. This wasknown as bhaga or a share.

• There were taxes on crafts persons as well. Thesecould have been in the form of labour. For example,a weaver or a smith may have had to work for a dayevery month for the king.

• Herders were also expected to pay taxes in the formof animals and animal produce.

• There were also taxes on goods that were boughtand sold, through trade.

• And hunters and gatherers also had to provideforest produce to the raja.

What do you think would have been providedby hunters and gatherers?

KINGDOMS, KINGS ANDAN EARLY REPUBLIC

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

60OUR PASTS–I

Changes in agriculture

There were two major changes in agriculturearound this time. One was the growing use ofiron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayeysoil could be turned over better than with awooden ploughshare, so that more grain couldbe produced. Second, people began transplantingpaddy. This meant that instead of scattering seedon the ground, from which plants would sprout,saplings were grown and then planted in thefields. This led to increased production, as manymore plants survived. However, it was backbreaking work. Generally, slave men and women,(dasas and dasis) and landless agriculturallabourers (kammakaras) had to do this work.

Can you think why kings would encouragethese changes?

A closer look — (a) Magadha

Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 57). Magadhabecame the most important mahajanapada inabout two hundred years. Many rivers such asthe Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. Thiswas important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies(c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha wereforested. Elephants, which lived in the forest,could be captured and trained for the army.Forests also provided wood for building houses,carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron oremines in the region that could be tapped to makestrong tools and weapons.

Magadha had two very powerful rulers,Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possiblemeans to conquer other janapadas. MahapadmaNanda was another important ruler. He extendedhis control up to the north-west part of thesubcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) inBihar was the capital of Magadha for several years.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

61

Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra(present-day Patna).

More than 2300 years ago, a ruler namedAlexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe,wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course,he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer partsof Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indiansubcontinent, reaching up to the banks of theBeas. When he wanted to march furthereastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared,as they had heard that the rulers of India hadvast armies of foot soldiers, chariots andelephants.

In what ways were these armies different fromthose described in the Rigveda?

A closer look — (b) Vajji

While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji,with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under adifferent form of government, known as gana orsangha.

In a gana or a sangha there were not one, butmany rulers. Sometimes, even when thousandsof men ruled together, each one was known as araja. These rajas performed rituals together. Theyalso met in assemblies, and decided what had tobe done and how, through discussion and debate.For example, if they were attacked by an enemy,they met to discuss what should be done to meetthe threat. However, women, dasas andkammakaras could not participate in theseassemblies.

Both the Buddha and Mahavira (about whomyou will read in Chapter 7) belonged to ganas orsanghas. Some of the most vivid descriptions oflife in the sanghas can be found in Buddhistbooks.

KINGDOMS, KINGS ANDAN EARLY REPUBLIC

Gana

Is used for agroup that hasmany members.

Sangha

Meansorganisation or

association.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

62OUR PASTS–I

This is an account of the Vajjis from the DighaNikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which containssome of the speeches of the Buddha. These werewritten down about 2300 years ago.

Ajatasattu and the VajjisAjatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent hisminister named Vassakara to the Buddha to gethis advice on the matter.

The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis metfrequently, in full assemblies. When he heard thatthey did, he replied that the Vajjis would continueto prosper as long as:

• They held full and frequent public assemblies.

• They met and acted together.

• They followed established rules.

• They respected, supported and listened to elders.

• Vajji women were not held by force or captured.

• Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in bothtowns and villages.

• Wise saints who followed different beliefs wererespected and allowed to enter and leave thecountry freely.

In what ways was the Vajji sangha different fromthe other mahajanapadas? Try and list at leastthree differences.

Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquerthe sanghas. Nevertheless, these lasted for a verylong time, till about 1500 years ago, when thelast of the ganas or sanghas were conquered bythe Gupta rulers, about whom you will read inChapter 11.

KEYWORDS

raja

ashvamedha

varna

janapada

mahajanapada

fortification

army

tax

transplantation

gana or sangha

democracy

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

63

ElsewhereFind Greece and Athens in your atlas.

Around 2500 years ago, the people of Athens set up a form ofgovernment, which was called a democracy, which lasted for about 200years.

All free men over the age of 30 were recognised as full citizens.There was an assembly that met at least 40 times a year to decide on

important matters.All citizens could attend these meetings.Appointments for many positions were made through lottery. All those

who wanted to be chosen gave in their names, and then some wereselected through lottery.

Citizens were expected to serve in the army and the navy.However, women were not considered citizens.Also, many foreigners, who lived and worked in Athens as merchants

and crafts persons did not have rights as citizens.Besides, there were several thousand slaves in Athens, who worked

in mines, fields, households and workshops. They too were not treatedas citizens.

Do you think this was a true democracy?

ImagineYou are peeping through a crack in the walls of theassembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress todiscuss ways to deal with an attack by the king ofMagadha. Describe what you might hear.

Let’s recall

1. State whether true or false:

(a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse passthrough their lands were invited to the sacrifice.

(b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the king.

(c) Archaeologists have found palaces in thesettlements of the janapadas.

(d) Pots to store grain were made out of PaintedGrey Ware.

(e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified.KINGDOMS, KINGS ANDAN EARLY REPUBLIC

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

64OUR PASTS–I

2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter-gatherers, farmers, traders, crafts persons, herders.

3. Who were the groups who could not participate in theassemblies of the ganas?

Let’s discuss

4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts?

5. In what ways are present-day elections different fromthe ways in which rulers were chosen in janapadas?

Let’s do

6. Find the state in which you live in the political mapon page 136. Were there any janapadas in your state?If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas thatwould have been the closest to your state, and mentionwhether they were to the east, west, north or south.

7. Find out whether any of the groups mentioned inanswer 2 pay taxes today.

8. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3have voting rights at present.

THE RAJA OF THE

MAHAJANAPADA

THOSE WHO PAID TAXES

New kinds of rajas

(about 3000 years

ago)

Mahajanapadas (about

2500 years ago)

Alexander’s invasion,

composition of the

Digha Nikaya (about

2300 years ago)

End of the ganas or

sanghas (about 1500

years ago)

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

65

Anagha’s school tripThis was the first time Anagha was going on a schooltrip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra)late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in UttarPradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at thestation, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about theBuddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.”

The story of the Buddha

Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founderof Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago.This was a time of rapid change in the lives ofpeople. As you saw in Chapter 6, some kings inthe mahajanapadas were growing more powerful.New cities were developing, and life was changingin the villages as well (see Chapter 10). Manythinkers were trying to understand these changesin society. They also wanted to try and find outthe true meaning of life.

The Buddha belonged to a small gana knownas the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When hewas a young man, he left the comforts of his homein search of knowledge. He wandered for severalyears, meeting and holding discussions with otherthinkers. He finally decided to find his own pathto realisation, and meditated for days on end undera peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where heattained enlightenment. After that, he was knownas the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went toSarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for thefirst time. He spent the rest of his life travelling onfoot, going from place to place, teaching people,till he passed away at Kusinara.

CHAPTER 7

NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS

NEW QUESTIONS ANDIDEAS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

66OUR PASTS–I

The Buddha taught that life is full of sufferingand unhappiness. This is caused because we havecravings and desires (which often cannot befulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want,we are not satisfied, and want even more (or wantother things). The Buddha described this as thirstor tanha. He taught that this constant cravingcould be removed by following moderation ineverything.

He also taught people to be kind, and torespect the lives of others, including animals. Hebelieved that the results of our actions (called

karma), whether good or bad,affect us both in this life andthe next. The Buddhataught in the language ofthe ordinary people,Prakrit, so that everybodycould understand hismessage.

What was the languageused to compose theVedas?

He also encouragedpeople to think forthemselves ratherthan to simplyaccept what hesaid. Let us see howhe did this.

The stupa at Sarnath.This building, known as astupa, was built to markthe place where theBuddha first taught hismessage. You will learnmore about stupas inChapter 12.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

67

The story of KisagotamiHere is a famous story about the Buddha.

Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. Shewas so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying thechild with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man tookher to the Buddha.

The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I willbring your child back to life.”

Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gentlystopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a familywhere nobody has died.”

Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she foundout that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband,wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died.

What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother?

Upanishads

Around the time that the Buddha was preachingand perhaps a little earlier, other thinkers alsotried to find answers to difficult questions. Someof them wanted to know about life after death,others wanted to know why sacrifices should beperformed. Many of these thinkers felt that therewas something permanent in the universe thatwould last even after death. They described thisas the atman or the individual soul and thebrahman or the universal soul. They believed thatultimately, both the atman and the brahman wereone.

Many of their ideas were recorded in theUpanishads. These were part of the later Vedictexts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching andsitting near’ and the texts contain conversationsbetween teachers and students. Often, ideas werepresented through simple dialogues.

NEW QUESTIONS ANDIDEAS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

68OUR PASTS–I

The wise beggarHere is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famousUpanishads, the Chhandogya Upanishad.

Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped theuniversal soul.

Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied.“Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded.“If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but

a part of the world?” the beggar asked.“You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to

the universal soul.”The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their

food with him.How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him?

Most Upanishadic thinkers were men,especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, thereis mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi,who was famous for her learning, and participatedin debates held in royal courts. Poor people rarelytook part in these discussions. One famousexception was Satyakama Jabala, who was namedafter his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He hada deep desire to learn about reality, was acceptedas a student by a brahmin teacher namedGautama, and became one of the best-knownthinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of theUpanishads were later developed by the famousthinker Shankaracharya, about whom you willread in Class VII.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

69

Panini, the grammarianThis was also the time when other scholars were atwork. One of the most famous was Panini, whoprepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged thevowels and the consonants in a special order, andthen used these to create formulae like those foundin Algebra. He used these to write down the rulesof the language in short formulae (around 3000 ofthem!).

Jainism

The most famous thinker of the Jainas,Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his messagearound this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was akshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group thatwas part of the Vajji sangha, about which youread in Chapter 6. At the age of thirty, he lefthome and went to live in a forest. For twelve yearshe led a hard and lonely life, at the end of whichhe attained enlightenment.

