P / N P...Galileo's discoveries contradicted the traditional view of the universe. For example, Aristotle had taught that the moon was perfectly smooth, but Galileo observed that it

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Scientific Revolution

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P/NP

The Scientific RevolutionHow did the Scientific Revolution change the way peopleunderstood the world?

Introduction

Between 1500 and 1700, modern science emerged as a new way ofgaining knowledge about the world. This major shift in thinking becameknown as the Scientific Revolution. Before this time, Europeans reliedon two main sources for their understanding of nature. One was theBible and religious teachings. The other was the work of classicalthinkers, especially the philosopher Aristotle.

During the Scientific Revolution, scientists challenged traditionalteachings about nature by asking fresh questions and answering themin new ways. Inventions like the telescope exposed a universe no onehad imagined before, while careful observation revealed errors inaccepted ideas about the physical world.

A good example is Aristotle's description of falling objects. Aristotle hadsaid that heavier objects fall to the ground faster than lighter ones.Although this idea seemed logical, the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei(gal-uh-LEE-oh gal-uh-LAY) questioned it.

According to his first biographer, Galileo performed a demonstration inthe city of Pisa, where he was teaching. He dropped two balls ofdifferent weights from the city's Leaning Tower. The results shockedthe crowd of students and professors since they expected the heavierball to land first. Instead, the two balls landed at the same time.

Galileo's demonstration is an application of the scientific method. Asyou will learn, the scientific method uses both logic and observation tohelp people understand the natural world.

In this lesson, you will learn about the origins of the ScientificRevolution and how it changed the way people understood the world.You will meet some of the key scientists of the period and find outabout their major discoveries and inventions.

T H E S C I E N T I F I C R E V O L...

2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A


Level: A 2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute

Social StudiesVocabulary

geocentric theory

gravity

heliocentric theory

hypothesis

mass

rationalism

scientific method

ScientificRevolution

1. Roots of the Scientific Revolution

Humans have asked questions about nature since ancient times. Whatwas different about the Scientific Revolution of the 16th, 17th, and18th centuries? What factors helped it arise?

During the Middle Ages, two major sources guided most Europeans'thinking about the natural world. The first was the Bible because, forChristians, the Bible was the word of God. Therefore, whatever the Bibleseemed to say about nature must be true.

The second source was the teachings of Aristotle, a Greek philosopherwho had written about logic in the 300s B.C.E. In the late Middle Ages,philosophers like Thomas Aquinas combined Aristotle's thinking withChristian faith by arguing that reason, or logical thought, could be usedto support Christian beliefs. He held that the existence of God, forexample, could be proven by reason.

During the Renaissance, many thinkers began to question theconclusions of earlier thinkers. For example, Renaissance scholars



rediscovered the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome. Arab, Christian,and Jewish scholars in the Muslim world translated many classical worksand made advances of their own in such fields as medicine, astronomy,and mathematics.

From the works of these scholars, Europeans learned about a greatervariety of ideas. Many European philosophers were influenced by Greekrationalism, which was the belief that reason, or logical thought, couldbe used to discover basic truths about the world. Renaissance thinkersalso observed nature directly. The Renaissance physician Vesaliusdissected corpses to test ancient ideas about the body. Trust in reasonand observation became a key part of modern science.

Additionally, the Age of Exploration helped inspire the growth ofscience. For instance, in the 2nd century C.E., Ptolemy had stated thatthere were only three continents: Europe, Africa, and Asia. However,explorers who visited the Americas proved him wrong. Such discoveriesencouraged Europeans to question existing knowledge.

Gradually, scientists developed a new method for probing nature'smysteries. Their work led to many dramatic discoveries.

2. Copernicus and Kepler: A New View of the Universe

The Scientific Revolution began with the work of the Polish astronomerNicolaus Copernicus. His work led to a new view of the universe.



For nearly two thousand years, most people considered Earth thecenter of the universe. According to this geocentric theory, the sun,stars, and planets—everything believed to be the universe—traveledaround a motionless Earth. Aristotle had taught this theory. The Biblealso seemed to support it since, in one Bible story, God stops the sunfrom moving across the sky. Additionally, the geocentric theory seemedto make obvious sense because the sun and stars do appear to travelaround Earth.

Aristotle had also taught that all heavenly bodies move in circles.Unfortunately, this belief made it difficult to explain the observedmovements of planets, such as Mars and Jupiter. In the 2nd centuryC.E., Ptolemy created a complicated theory to account for this.

Both ancient and medieval writers, including Muslim scientists, foundproblems with Ptolemy's theory. In the early 1500s, Copernicus tackledthese issues when he used observations and mathematics to propose avery different idea. According to his heliocentric theory, Earth andthe other planets travel in orbits around the sun, which is at the centerof this solar system. Earth also turns on its own axis every 24 hours,explaining why heavenly objects seem to move around Earth.

Like Ptolemy, Copernicus had trouble predicting the movement ofplanets with perfect accuracy, but he still believed his theory wassimpler and more satisfying than Ptolemy's. In 1543, he described hisidea in a published book. However, the book convinced very few peopleand was even attacked by some Church officials and scientists.

Then, in the early 1600s, German scientist Johannes Kepler expandedon Copernicus's theory. After studying detailed observations, Keplerrealized that the orbits of the planets were ovals, not circles. With thisinsight, he wrote precise mathematical laws describing the planets'movements around the sun.

Kepler's laws coincided beautifully with actual observations, provingthat the Copernican theory was correct. Once the theory was accepted,people would never again hold the same view of Earth's place in theuniverse.



3. Galileo and the Copernican Theory

Galileo Galilei lived at the same time as Johannes Kepler. Galileoexplored many questions, but he was especially interested in problemsof motion. As you have read, he disproved Aristotle's theory that heavyobjects fall faster than lighter ones. He made other discoveries aboutmotion, as well. For example, he used mathematics to describe the pathof a projectile, or something that is thrown or shot.

Galileo's most notable discoveries came when he turned his curiositytoward the sky. What he learned there made him a champion of theCopernican theory.

Galileo's Discoveries In 1609, Galileo heard about an invention fromthe Netherlands: the telescope. A telescope uses glass lenses tomake distant objects appear much closer.

Galileo decided to build his own telescope, so he learned howtelescopes worked and how to grind glass for lenses. Soon he wasbuilding more and more powerful telescopes.



Galileo began studying the sky through a telescope and noticed thingsno one had seen before. He saw that the moon's surface was rough anduneven, and he discovered four of the moons that revolve around theplanet Jupiter.

Galileo also observed the planet Venus. To the naked eye, Venusresembles a bright star, but Galileo noticed something new. You knowfrom looking at the moon that it goes through phases. It takes on whatappear to be different shapes, from a thin sliver to the full moon. Withhis telescope, Galileo could see that Venus also passed through phases.Sometimes it was brightly lit, while at other times it was partially dark.

Galileo's discoveries contradicted the traditional view of the universe.For example, Aristotle had taught that the moon was perfectly smooth,but Galileo observed that it wasn't. Although Aristotle had said thatEarth was the only center of motion in the universe, Galileo saw moonsmoving around Jupiter. Aristotle believed that Venus and other planetstraveled around Earth. However, Galileo realized that the phases ofVenus meant that it was traveling around the sun.

Conflict with the Church Galileo's discoveries supported theCopernican heliocentric theory and led him into a bitter conflict with theCatholic Church. Church leaders viewed the Copernican theory aswrong and dangerous because the idea that Earth was at the center ofthe universe was part of their system of religious belief.

Church officials feared that attacks on the geocentric theory could lead



people to become skeptical of the Church's teachings. In 1616, theCatholic Church warned Galileo against teaching the Copernicantheory.

Galileo refused to be silenced and, in 1632, he published a book calledDialogue on the Two Chief World Systems. The book described animaginary conversation about the theories of Ptolemy and Copernicus.Although Galileo did not openly take sides, the book was really a cleverargument for the Copernican theory. The character who upheld thegeocentric theory was portrayed as foolish, while the one who believedthe heliocentric theory was logical and convincing.

Galileo's Dialogue caused an uproar. In 1633, the pope called Galileo toRome to face the Catholic court, known as the Inquisition.

At Galileo's trial, Church leaders accused him of heresy and demandedthat he confess his error. Initially Galileo resisted, but eventually thecourt forced him to swear that the geocentric theory was true, and hewas forbidden to write again about the Copernican theory.

Galileo's Influence However, the Church's opposition could not stopthe spread of Galileo's ideas. Scientists across Europe read hisDialogue, which helped convert many to the Copernican theory.

Galileo's studies of motion also advanced the Scientific Revolution. LikeKepler, he used observation and mathematics to solve scientificproblems. Galileo's theory of motion describes how objects move onEarth, while Kepler's laws describe the movements of the planets. Thenext scientist you will meet united these ideas in a single great theory.



4. Isaac Newton and the Law of Gravity

Isaac Newton was born in England in 1642, the same year Galileo died.Newton was a brilliant scientist and mathematician whose greatestdiscovery was the law of gravity.

In later life, Newton told a story about his discovery. He was trying tofigure out what kept the moon traveling in its orbit around Earth. Sincethe moon was in motion, why didn't it fly off into space in a straightline? Then Newton saw an apple fall from a tree and hit the ground andrealized that when objects fall, they fall toward the center of Earth. Hewondered if the same force that pulled the apple to the ground wastugging on the moon. The difference was that the moon was far away,so Newton reasoned that the force was weaker there but still strongenough to bend the moon's motion into an oval orbit around Earth.

This was Newton's great insight. A single force explained a falling appleon Earth, as well as the movements of heavenly bodies. Newton calledthis force gravity.