He taught a simple doctrine: men and womenwho wished to know the truth must leave theirhomes. They must follow very strictly the rules ofahimsa, which means not hurting or killing livingbeings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live.To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people couldunderstand the teachings of Mahavira and hisfollowers, because they used Prakrit. There wereseveral forms of Prakrit, used in different parts ofthe country, and named after the regions in whichthey were used. For example, the Prakrit spokenin Magadha was known as Magadhi.

Followers of Mahavira, who were known asJainas, had to lead very simple lives, begging forfood. They had to be absolutely honest, and wereespecially asked not to steal. Also, they had toobserve celibacy. And men had to give upeverything, including their clothes. NEW QUESTIONS AND

IDEAS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

70OUR PASTS–I

It was very difficult for most men and womento follow these strict rules. Nevertheless,thousands left their homes to learn and teachthis new way of life. Many more remained behindand supported those who became monks andnuns, providing them with food.

Jainism was supported mainly by traders.Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect theircrops, found it more difficult to follow the rules.Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread todifferent parts of north India, and to Gujarat,Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings ofMahavira and his followers were transmittedorally for several centuries. They were writtendown in the form in which they are presentlyavailable at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat,about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 113).

The sangha

Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that onlythose who left their homes could gain trueknowledge. They arranged for them to staytogether in the sangha, an association of thosewho left their homes.

The rules made for the Buddhist sangha werewritten down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka.From this we know that there were separatebranches for men and women. All men could jointhe sangha. However, children had to take thepermission of their parents and slaves that of theirmasters. Those who worked for the king had totake his permission and debtors that of creditors.Women had to take their husbands’ permission.

Men and women who joined the sangha ledsimple lives. They meditated for most of the time,and went to cities and villages to beg for foodduring fixed hours. That is why they were knownas bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for beggar) and

JainaThe word Jainacomes from the

term Jina,meaning

conqueror.Why do you

think the termJina was usedfor Mahavira?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

71

bhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped oneanother. They also held meetings to settle anyquarrels that took place within the sangha.

Those who joined the sangha includedbrahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers,barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of themwrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Someof them also composed beautiful poems,describing their life in the sangha.

List at least two ways in which the sanghadescribed in this lesson was different from theone mentioned in Chapter 6. Were there anysimilarities?

Monasteries

To begin with, both Jainaand Buddhist monks wentfrom place to placethroughout the year,teaching people. The onlytime they stayed in oneplace was during the rainyseason, when it was verydifficult to travel. Then,their supporters builttemporary shelters forthem in gardens, or theylived in natural caves inhilly areas.

As time went on, manysupporters of the monksand nuns, and theythemselves, felt the needfor more permanentshelters and somonasteries were built.These were known asviharas. The earliest

A cave hollowed out inthe hills.This is a cave in Karle,present-day Maharashtra.Monks and nuns livedand meditated in theseshelters.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

72OUR PASTS–I

viharas were made of wood, and then of brick.Some were even in caves that were dug out inhills, especially in western India.

A Buddhist text tells us:Just as the waters of rivers lose their names andseparateness when they flow into the mighty ocean,so are varna and ranks and family forgotten whenthe followers of the Buddha join the order of monks.

Very often, the land on which the vihara wasbuilt was donated by a rich merchant or alandowner, or the king. The local people camewith gifts of food, clothing and medicines for themonks and nuns. In return, they taught thepeople. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread tomany parts of the subcontinent and beyond. Youwill learn more about this in Chapter 10.

The system of ashramasAround the time when Jainism and Buddhism were becoming popular,brahmins developed the system of ashramas.

Here, the word ashrama does not mean a place where people live andmeditate.

It is used instead for a stage of life.Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha,

vanaprastha and samnyasa.Brahmin, kshatriya and vaishya men were expected to lead simple

lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life(brahmacharya).

Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha).Then they had to live in the forest and meditate (vanaprastha).Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins.The system of ashramas allowed men to spend some part of their lives

in meditation. Generally, women were not allowed to study the Vedas, andthey had to follow the ashramas chosen by their husbands.

In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the sangha?What are the varnas mentioned here? Were all four varnas allowed to

participate in the system of ashramas?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

73

KEYWORDS

tanha

Prakrit

Upanishad

atman

brahman

ahimsa

Jaina

sangha

bhikkhu

vihara

monastery

ashrama

NEW QUESTIONS ANDIDEAS

ElsewhereFind Iran in your atlas. Zoroaster was an Iranianprophet. His teachings are contained in a bookcalled the Avesta. The language of the Avesta, andthe practices described in it are very similar to thoseof the Vedas. The basic teachings of Zoroaster arecontained in the maxim “Good thoughts, GoodWords and Good Deeds.” Here is a verse from theZend Avesta:

“Lord, grant strength and the rule of truth andgood thinking, by means of which one shall createpeace and tranquillity.”

For more than a thousand years, Zoroastrianismwas a major religion in Iran. Later, someZoroastrians migrated from Iran and settled downin the coastal towns of Gujarat and Maharashtra.They were the ancestors of today’s Parsis.

ImagineYou want to go to listen to one of the preachers wholived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversationwith your parents as you try to persuade them to letyou go.

Let’s recall

1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spreadhis message to the people.

2. Write whether true or false:

(a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices.

(b) Sarnath is important because it was the placewhere the Buddha taught for the first time.

(c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect onour lives.

(d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at BodhGaya.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

74OUR PASTS–I

e. Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atmanand brahman were ultimately one.

3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkerswanted to answer?

4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira?

Let’s discuss

5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her toknow the story of the Buddha?

6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves tojoin the sangha? Give reasons for your answer.

Let’s do

7. Make a list of at least five ideas and questionsmentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the listand discuss why you think they are important eventoday.

8. Find out more about men and women who renouncethe world today. Where do they live, what kinds ofclothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do theyrenounce the world?

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

Upanishadic thinkers,

the Jaina teacher

Mahavira and the

Buddha (about 2500

years ago)

Writing down of the

Jaina texts (about

1500 years ago)

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

75

Roshan’s rupeesRoshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfatherhad given her on her birthday. While she badly wantedto buy a new cassette, she also wanted to just see andfeel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticedthat all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printedon the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. Whatwere the lions there for, she wondered.

A very big kingdom = an empire

The lions that we see on our notes and coinshave a long history. They were carved in stone,and placed on top of a massive stone pillar atSarnath (about which you read in Chapter 7).

Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers knownto history and on his instructions inscriptionswere carved on pillars, as well as on rocksurfaces. Before we find out what was writtenin these inscriptions, let us see why hiskingdom was called an empire.

The empire that Ashoka ruled was foundedby his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya,more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta wassupported by a wise man named Chanakya orKautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas werewritten down in a book called the Arthashastra.

The lion capital

CHAPTER 8

ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR

DynastyWhen members of the same family become rulers one after another,the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty withthree important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, andBindusara’s son, Ashoka.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

76OUR PASTS–I

There were several cities in the empire (markedwith black dots on the map). These included thecapital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila wasa gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia,while Ujjain lay on the route from north to southIndia. Merchants, officials and crafts personsprobably lived in these cities.

In other areas there were villages of farmersand herders. In some areas such as central India,there were forests where people gathered forestproduce and hunted animals for food. People indifferent parts of the empire spoke different

The places whereinscriptions of Ashokahave been found aremarked with red dots.These were includedwithin the empire.Name the countries whereAshokan inscriptions havebeen found. Which Indianstates were outside theempire?

MAP : 5The Mauryan Empire, showing the

Principal Cities and some of the Placeswhere Inscriptions were found.

Inscriptions were found

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

77

languages. They probably ate different kinds offood, and wore different kinds of clothes as well.

How are empires different from kingdoms?• Emperors need more resources than kings because

empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to beprotected by big armies.

• So also they need a larger number of officials whocollect taxes.

Ruling the empire

As the empire was so large, different parts wereruled differently. The area around Pataliputra wasunder the direct control of the emperor. Thismeant that officials were appointed to collect taxesfrom farmers, herders, crafts persons and traders,who lived in villages and towns in the area.Officials also punished those who disobeyed theruler’s orders. Many of these officials were givensalaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spieskept a watch on the officials. And of course theemperor supervised them all, with the help ofmembers of the royal family, and senior ministers.

There were other areas or provinces. Each ofthese was ruled from a provincial capital such asTaxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amountof control from Pataliputra, and royal princes wereoften sent as governors, local customs and ruleswere probably followed.

Besides, there were vast areas between thesecentres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roadsand rivers, which were important for transport,and to collect whatever resources were availableas tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastratells us that the north-west was important forblankets, and south India for its gold and preciousstones. It is possible that these resources werecollected as tribute. ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR

WHO GAVE UP WAR

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

78OUR PASTS–I

TributeUnlike taxes, which were collected on a regularbasis, tribute was collected as and when it waspossible from people who gave a variety of things,more or less willingly.

There were also the forested regions. Peopleliving in these areas were more or lessindependent, but may have been expected toprovide elephants, timber, honey and wax toMauryan officials.

The emperor and the capital cityMegasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court ofChandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator.

Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part ofhis description:

“The occasions on which the emperor appears in public arecelebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a goldenpalanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver.Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock oftrained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king isnormally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone maytry to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats.He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.”

And about Pataliputra (modern Patna) he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive

wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and threestoreys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also ofwood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardensand enclosures for keeping birds.”

Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food heate?

In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: seeChapter 4)

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

79

Ashoka, a unique ruler

The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. Hewas the first ruler who tried to take his messageto the people through inscriptions. Most ofAshoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and werewritten in the Brahmi script.

Ashoka’s war in Kalinga

Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (seeMap 5, page 76). Ashoka fought a war to conquerKalinga. However, he was so horrified when hesaw the violence and bloodshed that he decidednot to fight any more wars. He is the only king inthe history of the world who gave up conquestafter winning a war.

Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga warThis is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions:

“Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga.About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh

of people were killed.This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and

many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die.People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and

servants die, or lose their loved ones.That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to

teach others about it as well.I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better

than conquering them through force.I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and

grandson after me should not think about war.Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.”How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude

towards war?(‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’).

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

80OUR PASTS–I

What was Ashoka’s dhamma?

Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of agod, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt thatjust as a father tries to teach his children, he hada duty to instruct his subjects. He was alsoinspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter7).

There were a number of problems that troubledhim. People in the empire followed differentreligions, and this sometimes led to conflict.Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants wereill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in familiesand amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was hisduty to solve these problems. So, he appointedofficials, known as the dhamma mahamatta whowent from place to place teaching people about

dhamma. Besides, Ashokagot his messages inscribedon rocks and pillars,instructing his officials toread his message to thosewho could not read itthemselves.

Ashoka also sentmessengers to spread ideasabout dhamma to otherlands, such as Syria, Egypt,Greece and Sri Lanka (seeMap 6, pages 84-85). Hebuilt roads, dug wells, andbuilt rest houses. Besides,he arranged for medicaltreatment for both humanbeings and animals.

The Rampurwa bull.Look at this finelypolished stone sculpture.This was part of aMauryan pillar found inRampurwa, Bihar, andhas now been placed inRashtrapati Bhavan. It isan example of the skill ofthe sculptors of the time.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

81

Ashoka’s messages to his subjects:“People perform a variety of rituals when they fallill, when their children get married, when childrenare born, or when they go on a journey.

These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this

would be more fruitful. What are these otherpractices?

These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or

criticise another’s.Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising

another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’sown religion.

Therefore, one should try to understand the mainideas of another’s religion, and respect it.”

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Ministerof India, wrote: “His edicts (instructions) still speakto us in a language we can understand and we canstill learn much from them.”

Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that youthink are relevant today.

Below : The Brahmiscript.Most modern Indianscripts have developedfrom the Brahmi scriptover hundreds of years.Here you can see theletter ‘a’ written indifferent scripts.

Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam Tamil

ASHOKA, THE EMPERORWHO GAVE UP WAR

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

82OUR PASTS–I

ElsewhereSomewhat before the time of the Mauryan empire,about 2400 years ago, emperors in China beganbuilding the Great Wall.

It was meant to protect thenorthern frontier of the empirefrom pastoral people. Additionsto the wall were made over aperiod of 2000 years becausethe frontiers of the empire keptshifting. The wall is about 6400km long, and is made of stoneand brick, with a road along thetop. Several thousand peopleworked to build the wall. Thereare watch towers all along, atdistances of about 100-200 m.

In what ways do you thinkAshoka’s attitude towardneighbouring peoples wasdifferent from that of theChinese emperors?

ImagineYou live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered inthe war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived withthe new ideas about dhamma. Describe the dialoguebetween them and your parents.

Let’s recall

1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who livedwithin the Mauryan empire.

2. Complete the following sentences:

(a) Officials collected ———————— from the area underthe direct control of the ruler.

(b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ———

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

83

(c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control ————————and ———————— which were important fortransport.

(d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryanofficials with ————————

3. State whether true or false:

(a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west.

(c) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in theArthashastra.

(d) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal.

(e) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmiscript.

Let’s discuss

4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solveby introducing dhamma?

5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spreadthe message of dhamma?

6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated?Do you think the orders of the emperor would haveimproved their condition? Give reasons for youranswer.

Let’s do

7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan whythe lions are shown on our currency notes. List atleast one other object on which you see them.

8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders,what four commands would you like to issue?

KEYWORDS

empire

capital

province

dhamma

messenger

official

ASHOKA, THE EMPERORWHO GAVE UP WAR

Beginning of the

Mauryan empire

(more than 2300

years ago)

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

84OUR PASTS–I

MAP : 6Showing Important Trade Routes including the Silk Route

These routes were under thecontrol of Chinese rulers.

These routes were under thecontrol of the Kushanas(Chapter 10).

These were important searoutes.

These routes were under thecontrol of the rulers of Iran(Persia).

These routes were controlledby the Roman emperors.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

85

Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab,Greek and Roman tradersparticipated in theseexchanges.

The ports along the coast ofsouth India were importantcentres for the export ofpepper and other spices.

Find Poduca (south India) on themap. This was the Roman namefor Arikamedu (Chapter 9).Based on The Times Atlas of World History,

(ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc,New Jersey, 1986, pp 70-71.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

86OUR PASTS–I

LOOKING AHEAD

The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere)rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kingsknown as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed

by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who setup kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India.Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, tillthe Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter11). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas(about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about theKushanas in Chapter 10.

In the north, and in parts ofcentral India, a general of theMauryas, named PushyamitraShunga, set up a kingdom. The

Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as theKanvas, and by rulers from other families till theestablishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago.

The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India foughtseveral battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled overwestern and parts of central India. The Satavahanakingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas,became powerful in central and western India.

In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyasruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, thoseof the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were severalother kingdoms and kings as well. We know about themfrom their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books.

There were other changes that were taking place,in which ordinary men and women played a major role.These included the spread ofagriculture and the growth ofnew towns, craft production and

trade. Traders explored land routes within thesubcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia,East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were alsoopened up. And many new buildings were built — includingthe earliest temples and stupas, books were written, andscientific discoveries were made. These developments tookplace simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this inmind as you read the rest of the book.

An Indo-Greek coin

A Kushana coin

A Shaka coin

A Satavahana coin

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

87

Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shopPrabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop.There was a small bench on which iron tools like axesand sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright firewas burning, and two men were heating and beatingmetal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yetit was fascinating to watch what was happening.

Iron tools and agriculture

We often take the use of iron for granted today.Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of ourdaily lives. The use of iron began in thesubcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some ofthe largest collections of iron tools and weaponswere found in the megalithic burials, about whichyou read in Chapter 5.

Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence forthe growing use of iron tools. These included axesfor clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. Aswe had seen (Chapter 6) the ploughshare wasuseful for increasing agricultural production.

Other steps to increase production:irrigation

The kings and kingdoms you have been readingabout could not have existed without the supportof flourishing villages. While new tools and thesystem of transplantation (Chapter 6) increasedproduction, irrigation was also used. Irrigationworks that were built during this time includedcanals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.

Iron tools.Here is a set of captions.Choose the right one foreach of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at leastf ive objects made of ironor steel that you use almosteveryday.

CHAPTER 9

VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS

VITAL VILLAGES,THRIVING TOWNS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

88OUR PASTS–I

Who lived in the villages?

There were at least three different kinds of peopleliving in most villages in the southern andnorthern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamilregion, large landowners were known as vellalar,ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, andlandless labourers, including slaves, were knownas kadaisiyar and adimai.

1. Kings need money for armies,palaces, forts. 2. They demand taxes from farmers.

3. 4. This is possible with irrigation.

5. 6.

7. Production increases. 8. So does revenue.

9.

If you look at the chart, you will find that someof the stages in the construction of irrigation worksare mentioned.Fill in the rest by using the following phrases:

• Labour is provided by the people.

• Farmers also benefit because crop production ismore certain.

• Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes.

• Kings provide money and plan irrigation works.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

89

In the northern part of the country, the villageheadman was known as the grama bhojaka.Usually, men from the same family held theposition for generations. In other words, the postwas hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often thelargest landowner. Generally, he had slaves andhired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, ashe was powerful, the king often used him to collecttaxes from the village. He also functioned as ajudge, and sometimes as a policeman.

Apart from the gramabhojaka, there were otherindependent farmers, known as grihapatis, mostof whom were smaller landowners. And then therewere men and women such as the dasakarmakara, who did not own land, and had toearn a living working on the fields owned by others.

In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenterand weaver.

The earliest Tamil compositionsSome of the earliest works in Tamil, known asSangam literature, were composed around 2300years ago. These texts were called Sangam becausethey were supposed to have been composed andcompiled in assemblies (known as sangams) ofpoets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map7, page 113). The Tamil terms mentioned above arefound in Sangam literature.

Finding out about cities: stories, travellers,sculpture and archaeology

You may have heard of the Jatakas. These werestories that were probably composed by ordinarypeople, and then written down and preserved byBuddhist monks. Here is part of a Jataka story,which tells us how a poor man gradually becamerich. VITAL VILLAGES,

THRIVING TOWNS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

90OUR PASTS–I

Once upon a time, there was a clever poor young man who lived in acity. His only resource was a dead rat. He started off by selling it for acoin to a hotel, for their cat.

Then one day, there was a storm. The king’s garden was littered withbranches and leaves, and the gardener was at a loss as to how to clearthe mess. The young man offered to clean the garden if he could keepthe wood and leaves. The gardener agreed at once.

The young man rounded up all the children who were playing, withan offer of sweets for every stick and leaf that they could collect. In notime, every scrap had been neatly piled near the entrance. Just then,the king’s potter was on the look out for fuel with which to bake hispots. So he took the whole lot and paid the young man for it.Our young man now thought of another plan. He carried a jar full of

water to the city gate, and offered water to 500 grass cutters. They werepleased and said: “You have done us a good turn. Tell us, what can wedo for you?”

He replied, “I’ll let you know when I need your help.”He then made friends with a trader. One day, the trader told him:

“Tomorrow, a horse dealer is coming to town with 500 horses.” Hearingthis, our young man went back to the grass cutters. He said: “Please giveme a bundle of grass each, and don’t sell your grass till mine is sold.”They agreed, and gave him 500 bundles of grass.

When the horse dealer could not buy grass anywhere else, he purchasedthe young man’s grass for a thousand coins. …

List the occupations of the persons mentioned in the story.For each one, try and decide whether they would have lived (a) only in

the city (b) only in villages (c) in both cities and villages.Why do you think the horse dealer was coming to the city?Do you think women could have taken up the occupations mentioned

in the story? Give reasons for your answer.

We can use other kinds of evidence to find outabout life in some of these early cities. Sculptorscarved scenes depicting peoples’ lives in townsand villages, as well as in the forest. Many of thesesculptures were used to decorate railings, pillarsand gateways of buildings that were visited bypeople.

Facing Page : Ring wellfound in Delhi.In what ways do you thinkthis system of drainage wasdifferent from that of theHarappans?

The clever poor man

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

91

Many of the cities that developed from about2500 years ago were capitals of themahajanapadas that you learnt about inChapter 6. As we had seen, some of thesecities were surrounded by massivefortification walls.

In many cities, archaeologists havefound rows of pots, or ceramic ringsarranged one on top of the other. Theseare known as ring wells. These seem tohave been used as toilets in some cases,and as drains and garbage dumps. Thesering wells are usually found in individualhouses.

We have hardly any remains of palaces,markets, or of homes of ordinary people.Perhaps some are yet to be discoveredby archaeologists. Others, made of wood,mud brick and thatch, may not havesurvived.

Another way of finding out about earlycities is from the accounts of sailors andtravellers who visited them. One of themost detailed accounts that has beenfound was by an unknown Greek sailor.He described all the ports he visited. Find

Below : A sculpture fromSanchi.This is a sculpture fromSanchi, a site with stupas,in Madhya Pradesh,showing the scene in acity. You will learn moreabout Sanchi in Chapter12. Notice the way wallsare shown. Are they madeof brick, wood or stone?Now look at the railings.Are they made of wood?Describe the roofs of thebuildings.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

92OUR PASTS–I

Bharuch on Map 7 (page 113) and then read hisdescription of the city.

The story of Barygaza(the Greek name for Bharuch)

The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for thosecoming from the sea.

Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermenwho were employed by the king.

The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz,cloth, gold and silver coins.

Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate,carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes.

Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These includedvessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth.

Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza.Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times.

Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king?

Coins

You may have noticed how wealth is measured interms of coins in the story on page 90.Archaeologists have found several thousands ofcoins belonging to this period. The earliest coinswhich were in use for about 500 years were punchmarked coins, such as the one shown below. Theyhave been given this name because the designswere punched on to the metal — silver or copper.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

93

Other means of exchangeRead this short poem from the Sangam collection:

As they carry the white paddy of their landTo exchange it for the salt of another,Crossing the long roads in carts,Through sands white as moonlight,Taking whole families,Who hate to be left behind,The departure of the salt merchantsLeaves the city empty.

Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast.What are the merchants planning to exchange it

with?How are they travelling?

Cities with many functions

Very often, a single town was important for avariety of reasons. Let us look at the example ofMathura (Map 7, page 113).

Mathura has been an important settlement formore than 2500 years. It was important becauseit was located at the cross roads of two majorroutes of travel and trade — from the northwestto the east and from north to south. There werefortifications around the city, and several shrines.Farmers and herders from adjoining areasprovided food for people in the city. Mathura wasalso a centre where some extremely fine sculpturewas produced.

Around 2000 years ago Mathura became thesecond capital of the Kushanas, about whomyou will be reading in Chapter 10. Mathura wasalso a religious centre — there were Buddhistmonasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was animportant centre for the worship of Krishna.

Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stoneslabs and statues have been found in Mathura.

VITAL VILLAGES,THRIVING TOWNS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

94OUR PASTS–I

Generally, these are short inscriptions, recordinggifts made by men (and sometimes women) tomonasteries and shrines. These were made bykings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance,inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths,blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garlandmakers, perfumers.

Make a list of the occupations of people wholived in Mathura. List one occupation that wasnot practised in Harappan cities.

Crafts and crafts persons

We also have archaeological evidence for crafts.These include extremely fine pottery, known asthe Northern Black Polished Ware. It gets its namefrom the fact that it is generally found in thenorthern part of the subcontinent. It is usuallyblack in colour, and has a fine sheen.

Remember that the archaeological evidence formany crafts may not have survived. We know fromtexts that the manufacture of cloth was important.There were famous centres such as Varanasi inthe north, and Madurai in the south. Both menand women worked in these centres.

Many crafts persons and merchants nowformed associations known as shrenis. Theseshrenis of crafts persons provided training,procured raw material, and distributed thefinished product. Then shrenis of merchantsorganised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks,where rich men and women deposited money.This was invested, and part of the interest wasreturned or used to support religious institutionssuch as monasteries.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

95

Rules for spinning and weavingThese rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 8. Theydescribe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops underthe supervision of a special official.

“Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers ofcourtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retiredfrom service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton,hemp and flax.

They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work.Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid-

servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take thefinished work back to him.

Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give theirwork and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examinethe work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks aboutanything other than the work, he should be punished.

If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, andher thumbs can be cut off.”

Make a list of all the women who could be employed by thesuperintendent.

Do you think women would have faced any problems while working?

A closer look — Arikamedu

Find Arikamedu (in Pondicherry) on Map 7(page 113), and read the box on Rome onpage 96. Between 2200 and 1900 years ago,Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where shipsunloaded goods from distant lands. A massivebrick structure, which may have been a warehouse,was found at the site. Other finds include potteryfrom the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae(tall double-handled jars that contained liquidssuch as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery,known as Arretine Ware, which was named after acity in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clayinto a stamped mould. There was yet another kindof pottery which was made locally, though Romandesigns were used. Roman lamps, glassware andgems have also been found at the site. VITAL VILLAGES,

THRIVING TOWNS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

96OUR PASTS–I

Small tanks have been foundthat were probably dyeing vats,used to dye cloth. There is plentyof evidence for the making of

beads from semi-precious stonesand glass.

List the evidence that indicates that there wascontact with Rome.

An aqueduct

Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.Several pieces of potteryhave inscriptions inBrahmi, which was usedto write Tamil.

ElsewhereFind Rome on Map 6 (page 84). This is one of the oldest cities inEurope, and developed around the same time as the cities in theGanga valley. Rome was the capital of one of the largest empires —

one that spread acrossEurope, North Africa, andWest Asia. Augustus, one ofthe most importantemperors, who ruled about2000 years ago, said that hefound Rome a city of brick,and made it into a city ofmarble. He, and later rulers,built temples and palaces.

They also built hugeamphitheatres — openarenas surrounded by tiersof seats — where citizenscould watch all kinds ofshows, and public baths(with separate timings formen and women), wherepeople met and relaxed.

Huge aqueducts — channels to supply water — were built to bringwater to the city — for the baths, fountains and toilets.

Why do you think the amphitheatres and aqueducts havesurvived?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

97

ImagineYou live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describewhat you would see there.

Let’s recall

1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) ———————— was a word used for large landownersin Tamil.

(b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivatedby the ————————

(c) Ploughmen were known as ———————— in Tamil.

(d) Most grihapatis were ———————— landowners.

2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why doyou think he was powerful?

3. List the crafts persons who would have been presentin both villages and cities.

4. Choose the correct answer:

(a) Ring wells were used for:

1. bathing

2. washing clothes

3. irrigation

4. drainage

(b) Punch marked coins were made of:

1. silver

2. gold

3. tin

4. ivory

KEYWORDS

iron

irrigation

village

port

ring well

city

shreni

Sangam

VITAL VILLAGES,THRIVING TOWNS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

98OUR PASTS–I

(c) Mathura was an important:

1. village

2. port

3. religious centre

4. forested area

(d) Shrenis were associations of:

1. rulers

2. crafts persons

3. farmers

4. herders

Let’s discuss

5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 87 would havebeen important for agriculture? What would the othertools have been used for?

6. Compare the drainage system in your locality withthat of the cities mentioned in the lesson. Whatsimilarities and differences do you notice?

Let’s do

7. If you have seen crafts persons at work, describe in ashort paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they getthe raw materials, what kind of equipment do theyuse, how do they work, what happens to the finishedproduct).

8. List the functions performed by men and women wholive in your city or village. In what ways are thesesimilar to those performed by people who lived inMathura? In what ways are they different?

Beginning of the use

of iron in the

subcontinent (about

3000 years ago)

Increase in the use of

iron, cities, punch

marked coins (about

2500 years ago)

Beginning of the

composition of

Sangam literature

(about 2300 years

ago)

Settlement in

Arikamedu (between

2200 and 1900 years

ago)

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

99

Jagini at the marketJagini looked forward to the fair in the village. She lovedto see and touch the pots and pans of shiny steel, brightplastic buckets, cloth printed with brilliant floral designs,and clockwork toys, all of which came from the city. Themen who spread out their wares came in buses and trucksand went back at the end of the day. Why were theyalways on the move? She wondered. Her motherexplained that they were traders — people who boughtthings where they were made, and sold them elsewhere.

How to find out about trade and traders

You read about the Northern Black Polished Warein Chapter 9. This fine pottery, especially bowlsand plates, were found from several archaeologicalsites throughout the subcontinent. How do youthink it reached these places? Traders may havecarried them from the places where they weremade, to sell them at other places.

South India was famous for gold, spices,especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepperwas particularly valued in the Roman Empire, somuch so that it was known as black gold. So,traders carried many of these goods to Rome inships, across the sea, and by land in caravans.There must have been quite a lot of trade as manyRoman gold coins have been found in south India.

Can you think of how and why these reachedIndia?

CHAPTER 10

TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS

TRADERS, KINGS ANDPILGRIMS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

100OUR PASTS–I

A poem about tradeWe can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems.

Here is one which describes the goods broughtinto Puhar, an important port on the east coast:

“(Here are brought)Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships,Bales of black pepper in carts,Gems and gold born in the Himalayas,Sandalwood born in the western hills,The pearls of the southern seasAnd corals from the eastern oceansThe yield of the Ganga and the crops from the

Kaveri,Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from

Myanmar,And other rare and rich imports.”

Make a list of all the things that are mentioned.What would they be used for?

Traders explored several sea routes. Some ofthese followed the coasts. There were others acrossthe Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, wheresailors took advantage of the monsoon winds tocross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted toreach the western coast of the subcontinent fromEast Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with thesouth-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to bebuilt for these long journeys.