Newton stated the law of gravity in a simple formula. All physicalobjects, he said, had a force of attraction between them. The strength



of the force depended on the masses of the objects and the distancebetween them. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in anobject. For example, the moon and Earth tug on each other. At a certainpoint in space, these “tugs” cancel each other out. The result is that themoon is trapped in its orbit around Earth. In contrast, an apple has asmall mass compared to Earth and is very close to Earth, so gravitypulls it toward Earth's center.

In 1687, Newton published a book known as the Principia, or Principles,which presented the law of gravity and described three laws of motion.Newton's laws provided an explanation for what earlier scientists hadobserved. For example, others had shown that the planets movedaround the sun, but Newton's laws explained why. Just as gravity keptthe moon traveling around Earth, it kept the planets traveling aroundthe sun.

Newton's laws dramatically changed people's view of the universe.Many people began to view the universe as a beautifully designedmachine. Some compared it to a well-built clock. People needed only todiscover how it worked.

5. The Scientific Method



A key outcome of the Scientific Revolution was the development of thescientific method. Two philosophers who influenced this developmentwere Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes (reh-NAY dey-KAHRT).

Francis Bacon was born in England in 1561. Bacon distrusted much ofthe traditional learning of the Middle Ages and argued that people couldgain knowledge only if they rid their minds of false beliefs. He outlineda method of scientific investigation that depended on closeobservation.

Rene Descartes was born in France in the year 1596. Descartes prizedlogic and mathematics. To gain knowledge that was certain, hesuggested, people should doubt every statement until logic proved it tobe true. Descartes also saw the physical universe as obeying universalmathematical laws.

These ideas helped create a new approach to science. Eventually,scientists developed this approach into the scientific method, whichcombines logic, mathematics, and observation into five basic steps:

1. The scientist states a question or problem.2. The scientist forms a hypothesis, or assumption, that might

explain the problem.3. The scientist designs and conducts an experiment to test the

hypothesis.4. The scientist measures the data, or information, produced by the

experiment and records the results.5. The scientist analyzes the data to determine whether the

hypothesis is correct.

Galileo's demonstration with falling objects illustrates how this methodworks. Galileo wondered whether objects of different weights fall at thesame speed. He formed a hypothesis that they did, then designed andconducted an experiment to test it. He dropped a heavy and a light balltogether from the same height off a tower and observed that theylanded at the same time, which showed that his hypothesis was correct.

Scientists still use this basic method today. An advantage of thescientific method is that any trained scientist can repeat what anotherhas done. In this way, scientists can test each others' ideas.

In one way, the spread of the scientific method marked a separationfrom the past. Fewer and fewer people looked to traditional authoritiesfor the answers to scientific problems, but that did not mean theydiscarded all their old beliefs. For example, thinkers such as Descartes



and Newton were deeply religious. For many, science was a way tobetter understand the world God had made.

6. Key Inventions

The Scientific Revolution spurred the invention of new tools for studyingthe world. These tools, such as the telescope, helped scientists discovernew facts and measure data more accurately.

Microscope Scientists use microscopes to make small objectsappear much larger. The microscope was invented by Dutch lensmakers in the late 1500s. In the mid-1600s, Dutchman Antonie vanLeeuwenhoek (LAY-ven-hook) designed his own powerful microscopesand became the first person to see bacteria. Leeuwenhoek was amazedto find a tiny world of living things and exclaimed, “All the people livingin our United Netherlands are not so many as the living animals that Icarry in my own mouth this very day!”

Barometer Another important tool developed in this period was thebarometer, which measures changes in the pressure of the



atmosphere. Evangelista Torricelli (tawr-ih-CHEL-ee) invented thebarometer in the 1640s. He filled a glass tube with a liquid metal calledmercury, and then placed the tube upside down in a dish.

Over the next few days, Torricelli watched the tube and observed thatthe height of the mercury did not stay the same. The column ofmercury moved up and down vertically as the pressure in theatmosphere changed. The barometer soon proved to be a valuable toolin studying and predicting the weather.

Thermometer Galileo likely made the first thermometer. In the early1700s, however, a German scientist, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, madethermometers more accurate. He put mercury in a glass tube, and asthe mercury grew warmer, it expanded and rose up the tube. Theheight of the mercury provided a measure of temperature. Additionally,Fahrenheit designed a new temperature scale. In the United States, westill measure temperature using Fahrenheit degrees.





Lesson Summary

In this lesson, you learned about the Scientific Revolution. Thismovement marked a major shift in the way people thoughtabout the natural world.

The Roots of the Scientific Revolution Several factors contributedto the birth of the Scientific Revolution. Renaissance thinkersquestioned traditional learning and observed nature for themselves.Translations of classical texts and some new thinking exposed scholarsto new ideas. Discoveries by explorers showed that accepted ideascould be wrong.

Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo The Scientific Revolution beganwhen Copernicus proposed the daring idea that Earth and the otherplanets travel around the sun. Kepler built on this heliocentric theory bycorrectly describing the planets' orbits. Galileo's discoveries aboutmotion and his observations of the planets supported the Copernicantheory, although it brought him into conflict with the Catholic Church.