New kingdoms along the coasts

The southern half of the subcontinent is markedby a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, andriver valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that ofthe Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kingswho controlled the river valleys and the coastsbecame rich and powerful. Sangam poemsmention the muvendar. This is a Tamil wordmeaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

101

ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas(see Map 7, page 113), who became powerful insouth India around 2300 years ago.

Each of the three chiefs had two centres ofpower: one inland, and one on the coast. Of thesesix cities, two were very important: Puhar orKaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, andMadurai, the capital of the Pandyas.

The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead,they demanded and received gifts from the people.They also went on military expeditions, andcollected tribute from neighbouring areas. Theykept some of the wealth and distributed the restamongst their supporters, including members oftheir family, soldiers, and poets. Many poetswhose compositions are found in the Sangamcollection composed poems in praise of chiefs whooften rewarded them with precious stones, gold,horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth.

Around 200 years later a dynasty known as theSatavahanas became powerful in western India(see Map 7, page 113). The most important ruler ofthe Satavahanas was Gautamiputra ShriSatakarni. We know about him from an inscriptioncomposed by his mother, Gautami Balashri. Heand other Satavahana rulers were known as lordsof the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading tothe south, which was also used as a name for theentire southern region. He sent his army to theeastern, western and southern coasts.

Why do you think he wanted to control thecoasts?

The story of the Silk Route

The rich, glossy colours of silk, as well as itssmooth texture, make it a highly valued fabric inmost societies. Making silk is a complicatedprocess. Raw silk has to be extracted from the TRADERS, KINGS AND

PILGRIMS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

102OUR PASTS–I

cocoons of silk worms, spun into thread and thenwoven into cloth. Techniques of making silk werefirst invented in China around 7000 years ago.While the methods remained a closely guardedsecret for thousands of years, some people fromChina who went to distant lands on foot,horseback, and on camels, carried silk with them.The paths they followed came to be known as theSilk Route.

Sometimes, Chinese rulers sent gifts of silk torulers in Iran and west Asia, and from there, theknowledge of silk spread further west. About 2000years ago, wearing silk became the fashionamongst rulers and rich people in Rome. It wasvery expensive, as it had to be brought all theway from China, along dangerous roads, throughmountains and deserts. People living along theroute often demanded payments for allowingtraders to pass through.

Look at Map 6 (pages 84-85) which shows theSilk Route and its branches. Some kings tried tocontrol large portions of the route. This wasbecause they could benefit from taxes, tributesand gifts that were brought by traders travellingalong the route. In return, they often protectedthe traders who passed through their kingdomsfrom attacks by robbers.

The best-known of the rulers who controlledthe Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled overcentral Asia and north-west India around 2000years ago. Their two major centres of power werePeshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also includedin their kingdom. During their rule, a branch ofthe Silk Route extended from Central Asia downto the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus,from where silk was shipped westwards to theRoman Empire. The Kushanas were amongst theearliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue gold

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

103

coins. These were used by traders along the SilkRoute.

Why do you think it would have been difficultto use carts along the Silk Route?

Silk was also sent from China by sea. Tracethe routes on Map 6 (pages 84-85). What do youthink would have been the advantages andproblems in transporting silk by sea?

The spread of Buddhism

The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka,who ruled around 1900 years ago. He organiseda Buddhist council, where scholars met anddiscussed important matters.Ashvaghosha, a poet whocomposed a biography of theBuddha, the Buddhacharita,lived in his court. Ashvaghoshaand other Buddhist scholars nowbegan writing in Sanskrit.

A new form of Buddhism,known as Mahayana Buddhism,now developed. This had twodistinct features. Earlier, theBuddha’s presence was shown insculpture by using certain signs.For instance, his attainment ofenlightenment was shown bysculptures of the peepal tree.

Now, statues of the Buddhawere made. Many of these weremade in Mathura, while otherswere made in Taxila.

The second change was a beliefin Bodhisattvas. These weresupposed to be persons who hadattained enlightenment. Once they attainedenlightenment, they could live in complete

A sculpture from thestupa at Sanchi.Look at the tree and theempty seat below it.Sculptors carved this toindicate that the Buddhahad attainedenlightenment whilemeditating under thetree.

TRADERS, KINGS ANDPILGRIMS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

104OUR PASTS–I

isolation and meditate in peace. However, insteadof doing that, they remained in the world to teachand help other people. The worship ofBodhisattvas became very popular, and spreadthroughout Central Asia, China, and later toKorea and Japan.

Buddhism also spread to western and southernIndia, where dozens of caves were hollowed outof hills for monks to live in.

Some of these caves were made on the orders ofkings and queens, others by merchants andfarmers. These were often located near passesthrough the Western Ghats. Roads connectingprosperous ports on the coast with cities in theDeccan ran through these passes. Traders probably

Below left : An image ofthe Buddha fromMathura.Right : An image of theBuddha from Taxila.Look at these and note thesimilarities and differencesthat you may f ind.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

105

halted in these cave monasteriesduring their travels.

Buddhism also spreadsouth eastwards, to Sri Lanka,Myanmar, Thailand, and otherparts of Southeast Asiaincluding Indonesia. The olderform of Buddhism, known asTheravada Buddhism wasmore popular in these areas.

Read page 100 once more.Can you think of howBuddhism spread to these lands?

The quest of the pilgrims

As traders journeyed to distant lands in caravansand ships, pilgrims often travelled with them.

Pilgrimsare men and women who undertake journeys toholy places in order to offer worship.

The best-known of these are the ChineseBuddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to thesubcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang(who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing,who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. Theycame to visit places associated with the life of theBuddha (Chapter 7) as well as famousmonasteries.

Each of these pilgrims left an account of hisjourney. They wrote of the dangers theyencountered on their travels, which often tookyears, of the countries and the monasteries thatthey visited, and the books they carried backwith them.

A cave at Karle,Maharashtra

TRADERS, KINGS ANDPILGRIMS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

106OUR PASTS–I

How Fa Xian returned to ChinaFa Xian began his journey back home from Bengal. He boarded a shipbelonging to some merchants. They had barely travelled for two days whenthey were caught in a storm. The merchants began throwing theirmerchandise overboard so as to lighten the load and save the ship fromsinking. Fa Xian threw away his meagre personal belongings, but clung tohis books and the statues of the Buddha that he had collected. Finally,the storm subsided after 13 days. This is how he describes the sea:

“The sea itself is boundless in extent — it is impossible to know east orwest, except by observing the sun, moon, or stars in their motions. If it isdark, rainy weather, the only plan is to steer by the wind.”

It took him more than 90 days to reach Java, where he halted for fivemonths, before boarding another merchant ship that took him to China.

Try and trace the route Fa Xian took on Map 6 (page 85).Why do you think he did not want to throw away his books and statues?

Xuan Zang, who took the land route back toChina (through the north-west, and Central Asia)carried back with him statues of the Buddha madeof gold, silver and sandalwood, and over 600manuscripts loaded on the backs of 20 horses.Over 50 manuscripts were lost when the boat onwhich he was crossing the Indus capsised. Hespent the rest of his life translating the remainingmanuscripts from Sanskrit into Chinese.

Nalanda – A unique centre of Buddhist learningXuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda, (Bihar)the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how hedescribes it:

“The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow theteachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery arestrict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughoutthe day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learnedmen from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeperasks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only afterthey have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten arenot able to answer.”

List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

107

The beginning of Bhakti

This was also the time when the worship of certaindeities, which became a central feature of laterHinduism, gained in importance. These deitiesincluded Shiva, Vishnu, and goddesses such asDurga.

These deities were worshipped through Bhakti,an idea that became very popular at this time.Bhakti is generally understood as a person’sdevotion to his or her chosen deity. Anybody,whether rich or poor, belonging to the so-called‘high’ or ‘low’ castes, man or woman, could followthe path of Bhakti.

The idea of Bhakti is present in the BhagavadGita, a sacred book of the Hindus, which isincluded in the Mahabharata (see Chapter12). In this Krishna the god, asks Arjuna,his devotee and friend, to abandon alldharmas and take refuge in him, as onlyhe can set Arjuna free from every evil.This form of worship gradually spreadto different parts of the country.

Those who followed the system ofBhakti emphasised devotion andindividual worship of a god or goddess,rather than the performance ofelaborate sacrifices.

According to this system of belief, ifa devotee worships the chosen deitywith a pure heart, the deity will appearin the form in which he or she maydesire. So, the deity could be thoughtof as a human being, lion, tree or anyother form. Once this idea gainedacceptance, artists made beautifulimages of these deities.

Vishnu as Varaha — animage from Eran, MadhyaPradesh.This magnif icent statue isof a special form ofVishnu, the Varaha orboar. According to thePuranas (see Chapter 12)Vishnu took the shape ofa boar in order to rescuethe earth, which hadsunk into water. Herethe earth is shown as awoman.

TRADERS, KINGS ANDPILGRIMS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

108OUR PASTS–I

BhaktiComes from the Sanskrit term bhaj meaning ‘to divide or share.’ Thissuggests an intimate, two-way relationship between the deity and thedevotee. Bhakti is directed towards Bhagavat, which is often translated asgod, but also means one who possesses and shares bhaga, literally goodfortune or bliss. The devotee, known as the bhakta or the bhagavata,shares his or her chosen deity’s bhaga.

A poem by a bhaktaMost Bhakti literature tells us that riches, learning and high status do notautomatically ensure a close relationship with the deity. This is part of apoem composed in Tamil by Appar, a devotee of Shiva, who lived about1400 years ago. Appar was a vellala (Chapter 9).

“The leper with rotting limbs,The man who is regarded as low by the brahmin, even the scavenger...Even these men, if they are servants (i.e. devotees)Of him who shelters the Ganga in his long hair (i.e. Shiva)I worship them,They are gods to me.”What does the poet regard as more valuable, social status or devotion?

Because the deities were special, these imagesof the deity were often placed within special homes,places that we describe as temples. You will learnmore about these temples in Chapter 12.

Bhakti inspired some of the best expressionsin art — sculpture, poetry and architecture.

HinduThe word ‘Hindu’, like the term ‘India’ is derivedfrom the river Indus. It was used by Arabs andIranians to refer to people who lived to the east ofthe river, and to their cultural practices, includingreligious beliefs.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

109

Elsewhere About 2000 years ago, Christianity emerged in West Asia. Jesus Christwas born in Bethlehem, which was then part of the Roman empire. Christ’steachings were that He was the Saviour of the world. He also taught peopleto treat others with love and trust others, just as they themselves wantedto be treated.

Here are a few verses from the Bible, the holy book that contains theteachings of Christ:

“Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness,For they shall be filled.Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.Blessed are the pure in heart for they shall see God.Blessed are the peacemakers for they shall be called sons of God.”Christ’s teachings appealed to ordinary people, and spread through

West Asia, Africa and Europe. The first Christian preachers came fromWest Asia to the west coast of the subcontinent within a hundred years ofChrist’s death.

Look at Map 6 (pages 84-85) and trace out the route that they mayhave used.

The Christians of Kerala, known as Syrian Christians because theyprobably came from West Asia, are amongst the oldest Christiancommunities in the world.

KEYWORDS

trader

muvendar

route

silk

Kushanas

Mahayana

Buddhism

Theravada

Buddhism

Bodhisattva

pilgrim

Bhakti

ImagineYou have a manuscript which a Chinese pilgrim wouldlike to carry back with him. Describe your conversation.

Let’s recall

1. Match the following:

Muvendar Mahayana Buddhism

Lords of the dakshinapatha Buddhacharita

Ashvaghosha Satavahana rulers

Bodhisattvas Chinese pilgrim

Xuan Zang Cholas, Cheras andPandyas

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

110OUR PASTS–I

2. Why did kings want to control the Silk Route?

3. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find outabout trade and trade routes?

4. What were the main features of Bhakti?

Let’s discuss

5. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims cameto India.

6. Why do you think ordinary people were attracted toBhakti?

Let’s do

7. List five things that you buy from the market. Whichof these are made in the city/village in which you live,and which are brought by traders from other areas?

8. There are several major pilgrimages performed bypeople in India today. Find out about any one of them,and write a short description. (Hint: who can go onthe pilgrimage — men, women or children? How longdoes it take? How do people travel? What do they takewith them? What do they do when they reach the holyplace? Do they bring anything back with them?)

Discovery of silk

making (about 7000

years ago)

The Cholas, Cheras

and Pandyas (about

2300 years ago)

Growing demand for

silk in the Roman

Empire (about 2000

years ago)

Kanishka, the

Kushana ruler (about

1900 years ago)

Fa Xian comes to

India (about 1600

years ago)

Xuan Zang comes to

India, Appar

composes devotional

poems in praise of

Shiva (about 1400

years ago)

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

111

Arvind plays a kingArvind had been chosen to act as a king in the schoolplay. He had expected to march solemnly in splendidrobes, to twirl his moustaches and wield the silver-paperwrapped sword with gusto. Imagine his surprise whenhe was told he would also have to sit and play a veena,and recite poetry! A musician-king? Who was that? hewondered.

Prashastis and what they tell us

Arvind was supposed to be acting asSamudragupta, a famous ruler of a dynastyknown as the Guptas. We know aboutSamudragupta from a long inscription, actuallya poem in Sanskrit, composed by his court poet,Harishena nearly1700 years ago. This wasinscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad.

This inscription is of a special kind known asa prashasti, a Sanskrit word, meaning ‘in praiseof’. While prashastis were composed for some ofthe rulers you read about in Chapter 10, such asGautamiputra Shri Satakarni, they became farmore important from the time of the Guptas.

Samudragupta’s prashasti

Let us see what Samudragupta’s prashasti tellsus. The poet praised the king in glowing terms —as a warrior, as a king who won victories in battle,who was learned and the best of poets. He is alsodescribed as equal to the gods. The prashasti wascomposed in very long sentences. Here is part ofone such sentence:

CHAPTER 11

NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS

NEW EMPIRES ANDKINGDOMS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

112OUR PASTS–I

Samudragupta the warriorWhose body was most charming, being covered withthe plenteous beauty of the marks of hundreds ofscars caused by battle-axes, arrows, spikes, spears,barbed darts, swords, iron clubs, javelins, barbedarrows, long arrows and many other weapons.

What does this description tell you about theking? And also about how kings fought wars?

If you look at Map 7 (page113), you will noticean area shaded in green. You will also find a seriesof red dots along the east coast. And you will findareas marked in purple and blue as well.

This map is based on the information providedin the prashasti. Harishena describes fourdifferent kinds of rulers, and tells us aboutSamudragupta’s policies towards them.

1. The rulers of Aryavarta, the area shaded in green onthe map. Here there were nine rulers who wereuprooted, and their kingdoms were made a part ofSamudragupta’s empire.

2. The rulers of Dakshinapatha. Here there were twelverulers, some of whose capitals are marked with reddots on the map. They surrendered toSamudragupta after being defeated and he thenallowed them to rule again.

3. The inner circle of neighbouring states, includingAssam, coastal Bengal, Nepal, and a number ofgana sanghas (remember Chapter 6) in the north-west, marked in purple on the map. They broughttribute, followed his orders, and attended his court.

4. The rulers of the outlying areas, marked in blue onthe map, perhaps the descendants of the Kushanasand Shakas, and the ruler of Sri Lanka, whosubmitted to him and offered daughters inmarriage.

The king who played theveena.Some other qualities ofSamudragupta are shownon coins such as this one,where he is shownplaying the veena.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

113

Find Prayaga (the old name for Allahabad),Ujjain and Pataliputra (Patna) on the map. Thesewere important centres of the Gupta rulers.

What was the difference between the way inwhich Samudragupta treated the rulers ofAryavarta and Dakshinapatha?

Can you suggest any reasons for this difference?

NEW EMPIRES ANDKINGDOMS

MAP : 7Showing Important Cities and

Kingdoms

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

114OUR PASTS–I

Genealogies

Most prashastis also mention the ancestors of theruler. This one mentions Samudragupta’s greatgrandfather, grandfather, father and mother. Hismother, Kumara devi, belonged to the Lichchhavigana, while his father, Chandragupta, was thefirst ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grandtitle of maharaj-adhiraja, a title thatSamudragupta also used. His great grandfatherand grandfather are mentioned simply as maha-rajas. It seems as if the family gradually rose toimportance.

Arrange these titles in order of importance: raja,maharaj-adhiraja, maha-raja.

Samudragupta in turn figures in the genealogies(lists of ancestors) of later rulers of the dynasty,such as his son, Chandragupta II. We know abouthim from inscriptions and coins. He led anexpedition to western India, where he overcamethe last of the Shakas. According to later belief,his court was full of learned people, includingKalidasa the poet, and Aryabhata the astronomer,about whom you will read more in Chapter 12.

Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita

While we can learn about the Gupta rulers from theirinscriptions and coins, we can find out about somekings from biographies. Harshavardhana, who rulednearly 1400 years ago, was one such ruler. His courtpoet, Banabhatta, wrote his biography, theHarshacharita, in Sanskrit. This gives us thegenealogy of Harsha, and ends with his becomingking. Xuan Zang, about whom you read in Chapter10, also spent a lot of time at Harsha’s court and lefta detailed account of what he saw.

Harsha was not the eldest son of his father,but became king of Thanesar after both his fatherand elder brother died. His brother-in-law was

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

115

the ruler of Kanauj (see Map 7) and he was killedby the ruler of Bengal. Harsha took over thekingdom of Kanauj, and then led an army againstthe ruler of Bengal.

Although he was successful in the east, andconquered both Magadha and Bengal, he was notas successful elsewhere. He tried to cross theNarmada to march into the Deccan, but wasstopped by a ruler belonging to the Chalukyadynasty, Pulakeshin II.

Look at Map 8 (page136) and list the present-day states which Harshavardhana passedthrough when he went (a) to Bengal and (b) up tothe Narmada.

The Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pulakeshin’sprashasti

The Pallavas and Chalukyas were the mostimportant ruling dynasties in south India duringthis period. The kingdom of the Pallavas spreadfrom the region around their capital, Kanchipuram,to the Kaveri delta, while that of the Chalukyaswas centred around the Raichur Doab, betweenthe rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.

Aihole, the capital of the Chalukyas, was animportant trading centre (see Map 7). It developedas a religious centre, with a number of temples.The Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently raided oneanother’s lands, especially attacking the capitalcities, which were prosperous towns.

The best-known Chalukya ruler was PulakeshinII. We know about him from a prashasti, composedby his court poet Ravikirti. This tells us about hisancestors, who are traced back through fourgenerations from father to son. Pulakeshinevidently got the kingdom from his uncle.

According to Ravikirti, he led expeditions alongboth the west and the east coasts. Besides, he NEW EMPIRES AND

KINGDOMS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

116OUR PASTS–I

checked the advance of Harsha. There is aninteresting play of words in the poem. Harshameans happiness. The poet says that after thisdefeat, Harsha was no longer Harsha! Pulakeshinalso attacked the Pallava king, who took shelterbehind the walls of Kanchipuram.

But the Chalukya victory was short-lived.Ultimately, both the Pallavas and the Chalukyasgave way to new rulers belonging to theRashtrakuta and Chola dynasties, about whichyou will study in Class VII.

Who were the other rulers who tried to controlthe coasts and why? (Hint: see Chapter 10).

How were these kingdoms administered?

As in the case of earlier kings, land revenueremained important for these rulers, and thevillage remained the basic unit of administration.

There were some new developments as well.Kings adopted a number of steps to win thesupport of men who were powerful, eithereconomically, or socially, or because of theirpolitical and military strength. For instance:

• Some important administrative posts were nowhereditary. This means that sons succeeded fathersto these posts. For example, the poet Harishena wasa maha-danda-nayaka, or chief judicial officer, likehis father.