Newton and the Law of Gravity Newton took all this work a giantstep forward. His law of gravity explained why planets orbited the sun.Newton also showed that the same laws applied everywhere in theknown universe.

The Scientific Method The ideas of Bacon and Descartes helped toshape the scientific method, which proved to be a powerful way oftesting ideas about nature.

Key Inventions New tools, such as the microscope, the barometer,and the thermometer, also aided scientific progress. They helpedscientists discover new facts and more accurately measure and collectdata.

European Missionaries and the Spread of Christianity(1500–1750)

Missionaries have spread Christianity since the days of the RomanEmpire. By the time Rome fell in 476 C.E., much of Europe wasChristian. One famous missionary, Saint Patrick, had even brought theChristian faith to Ireland.

During the Middle Ages, Catholic monks carried Christianity to centraland northern Europe. Missionaries from the Byzantine Empire broughtOrthodox Christianity to Russia.

In Asia, medieval missionaries made converts as far away as India andChina. But Christianity soon died out in most of Asia. By the late 1400s,it was mostly a European religion.



The period between about 1500 and 1750 brought a dramatic change.During this time, Christianity became the first religion to spread aroundthe world.

Why did this happen? One reason was the energy unleashed by theReformation and Counter-Reformation. In particular, much Catholicmissionary work grew out of the Counter-Reformation. Jesuits and otherreligious orders were dedicated to making converts to Catholicism.

The second major reason for the spread of Christianity was the Age ofExploration. By the 1500s, Europeans were traveling the seas to almostevery part of the globe. Missionaries followed the European conquerors,traders, and colonists.

Most of the European missionaries during this era were Catholic. Thatwas partly because two Catholic countries, Spain and Portugal, took thelead in exploration. Later, France also sent Catholic missionariesoverseas.

Protestants were slower to start missions. Some early missionaries didfollow traders and colonists from Protestant countries such as theNetherlands and England. But in general, Protestant missions becamemuch more active in the 1800s.

Let's take a closer look at how missionaries spread Christianity duringthe early modern era. As you will see, the story follows the patterns setby European exploration and colonization.

Missionary Activity in Africa

Missionary activity in Africa was limited during the early modern era.Some Catholic missionaries worked in Portuguese settlements on thecoasts. Protestant missionaries came to the southern tip of thecontinent.

West Africa

The Portuguese began setting up outposts on the coasts of Africa in the1400s. In West Africa, Jesuits and other Catholic missionaries started anumber of missions. Most of them had limited success.

One thriving mission was in the kingdom of the Congo. It made manyconverts. In the 1500s, the mission produced African priests and oneAfrican bishop. Eventually, however, this Christian community died out.

Cape Town



In 1652, the Dutch built a settlement called Cape Town at the southerntip of Africa. Cape Town was a stopping point for Dutch trading shipstraveling to India and eastern Asia. In the 1700s, Protestantmissionaries in Cape Town worked among local Africans. Protestantismcontinued to thrive in this area into modern times.

Missionary Activity in Asia

Christian missionaries were more active in Asia than in Africa. Firstcame Catholics who worked in areas where Portugal and Spaincontrolled trade routes and colonies. In the 1600s, the Netherlandsbecame a leading trade power in Asia. Protestant missionaries workedwhere the Dutch started colonies and trading posts.

India and Ceylon

In 1542, a Jesuit named Francis Xavier arrived in Goa on the west coastof India. Goa was the center of Portuguese trading in Asia. Xavierbecame known as “the Apostle of the Indies.” Over the next 10 years,he started many missions in India and other parts of Asia. OtherCatholic missionaries worked in India through the 1700s.

From India, Xavier went to Ceylon, a large island off India's southerncoast. (Today it is called Sri Lanka.) Catholic missionaries worked inCeylon until the 1600s, when the Dutch took over the island. The Dutchoutlawed Catholic worship and worked to convert the local people toProtestantism.

In 1706, Denmark sent Protestant ministers to a trading post on thesoutheast coast of India. They started a Lutheran community that haslasted into modern times. Many more Protestant missionaries wouldcome to India during the 1800s.

Japan, China, and Southeast Asia

Catholic missionaries followed Portuguese traders to Japan, China, andsoutheast Asia. Francis Xavier reached Japan in 1549. Catholicmissionaries worked there until the 1630s, when the Japanesegovernment ended contact with foreigners.

Many Catholic missionaries entered China by way of Macao. Macao wasa Portuguese colony on China's southeastern coast. One Jesuit, MatteoRicci, started a mission in Beijing, the capital city of China. Catholicscontinued to make converts in China through the 1700s.



Catholic missionaries from various countries also worked in southeastAsia. In the 1660s, a group of French priests formed the Paris Societyfor Foreign Missions. The society started missions in modern-dayThailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

The East Indies

To the south of the Asian continent lies a vast archipelago, or group ofislands. Europeans referred to these islands as the East Indies. Themodern country of Indonesia is part of this area.