• Sometimes, one person held many offices. Forinstance, besides being a maha-danda-nayaka,Harishena was a kumar-amatya, meaning animportant minister, and a sandhi-vigrahika,meaning a minister of war and peace.

• Besides, important men probably had a say in localadministration. These included the nagara-shreshthi or chief banker or merchant of the city,the sarthavaha or leader of the merchant caravans,the prathama-kulika or the chief craftsman, and thehead of the kayasthas or scribes.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

117

These policies were reasonably effective, butsooner or later, some of these powerful men grewstrong enough to set up independent kingdoms.

What do you think may have been theadvantages and disadvantages of havinghereditary officers?

A new kind of army

Like earlier rulers, some of these kings maintaineda well-organised army, with elephants, chariots,cavalry and foot soldiers. Besides, there weremilitary leaders who provided the king with troopswhenever he needed them. They were not paidregular salaries. Instead, some of them receivedgrants of land. They collected revenue from theland and used this to maintain soldiers andhorses, and provide equipment for warfare. Thesemen were known as samantas. Whenever theruler was weak, samantas tried to becomeindependent.

Assemblies in the southern kingdoms

The inscriptions of the Pallavas mention a numberof local assemblies. These included the sabha,which was an assembly of brahmin land owners.This assembly functioned through sub-committees, which looked after irrigation,agricultural operations, making roads, localtemples, etc.

The ur was a village assembly found in areaswhere the land owners were not brahmins. Andthe nagaram was an organisation of merchants.It is likely that these assemblies were controlledby rich and powerful landowners and merchants.Many of these local assemblies continued tofunction for centuries.

NEW EMPIRES ANDKINGDOMS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

118OUR PASTS–I

Ordinary people in the kingdoms

We can catch an occasional glimpse of the livesof ordinary people from plays, and other accounts.Let us look at some of these.

Kalidasa is known for his plays depicting life inthe king’s court. An interesting feature about theseplays is that the king and most brahmins are shownas speaking Sanskrit, while women and men otherthan the king and brahmins use Prakrit. His mostfamous play, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, is the storyof the love between a king named Dushyanta anda young woman named Shakuntala. We find aninteresting description of the plight of a poorfisherman in this play.

A fisherman finds a ringA fisherman found a precious ring, which the kinghad given to Shakuntala, but which had beenaccidentally swallowed by a fish. When he went tothe palace with it, the gatemen accused him of theft,and the chief police officer was rather rude. However,the king was happy when he saw the ring and senta reward for the fisherman. Then, the police officerand the gatemen decided to take a share of thereward, and went along with the fisherman to havea drink.

Do you think that if a poor man finds somethingand reports this to the police he would be treatedlike this today?

Name a famous man who taught in Prakrit anda king who issued inscriptions in Prakrit (hint: seeChapters 7 and 8)

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

119

The Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian noticed the plightof those who were treated as untouchables bythe high and mighty. They were expected to liveon the outskirts of the city. He writes: “If such aman enters a town or a market place, he strikes apiece of wood, in order to keep himself separate;people, hearing this sound, know what it meansand avoid touching him or brushing against him.”

And Banabhatta provides us with a vividpicture of the king’s army on the move:

The king’s armyThe king travelled with an enormous amount ofequipment. Apart from weapons, there were thingsof daily use such as pots, pans, furniture, goldenfootstools, food, including animals such as goat,deer, rabbits, vegetables, spices, carried on carts orloaded on to pack animals such as camels andelephants. This huge army was accompanied bymusicians beating drums, and others playing hornsand trumpets.

Villagers had to provide hospitality along the way.They came with gifts of curds, gur and flowers, andprovided fodder for the animals. They also tried tomeet the king, and place their complaints andpetitions before him.

The army left a trail of destruction behind.Elephants often trampled down the huts of villagers,and the oxen yoked to the caravans of merchantsran away, scared by the tumult.

As Banabhatta says: “The whole world wasswallowed up in dust.”

Make a list of all the things that were carried withthe army.

What did the villagers bring for the king?

NEW EMPIRES ANDKINGDOMS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

120OUR PASTS–I

ElsewhereFind Arabia on Map 6 (pages 84-85). Although it is a desert, it was atthe hub of communications for centuries. In fact, Arab merchants andsailors played an important role in the sea trade between India andEurope (see page 100). Others who lived in Arabia were the Bedouins,pastoral tribes depending mainly on like hardy animals camels, thatcould survive in the desert.

Around 1400 years ago, Prophet Muhammad introduced a newreligion, Islam, in Arabia. Like Christianity, Islam was a religion thatlaid stress on the equality and unity of all before Allah, the one supremegod. Here is a verse from the Quran, the sacred book of Islam:

“For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, fordevout men and women, for true men and women, for men and womenwho are patient and constant, for men and women who humblethemselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and womenwho fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for menand women who engage much in Allah’s remembrance, for them hasAllah prepared forgiveness and great reward.”

Within a hundred years Islam spread to north Africa, Spain, Iran andIndia. Arab sailors, who were already familiar with the coastal settlementsof the subcontinent, now brought the new religion with them. Arabs soldiersconquered Sind (in present-day Pakistan) about 1300 years ago.

Trace the routes that would have been taken by these sailors andsoldiers on Map 6.

ImagineHarshavardhana’s army will visit your village next week.Your parents are preparing for the visit. Describe whatthey say and do.

Let’s recall

1. State whether true or false:

(a) Harishena composed a prashasti in praise ofGautamiputra Shri Satakarni.

(b) The rulers of Aryavarta brought tribute forSamudragupta.

(c) There were twelve rulers in Dakshinapatha.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

121

KEYWORDS

prashasti

Aryavarta

Dakshinapatha

genealogy

hereditary officer

samanta

assembly

nagaram

(d) Taxila and Madurai were important centresunder the control of the Gupta rulers.

(e) Aihole was the capital of the Pallavas.

(f) Local assemblies functioned for several centuriesin south India.

2. Mention three authors who wrote aboutHarshavardhana.

3. What changes do you find in the army at this time?

4. What were the new administrative arrangementsduring this period?

Let’s discuss

5. What do you think Arvind would have to do if he wasacting as Samudragupta?

6. Do you think ordinary people would have read andunderstood the prashastis? Give reasons for youranswer.

Let’s do

7. If you had to make a genealogy for yourself, who arethe people you would include in it? How manygenerations would you like to show? Make a chartand fill it.

8. How do you think wars affect the lives of ordinarypeople today?

NEW EMPIRES ANDKINGDOMS

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

Beginning of the

Gupta dynasty (about

1700 years ago)

The rule of

Harshavardhana

(about 1400 years

ago)

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

122OUR PASTS–I

Marutasami and the iron pillarMarutasami was so excited. His brother had propelledhis wheelchair all along the dusty, stony path, past thetowering Qutb Minar, and up the metal ramp. It hadbeen tough, but now he was here, in front of the famousiron pillar. It was an unforgettable experience.

The iron pillar

The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, is a remarkableexample of the skill of Indian crafts persons. It ismade of iron, 7.2. m high, and weighs over 3tonnes. It was made about 1500 years ago. Weknow the date because there is an inscription onthe pillar mentioning a ruler named Chandra,who probably belonged to the Gupta dynasty(Chapter 11). What is amazing is the fact that thepillar has not rusted in all these years.

Buildings in brick and stone

The skills of our crafts persons are also apparentin the buildings that have survived, such asstupas. The word stupa means a mound. Whilethere are several kinds of stupas, round and tall,big and small, these have certain commonfeatures. Generally, there is a small box placed atthe centre or heart of the stupa. This may containbodily remains (such as teeth, bone or ashes) ofthe Buddha or his followers, or things they used,as well as precious stones, and coins.

This box, known as a relic casket, was coveredwith earth. Later, a layer of mud brick or bakedbrick was added on top. And then, the dome likestructure was sometimes covered with carvedstone slabs.

The iron pillar

CHAPTER 12

BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS AND BOOKS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

123

Often, a path, known as thepradakshina patha, was laidaround the stupa. This wassurrounded with railings.Entrance to the path was throughgateways. Devotees walkedaround the stupa, in a clockwisedirection, as a mark of devotion.Both railings and gateways wereoften decorated with sculpture.

Find Amaravati on Map 7(page 113). This was a placewhere a magnificent stupa onceexisted. Many of the stonecarvings for decorating the stupawere made about 2000 years ago.

Other buildings were hollowedout of rock to make artificialcaves. Some of these were veryelaborately decorated withsculptures and painted walls.

Some of the earliest Hindu temples were also builtat this time. Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, andDurga were worshipped in these shrines. Themost important part of the temple was theroom known as the garbhagriha, where the

image of the chief deity wasplaced. It was here that

priests performedreligious rituals, anddevotees offeredworship to thedeity.

Often, as atBhitargaon, atower, known as

the shikhara, wasbuilt on top of the

Top : The Great Stupa atSanchi, Madhya Pradesh.Stupas like this one werebuilt over severalcenturies. While thebrick mound probablydates to the time ofAshoka (Chapter 8), therailings and gatewayswere added during thetime of later rulers.Left : Sculpture fromAmaravati.Look at the picture anddescribe what you see.

BUILDINGS, PAINTINGSAND BOOKS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

124OUR PASTS–I

garbhagriha, to mark this out as a sacred place.Building shikharas required careful planning.Most temples also had a space known as themandapa. It was a hall where people couldassemble.

Find Mahabalipuram and Aihole on Map 7(page 113). Some of the finest stone temples werebuilt in these towns. Some of these are shownhere.

Top : An early temple atBhitargaon, UttarPradesh.This was built about 1500years ago, and was madeof baked brick and stone.

Top Right : Monolithictemples atMahabalipuram.Each of these was carvedout of a huge, singlepiece of stone (that iswhy they are known asmonoliths). While brickstructures are built up byadding layers of bricksfrom the bottomupwards, in this case thestone cutters had towork from topdownwards.List the problems thatstone cutters may havefaced.