As in other parts of Asia, Catholic missionaries were the first to reachthe East Indies. Francis Xavier started a number of missions there inthe 1540s. Other Catholic missionaries worked out of Portuguesetrading posts. Some traveled south from the Philippine Islands, whichwere controlled by Spain.

Late in the 1500s, the Dutch arrived. They soon drove the Portugueseout of most of the archipelago. Under Dutch rule, Protestant ministersbuilt churches and schools, and made many converts.

The Philippines

In the 1560s, Spain began its conquest of the Philippine Islands. ThePhilippines became Spain's only colony in Asia. The Spanish started anumber of missions to convert the native people to Catholicism. By1750, they counted over a million Catholics in the islands.

Missionary Activity in the Americas

Christianity's largest expansion during the early modern era came inthe Americas. Spain, Portugal, and France all brought Catholicism totheir vast possessions. In English colonies, most missionaries wereProtestant.

The West Indies

Europeans called the islands of the Caribbean Sea “the West Indies.”Spain took control of most of the West Indies following Columbus's firstvoyage in 1492. The arrival of Europeans was a disaster for the nativepeople of the islands. Most soon died from disease and mistreatment.They were replaced by white colonists and African slaves. Catholicmissionaries worked to baptize the slaves and often tried to improvetheir treatment.

Beginning in the 1600s, the British took over part of the West Indies,



including the large island of Jamaica. The Church of England sentmissionaries to work among the colonists and African slaves. Later,other Protestant churches also established themselves in the BritishWest Indies.

South America

Portugal and Spain created vast colonies in South America in the 1500s.Portugal claimed most of eastern South America. Spain claimed thewestern part of the continent as well as much of the northern coast.The largest settlements were in Brazil (Portugal) and Peru (Spain).Catholic missionaries worked in all these Spanish and Portuguesepossessions.

New Spain: Central America, Mexico, Florida, and the AmericanSouthwest

Spain's empire in the Americas included a vast region called “NewSpain.” It included Central America, Mexico, Florida, and much of thesouthwestern part of what became the United States. Catholic priestsbuilt missions in all these areas to convert Native Americans. InCalifornia, Junipero Serra began a chain of missions in the 1700s thatstretched from San Diego to San Francisco Bay. The famous Alamo inTexas was built as a Franciscan mission in 1722.

French Canada and the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys

In the 1600s, France claimed eastern Canada as well as a huge part ofthe future United States. The French explored the St. Lawrence River,the Great Lakes region, and the Mississippi and Ohio river valleys.French Catholic missionaries roamed this vast wilderness, seeking toconvert Native Americans. One of them, Jacques Marquette, startedmissions in present-day Michigan. He was also among the firstEuropeans to travel the Mississippi River.

The English Colonies

The 13 English colonies in North America were largely Protestant.Missionaries from various Protestant churches came to the coloniesfrom Great Britain, Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries.

Most of the missionaries came to minister to the colonists. Some,however, worked among Native Americans and African slaves. In time,there were missions to the Indians in all 13 colonies.

One famous Protestant missionary was an Englishman, John Eliot. In the



1600s, he became known as “the Apostle to the Indians.” He wrote acatechism (a work of religious instruction) to teach Native Americans. Itwas the first book printed in a Native American language. He alsopublished a Native American translation of the Bible.

By 1750, missionaries had spread Christianity to every inhabitedcontinent. Often, Europeans exploited native peoples even as they triedto convert them to Christianity. They believed that they were bringing asuperior culture and religion to other parts of the world. Missionariesbelieved this as well, and they have been criticized for their part in thedestruction of native cultures. At the same time, a number ofmissionaries protested the mistreatment of non-Europeans and tried toimprove their lives.

The Spirit of Innovation

As the Scientific Revolution was taking place and the scientific methodwas taking form, another important change was happening. This secondchange was an invisible change, but one with far-reachingconsequences. It was a change in the way people thought aboutknowledge, information, and techniques used in work. To learn moreabout this change, you will first read a selection and then do a virtualgallery walk.

A Society of Guilds

Prior to the Scientific Revolution, much of the work that people did wasorganized by craft guilds. You may remember that craft guilds createdproducts, set standards for their craft, and taught the craft to youngpeople who joined the guild. Someone entered a guild as an apprenticeand worked his or her way up to journeyman. Upon mastering the craft,the journeyman became a master.

But there was another thing that guilds did. They guarded the secretsof their trade, keeping information within the guild. That is, they treatedtheir expertise as valuable. The Republic of Venice was the first state toadopt a patent statute (1474) to provide legal protection forintellectual property, things created by the human mind, such asinventions and special techniques used in creating products. Mostguilds didn't rely on the law to protect their trade secrets. Instead theyrelied on other techniques, like membership rules.

Old Knowledge



Prior to the Scientific Revolution, most schools in Europe focused onancient knowledge as their curriculum. The seven-part curriculum hadtwo sections. The trivium, or three parts, included Latin grammar,rhetoric, and logic. The quadrivium, or four parts, included arithmetic,music, geometry, and astronomy. Classes mostly had a single format.Teachers read from approved texts, and students took notes. Thepurpose of the highest degree awarded was to certify teachers whowould teach the same subjects to new students.

Today, both instructors and people getting a Ph.D., or doctoratedegree, must contribute to knowledge and understanding. They areexpected to provide new observations, research, insights, orinterpretations. Clearly the way people thought about knowledge,information, and techniques has changed. Let's examine the influencesthat led to the change.

Empiricism

The word empirical means “based on experience or observation.” Soempiricism is a contrasting approach to rationalism, which means“based on reason.” Empiricism is a school of thought that is oftenconsidered to originate with John Locke (1632–1704). In his EssayConcerning Human Understanding, Locke proposes that ideas comefrom experience. That is, ideas come from information that we receivefrom our senses of taste, touch, sight, smell, and hearing.

Empirical observations are the basis for conclusions made byinduction, a process of reasoning from particular truths to generaltruths. The scientific method often relies on extended empiricalobservations in carefully controlled circumstances (experiments). Theresults of these observations are then analyzed to see whether or notthey support the hypothesis being tested.

In the fourth rule in his Principia, Isaac Newton states that:

In experimental philosophy we are to look uponpropositions inferred by general induction from phenomenaas accurately or very nearly true, notwithstanding anycontrary hypotheses that may be imagined, till such timeas other phenomena occur, by which they may either bemade more accurate, or liable to exceptions.

We can see the close connection between the theory of empiricism andthe scientific method.



Institutions of Scientific Knowledge

With the creation of such institutions as the Royal Society of London(1660) and the British Museum (1753), the work and methods ofscientists became more visible to the public. The Royal Society wasdesigned to collect and evaluate new knowledge. Shortly after itsfounding (1665) the Society committed to share this knowledge througha periodical. That Isaac Newton was the president from 1703 to 1727further demonstrates the close connection between empiricism andscience in the 18th century. The purpose of the British Museum was tomaintain the collections of three scholars, “not only for the inspectionand entertainment of the learned and the curious, but for the generaluse and benefit of the public.”

In 1694, the founding of the Halle University in Prussia changed thenature of the university. Although started by Lutherans, the school wasdedicated to empirical inquiry, rather than thinking within the sphere ofreligion. That is, the idea of academic freedom, or exploration that wasnot restricted by religion or other boundaries, got its start. Thisuniversity was an important example of the coexistence of traditionalreligious belief with a scientific outlook. A scientific approach andunfettered investigation were emphasized. Some have called it “thefirst modern university.”

There are three other important things to know about Halle University.It was the first European university to accept an African student (1727).It was the first school in Germany to award an M.D. to a woman (1754).And the founder Frederick III of Brandenburg, who also foundedacademies of arts and sciences, provided governmental support forscientific inquiry. As time went on more and more universitiescombined teaching of traditional subjects with research.

Universities also spread to the Western Hemisphere during this period.The first western universities were started by the Spaniards, whocreated universities in Santo Domingo (1538) and Mexico (1539) in the16th century. In the 17th century, colonists with religious affiliations,European rulers, and colonial legislatures established five colleges inwhat is now the United States:

• Harvard (founded 1636 with an endowment from the MassachusettsBay Company)• College of William and Mary (chartered in 1693 by William III andMary II of England) • Yale (chartered by the colonial legislature of Connecticut in 1701) • Princeton (founded in 1746)



• Columbia University (founded as King's College in 1754)

The Public's Engagement with Science

In England, a unique combination of events created an atmosphere inwhich public participation in experimenting reached new heights. First,a process called enclosure enabled landlords to group parcels of landthat had been separated in the manorial system. Second, people withthis much land had the resources to experiment and the means to gainthe knowledge they needed. With the new ideas about empiricism andscientific method, experimentation became a widespread approach toagriculture. Young, a leading expert on agriculture at the time, starteda monthly journal, called Annals of Agriculture in 1784. King George IIIwas one of the contributors, under the pseudonym “Farmer George.”

A second way in which the public of England became engaged withinnovation was brought about by the shortage of wood and a new law.In 1688, Parliament passed an act giving the owner of land theownership of minerals beneath the surface. Beneath the surface inmuch of England was coal. So many people undertook coal mining. Theresult? Annual coal production increased 15 times over from about1550 to about 1700.

Inventions

In this environment, inventions in a number of areas took place, someclosely related to the particular developments we have explained.There were inventions that solved the problems of publicexperimenters. Other inventions aimed at creating more precision forscientific observations. Still others were aimed at various governmentneeds.



Inventions that Solved Public Problems People who wereenthusiastic about mining on their property found that rain watergathering in the mining shafts was a problem. It was in trying to solvethis problem that inventors developed the steam engine. In 1706, thefirst pump that attempted to solve this problem was invented byThomas Newcomen. It was not efficient. But it became the basis onwhich James Watt made improvements resulting in an efficient steamengine in the later 1760s.