Right : The Durga templeat Aihole, built about1400 years ago.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

125

How were stupas and temples built?

There were several stages in building a stupa or atemple. Usually, kings or queens decided to buildthese as it was an expensive affair. First, goodquality stone had to be found, quarried, andtransported to the place that was often carefullychosen for the new building. Here, these roughblocks of stone had to be shaped and carved intopillars, and panels for walls, floors and ceilings.And then these had to be placed in precisely theright position.

Kings and queens probably spent money fromtheir treasury to pay the crafts persons whoworked to build these splendid structures.Besides, when devotees came to visitthe temple or the stupa, they oftenbrought gifts, which were used todecorate the buildings. Forexample, an association of ivoryworkers paid for one of thebeautiful gateways at Sanchi.

Among the others who paidfor decorations were merchants,farmers, garland makers,perfumers,smiths, and hundreds of men and

Left : A Jaina monasteryfrom Orissa.This two storey buildingwas carved out of therock surface. Notice theentrance to the rooms.Jaina monks lived andmeditated in theserooms.In what ways is the caveshown here dif ferent fromthe illustration on p.15?

Below : A sculpture fromthe National Museum,New Delhi.Can you see how some ofthe caves may have beenhollowed out?

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

126OUR PASTS–I

women who are known only by theirnames which were inscribed onpillars, railings and walls. So whenyou get a chance to visit any of thesebuildings, remember how severalhundreds of people probably workedto construct and decorate them.

Make a diagram like the one onpage 88 (Chapter 9) to show the stagesin the building of a temple or stupa.

Painting

Find Ajanta on Map 7 (page 113). Thisis a place where several caves werehollowed out of the hills overcenturies. Most of these weremonasteries for Buddhist monks, andsome of them were decorated withpaintings. Here are some examples.

As the caves are dark inside, most of thesepaintings were done in the light of torches. Thecolours, which are vivid even after 1500 years,were made of plants and minerals. The artistswho created these splendid works of art remainunknown.

Paintings from Ajanta.Describe what you see ineach of these paintings. ©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

127

The world of books

Some of the best–known epics were written duringthis period. Epics are grand, long compositions,about heroic men and women, and include storiesabout gods.

A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, wascomposed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800years ago. It is the story of a merchant namedKovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love witha courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wifeKannagi. Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar andwent to Madurai, where he was wrongly accusedof theft by the court jeweller of the Pandya king.The king sentenced Kovalan to death. Kannagi,who still loved him, was full of grief and anger atthis injustice, and destroyed the entire city ofMadurai.

A description from the SilappadikaramHere is how the poet describes Kannagi’s grief:

“O witness of my grief, you cannot console me. Is it right that yourbody, fairer than pure gold, lies unwashed here in the dust? Is it just thatin the red glow of the twilight, your handsome chest, framed with a flowerwreath, lies thrown down on the bare earth, while I remain alone, helplessand abandoned to despair? Is there no god? Is there no god in this country?Can there be a god in a land where the sword of the king is used for themurder of innocent strangers? Is there no god, no god?”

Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai wascomposed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago.This describes the story of the daughter ofKovalan and Madhavi. These beautifulcompositions were lost to scholars for manycenturies, till their manuscripts wererediscovered, about a hundred years ago.

Other writers, such as Kalidasa, (about whomyou read in Chapter 11) wrote in Sanskrit. BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS

AND BOOKS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

128OUR PASTS–I

A verse from the MeghadutaHere is a verse from Kalidasa’s best-known poem,the Meghaduta, in which a monsoon cloud isimagined to be a messenger between lovers who areseparated from one another.

See how the poet describes the breeze that willcarry the cloud northwards:

“A cool breeze, delightful as it is touchedWith the fragrance of the earthSwollen by your showers,Inhaled deeply by elephants,And causing the wild figs to ripen,Will blow gently as you go.”Do you think Kalidasa can be described as a lover

of nature?

Recording and preserving old stories

A number of Hindu religious stories that were incirculation earlier were written down around thesame time. These include the Puranas. Puranaliterally mean old. The Puranas contain storiesabout gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva,Durga or Parvati. They also contain details onhow they were to be worshipped. Besides, thereare accounts about the creation of the world, andabout kings.

The Puranas were written in simple Sanskritverse, and were meant to be heard by everybody,including women and shudras, who were notallowed to study the Vedas. They were probablyrecited in temples by priests, and people came tolisten to them.

Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata andRamayana had been popular for a very long time.Some of you may be familiar with these stories.The Mahabharata is about a war fought betweenthe Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins.

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

129

This was a war to gain control of the throne of theKurus, and their capital, Hastinapur. The storyitself was an old one, but was written down in theform in which we know it today, about 1500 yearsago. Both the Puranas and the Mahabharata aresupposed to have been compiled by Vyasa. TheBhagavad Gita, about which you learnt in Chapter10, was also included in the Mahabharata.

The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince ofKosala, who was sent into exile. His wife Sita wasabducted by the king of Lanka, named Ravana,and Rama had to fight a battle to get her back. Hewon and returned to Ayodhya, the capital ofKosala, after his victory. Like the Mahabharata,this was an old story that was now written down.Valmiki is recognised as the author of the SanskritRamayana.

There are several versions (many of which areperformed) of the Mahabharata and theRamayana, popular amongst people in differentparts of the subcontinent. Find out about aversion in your state.

Stories told by ordinary people

Ordinary people also told stories, composedpoems and songs, sang, danced, and performedplays. Some of these are preserved in collectionsof stories such as the Jatakas and thePanchatantra, which were written down aroundthis time. Stories from the Jatakas were oftenshown on the railings of stupas and in paintingsin places such as Ajanta.Here is one such story:

BUILDINGS, PAINTINGSAND BOOKS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

130OUR PASTS–I

The story of the monkey kingOnce upon a time there was a great monkey king,who lived on the banks of the Ganga in theHimalayas, with 80,000 followers. They fed on thefruit of a special mango tree, which were verysweet. Such exquisite mangoes did not grow onthe plains. One day, a ripe mango fell into theriver and floated all the way to Varanasi. Therethe king of the city who was bathing in the riverfound it, and was amazed when he tasted it. Heasked the foresters of his kingdom whether theycould find the tree for him, and they led him all

the way to the Himalayas. There, the kingand his courtiers had their fill of

mangoes. At night, the kingdiscovered that the monkeys

were also feasting on the fruit,and decided to kill them.

However, the king of themonkeys worked out aplan to save his followers.He broke off branches ofthe mango tree, and tiedthem to form a ‘bridge’

across the river, and heldon to one end till all his

followers crossed over.Exhausted with the effort, he

fell down and lay dying.The human king saw what had

happened, and tried unsuccessfully torevive the monkey. When he died, the kingmourned his death and paid him full respect.

This story is shown on a piece of sculpturefound from a stupa at Bharhut in central India.Can you identify which parts of the story areshown in the sculpture?

Why do you think these were chosen? 130OUR PASTS–I

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

131

Writing books on science

This was also the time when Aryabhata, amathematician and astronomer, wrote a book inSanskrit known as the Aryabhatiyam. He statedthat day and night were caused by the rotation ofthe earth on its axis, even though it seems as ifthe sun is rising and setting everyday. Hedeveloped a scientific explanation for eclipses aswell. He also found a way of calculating thecircumference of a circle, which is nearly asaccurate as the formula we use today.

ZeroWhile numerals had been used earlier,mathematicians in India now invented a specialsymbol for zero. This system of counting wasadapted by the Arabs and then spread to Europe.It continues to be in use throughout the world.

The Romans used a system of counting withoutusing zero. Try and find out more about it.

ElsewherePaper has become a part of our daily lives. The bookswe read are printed on paper, and we use paper forwriting. Paper was invented in China about 1900years ago, by a man named Cai Lun. He beat plantfibres, cloth, rope and the bark of trees, soaked thesein water, and then pressed, drained and dried thepulp to create paper. Even today, hand made paperis made through a similar process.

The technique of making paper was a closelyguarded secret for centuries. It reached Korea about1400 years ago, and spread to Japan soon after. Itwas known in Baghdad about 1800 years ago. FromBaghdad it spread to Europe, Africa, and other partsof Asia including the subcontinent.

What were manuscripts in early India made outof ? (Hint: See Chapter 1)

KEYWORDS

stupa

temple

painting

epic

story

Purana

science

mathematics

BUILDINGS, PAINTINGSAND BOOKS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

132OUR PASTS–I

ImagineYou are sitting in a mandapa of a temple. Describe thescene around you.

Let’s recall

1. Match the following

Stupa Place where the imageof the deity is installed

Shikhara Mound

Mandapa Circular path aroundthe stupa

Garbhagriha Place in temples wherepeople could assemble

Pradakshina patha Tower

2. Fill in the blanks:

(a) ———————— was a great astronomer.

(b) Stories about gods and goddesses are found inthe ————————

(c) ———————— is recognised as the author of theSanskrit Ramayana.

(d) ———————— and ———————— are two Tamil epics.

Let’s discuss

3. Make a list of the chapters in which you find mentionof metal working. What are the metals objectsmentioned or shown in those chapters?

4. Read the story on page 130. In what ways is themonkey king similar to or different from the kingsyou read about in Chapters 6 and 11?

beginning of stupa

building (2300 years

ago)

Amaravati (2000

years ago)

Kalidasa (1600 years

ago)

Iron pillar, Temple at

Bhitargaon, Paintings

at Ajanta, Aryabhata

(1500 years ago)

Durga temple (1400

years ago)

SOME IMPORTANT

DATES

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed

133

5. Find out more and tell a story from one of the epics.

Let’s do

6. List some steps that can be taken to make buildingsand monuments accessible to differently abled people.

7. Try and list as many uses of paper as you can.

8. If you could visit any one of the places described inthis chapter, which would you choose and why?

BUILDINGS, PAINTINGSAND BOOKS

©NCERT

not to

be re

publi

shed