The lack of wood translated into a lack of charcoal, which was requiredfor the method of iron production used in the 17th century. With theincrease in mines, there was plenty of coal, but raw coal couldn't beused for smelting. But in about 1709, Abraham Darby found a way tosmelt iron with coke, which can be made from coal. At first, the methodwas not shared, but when it spread, it made coal even more desirableand reduced the price of iron.

In agriculture, inventors worked on better ways to prepare land forgrowing crops. An iron moldboard plow by inventor Joseph Foljambe inRotherham England, patented in 1730, was the first commercially



successful iron plow, meaning that the inventor made money from it.Being able to earn money from inventions encouraged inventors tospend time trying to develop new and better products.

Inventions that Made Observations More Precise Some inventorsfocused on increasing precision in existing tools. Astronomy requiredaccurate clocks so that the precise time of observations could berecorded. Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens invented clocks withpendulums to regulate their motion, making them more precise, in1656. John Harrison's marine chronometer (invented in successivestages through the 1760s) increased the accuracy of measuring time atsea. This improved the ability to accurately calculate longitude. GabrielFahrenheit's improved thermometer (1714) is another example of amove toward precision.

Inventions that Moved Toward Standardization Precision allowedfor the possibility of standardization, repeatedly making products thatwere the identical. For example, in the late 17th and early 18thcenturies, shoemakers began to standardize footwear sizes.Standardization made it easier to make parts and replacement parts forequipment and clothing. A customer who knew his or her size couldpurchase a ready-made pair of shoes rather than having his or her feetmeasured.

Standardization also took other forms. Drills, repeated actionsundertaken by groups acting in sync, were introduced to the military inthe late 17th century. Other military standardizations begun at thesame time included the creation of regiments, permanent army unitsall the same size, ranks, the hierarchy of officers, and commands.Uniform colors were introduced about this time, with a law requiringspecific colors for French regiments passed in 1685. For instance, thepalace guards were all attired in blue. Uniforms meant that both otherarmy members and the public could immediately recognize the role asoldier held.

A Lasting Change

It is not only the way our contemporary universities are organized thatcomes from the time of the Scientific Revolution. The scientific methodis taught as early as grade school in some places. The 21st century is atime of start-ups, new businesses designed to meet new needs. Digitaltechnology is an area in which there are new inventions every week—whether it is devices, apps, or add-ons. How people think about theircareers and their hobbies—how they spend their time and their lives—isstill affected by the changes we have seen.





P R E V I E W

© Teachers’ Curriculum Institute The Scientific Revolution 269

How did the Scientific Revolution change the way people understood the world?

The Scientific Revolution

I N T E R A C T I V E S T U D E N T N O T E B O O K

In the space below, draw a diagram showing the relationship between the sun and the planets. Your diagram should include labels for the sun, each planet, and Earth’s moon, and should show their orbits.

Before the Scientific Revolution, most people believed strongly in the geocentric theory. The few who believed in the heliocentric theory (that the planets orbit the sun) were criticized. Perhaps you have experienced something similar—when many people believed something to be true, but you did not. Describe such a situa-tion. How did you try to change people’s minds? Were you successful?

© Teachers’ Curriculum Institute270 The Scientific Revolution

Social Studies VocabularyAs you complete the Reading Notes, use these terms in your answers.

Scientific Revolution heliocentric theory scientific methodrationalism gravity hypothesisgeocentric theory mass

1. What two sources guided most Europeans’ thinking about the natural world during the Middle Ages?

2. In two or three sentences, explain how each of the following led Europeans to question the traditional worldview:

• Renaissance:

• Age of Exploration:


Section 1

R E A D I N G N O T E S



1. In the space below, complete a diagram that explains the heliocentric theory. Label the diagram with the three major parts of Copernicus’s heliocentric theory.

2. How did Kepler’s work improve on or support Copernicus’s heliocentric theory?

1. What were three important discoveries Galileo made with his telescope?

2. How did Galileo’s discoveries help support the heliocentric theory?

3. Why did Catholic Church leaders feel threatened by Galileo’s support of the heliocentric theory?

Section 2

Section 3



1. What was the basic idea behind Newton’s law of gravity?

2. How did Newton’s work support the earlier work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo?

1. What role did Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes play in creating a new approach to science?

2. Complete the following chart by recording the steps of the scientific method. Include a symbol to represent each step.

Section 4

Section 5

Step Symbol

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.



In each box below, draw a quick sketch of each of the four key inventions of the Scientific Revolution covered in the lesson. Then write a one-sentence summary of each invention’s purpose.

Section 6

Telescope Barometer

Microscope Thermometer



P R O C E S S I N G

Review and evaluate the importance of the discoveries, inventions, and contributions of the following individuals or groups of people during the Scientific Revolution: • Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler• Galileo Galilei• Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes• Isaac Newton• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Evangelista Torricelli, and Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit

Then, using the awards pedestals below, award gold, silver, and bronze medals to the three individuals or groups you think did the most, during this time, to change the way people understand the world. On each pedestal, draw a picture or symbol to represent that winner. Then complete the sentence inside the appropriate pedestal for each medalist.

_____________________

deserves the bronze medal because

_____________________

deserves the gold medal because

_____________________

deserves the silver medal because

Name __________________________________________________ Date ______________________________

Assessment: The Scientific RevolutionMastering the ContentSelect the letter next to the best answer.

1. The Scientific Revolution changed the way people A. printed books.B. produced goods.C. thought about nature.D. organized governments.

2. From what sources, besides the Bible, did scholars in the Middle Ages get their ideas about the world? A. personal observationB. the teachings of AristotleC. questioning traditional ideasD. carefully designed experiments

3. Greek rationalism, rediscovered by Renaissance scholars, argued thatA. personal observation was the only truth.B. logic could reveal basic truths.C. the word of the Bible was final.D. clever debaters could argue any point.

4. How did explorers encourage the growth of science?A. They created a need to study the stars.B. They argued against the power of the Catholic Church.C. They wrote exaggerated accounts of their travels.D. They showed that accepted beliefs could be wrong.

5. According to Ptolemy’s geocentric theory, EarthA. stayed in one fixed place.B. traveled around the moon.C. rotated on its axis every day.D. moved together with the planets.

6. How did Kepler add support for Copernicus’s theory? A. He published the theory in a book that many people read.B. He invented a device for seeing the night sky more accurately.C. He wrote mathematical laws that described how planets move.D. He showed that applying the theory would improve safety at sea.

7. Which form of technology allowed Galileo to make new discoveries? A. the compassB. the windmillC. the astrolabeD. the telescope

8. The Catholic Church objected to Galileo’s work because the Church taught thatA. Earth was at the center of the universe.B. nobody except priests should study the heavens.C. non-religious teachings must be rejected without discussion.D. moons had been created for other planets as well as Earth.

9. How did an apple falling from a tree give Newton an idea?

A. It hit him on the head.B. It drew his attention to gravity.C. It made him wonder how living things grow.D. It suggested that events occur in natural cycles.

10. In Newton’s formula, mass is a measure of theA. amount of matter in an object.B. speed at which an object travels.C. food a plant or animal must take in.D. shape of a planet's path around the sun.

11. Newton’s book "Principia" described three laws ofA. logic.B. motion.C. arithmetic.D. mapmaking.

12. How did Francis Bacon change the way Europeans viewed the world? A. He translated the works of important Muslim scientists.B. He recorded the positions of stars and planets in the sky.C. He invented a piece of equipment to study very small objects.D. He outlined a method to gain knowledge based on observation.

13. Which of the following is an example of Step 1 of the scientific method?A. Galileo drops objects of different weights from a tower.B. Galileo observes that the objects land at the same time.C. Galileo asks whether objects of different weights will fall at different speeds.D. Galileo says he thinks two dropped objects of different weights will land at the same time.

14. The scientific method lets one scientist repeat another scientist’s experiment. Why is this very important for science? A. It means others can test a scientist's conclusions.B. It allows for improvements in science communication.C. It helps colleges train more people to become scientists.D. It encourages young children to get interested in science.

15. The invention of the barometer changed how people study

A. planets.B. disease.C. weather.D. chemicals.

Applying Social Studies SkillsUse the passage and your knowledge of history to complete the sentences below.

. . . [B]ecause now I was desirous to devote myself to the search after truth, I considered that I must . . . reject as absolutely false everything concerning which I could imagine the least doubt to exist. Thus, because our senses sometimes deceive us . . . I rejected as false all the reasons which I had formerly accepted as demonstrative [proving something]; and finally, considering that all the thoughts we have when awake can cometo us also when we sleep without any of them being true, I resolved . . . that everything which had ever entered my mind was no more truth than the illusion of my dreams. But I observed that . . . I think, therefore I am—[that idea] was so firm and so assured that all the most extravagant suppositions [wild ideas] of the skeptics[doubters] were unable to shake it, I judged that I could unhesitatingly accept it as the first principle of the philosophy I was seeking. I could [decide] that there was no world, [but] I could not [decide] that I did not exist.—Rene Descartes, Discourse on Method

16. Descartes states that his goal is to

17. Descartes decided he could not trust the evidence of his senses because

18. Descartes decided that the one thing he could be sure existed was

19. By saying “I think, therefore I am,” Descartes meant

Exploring the Essential Question: How did the Scientific Revolution change theway people understood the world?

20. Scientists often build on each other’s work. Below are four of the thinkers you read about in this lesson. Starting from the bottom box, write a short statement identifying how each scientist changed how people understood the world.

Documents

P / N P...Galileo's discoveries contradicted the traditional view of the universe. For example, Aristotle had taught that the moon was perfectly smooth, but Galileo observed that it