PADI Divemaster Course Instructor Guide, PADI

Divemaster Course

Instructor Guide1999 Edition

Incorporates all Training Bulletins through First Quarter 2005

http://www.padi.com

ii Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

PADIDivemaster CourseInstructor Guide

© International PADI, Inc. 1987–2004

All rights reserved.Portions of the Appendix of this section may be reproduced by PADI Mem-bers for use in PADI-sanctioned training, but not for resale or personal gain. No other reproduction is allowed without the express written permission of PADI.

Published byPROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DIVING INSTRUCTORS (PADI)30151 Tomas StreetRancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688-2125

Printed in U.S.A.Product No. 79122 Version 3.3 (rev. 12/04)

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Divemaster Course Instructor Guide iii

Table of ContentsHow to Use This Guide vDivemaster Course Instructional Philosophy vii

OneIntroductionGoals and Purpose of the PADI Divemaster Course 1-1PADI Divemaster Duties 1-3Benefits and Renewal Requirements of

PADI Divemaster Certification 1-4

TwoGeneral Standards and Course OverviewCourse Standards 2-1Course Prerequisites 2-1Certification Requirements 2-2Instructor Supervision 2-2Equipment 2-2Training Materials 2-2Referrals 2-3Certification Procedures 2-4Course Overview 2-4Key Standards 2-5Sequencing within the PADI Divemaster Course 2-5Sample Divemaster Course Schedule 2-6

ThreeKnowledge DevelopmentConduct and Standards 3-1Evaluation 3-2Assignment 3-3Topic 1 – Course Introduction 3-4

iv Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

All standards, required activities and performance objectives discussed in this text appear in blue boldface print. The blue boldface will assist you in easily identifying those requirements that must be adhered to when you conduct PADI courses or programs. All supporting rationale, general recommendations and how-to information are not bolded.

Topic 2 – Supervising General Diving Activities 3-11 Part 1 3-11 Part 2 3-27Topic 3 – Assisting with Student Divers in Training 3-45Topic 4 – Dive Theory Introduction 3-57Topic 5 – The Physics of Diving 3-61Topic 6 – The Physiology of Diving 3-78Topic 7 – Dive Equipment 3-97Topic 8 – Decompression Theory and the RDP 3-108Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs 3-122Topic 10 – Risk Management 3-126Topic 11 – The Business of Diving 3-133Topic 12 – Your Diving Career 3-137

FourWaterskills and Stamina Stamina Assessment and Development 4-1Diver Rescue Assessment and Development 4-3Confined Waterskill Assessment and Development 4-4

FivePractical Application Required Training Exercises 5-2Exercise 1 5-2Exercise 2 5-3Exercise 3 5-4Practical Application 5-7Internship (Option 1) 5-7Practical Training Exercises (Option 2) 5-10

Appendix A-1

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide v

The PADI Divemaster Course Instructor Guide has five sections that guide you through the conduct of this course. While it’s appropriate for PADI Dive-masters and Assistant Instructors to use this guide, it speaks to PADI Instructors. References to “you” are to the instructor conducting the program.

Section One provides the goals of the PADI Dive-master course and PADI Divemaster duties.

Section Two identifies the general standards that apply throughout the program, required sequenc-ing, materials and ideas for scheduling.

Section Three covers the Knowledge Development Module. It lists the standards for required knowl-edge development and related activities, and provides 12 Knowledge Development Topic presen-tation outlines. This section also identifies which topics may be handled effectively through inde-pendent study, and which will usually require more formal class sessions.

Section Four covers the Waterskills and Stamina Module. This section lists the performance require-ments and conduct for confined water training.

Section Five, Practical Application, is divided into four subsections. The first details the practical ap-plication standards and the second covers perfor-mance requirements and conduct for the three Required Training Exercises. The third subsection provides the standards and requirements for candi-dates who will complete the Divemaster Internship, and the fourth provides the standards and conduct for candidates who will complete the Practical Training Exercises.

How to

Use This

Guide

vi Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide vii

Higher Level LearningTeaching the PADI Divemaster course involves higher level learning that begins at the Rescue Diver course and expands in the PADI Divemas-ter course. The PADI Divemaster course expands the problem solving skills developed by the PADI Rescue Diver program, and extends it from ac-cident management and prevention scenarios to supervisory situations with student divers and certified divers. At the divemaster level, problem solving emphasizes looking for many possible solutions under the circumstances and choosing the best of several. Divemaster problem solving may include more than safety-related issues, and include handling customer service, business and operational challenges.

The course also addresses attitudes and judg-ment. Attitudes are emotional influences that shape individual choices ranging from profes-sional behavior, role modeling, personal health and following safe diving practices, to very basic values, such as honesty. Judgment applies attitudes, experience, theoretical knowledge, deduction and intuition to problem solving and making decisions based on variables, some-times under circumstances that aren’t “black or white.”

Divemaster

Course Instructional

Philosophy

viii Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

In this regard, teaching at the divemaster level is more challenging than teaching entry-level divers. For exam-ple, you can see that either a student diver does or does not clear a mask. While you can see that a divemaster can-didate either knows or does not know how to behave as a role model, it’s impossible to evaluate whether the candi-date will choose to behave as a role model after the course. You can’t be responsible for the candidate’s choices once outside the course, but you can establish the knowledge and skills needed to make good choices, and you can try to in-fluence wise decision making.

In classes leading up to the PADI Divemaster course, you probably have a “teacher” relationship with your student divers. With PADI Divemaster candidates, however, you’re likely to find a mentor relation-ship more effective in develop-ing divemaster candidates’ judgment and attitudes.

In keeping with the higher level learning and instruc-tional philosophy of the PADI Divemaster course, in a men-tor relationship you guide candidates directly through personal interactions in which you tell candidates why you make specific choices, the basis for your judgment, the way actions/inactions – by you and candidates – may affect others, and other personal insights you have. You take candidates

into your confidence, and lead them individually toward their personal goals as dive profes-sionals. Think of the relation-ship as one similar to the one between a professor and a graduate student, or a master craftsman and an apprentice. The mentor isn’t just a teacher, but the candidate’s personal guide into the ranks of diving professionals. You’re a friend, advisor, coach and teacher, all in one.

Besides the obvious benefits to the candidate, the men-tor relationship benefits you. You’ll train your instructional assistants to see and do things within the PADI System similar to the way you do, so they in-tegrate well with your training efforts. Divemaster candidates who come to you from other instructors bring with them new techniques and ideas that you can learn. Because you discuss the thinking behind what you do together, you’ll often have a chance to learn the rationale for new techniques if they’re not obvious.

If you’re successful as a mentor, many of your PADI Di-vemasters will continue to seek your counsel even after they’ve moved into the PADI Open Wa-ter Scuba Instructor, IDC Staff Instructor and Master Instructor levels. As a PADI Divemaster mentor, consider each candidate as someone you’re inviting into the ranks of PADI leadership. In effect, by accepting a candidate into the program, you’re saying that you recognize the person’s potential to succeed as a PADI Divemaster and you’re commit-ted to guiding that person to that success.

RecommendationsThe PADI Divemaster course is divided into Knowledge De-velopment, Waterskills and Stamina, and Practical Applica-tion sections. The course has been designed for flexibility in assignments and sessions to permit the most effective course structure possible for your local teaching/diving environment and the individual needs of your candidates. You’ll find sample schedules later in this section; the following recom-mendations list suggestions based on the course instruction-al philosophy.

1. Structure the course to in-clude independent study and research. This reduces class time by taking advantage of the PADI Divemaster Video, Divemaster Manual, Encyclo-pedia of Recreational Diving, Diving Knowledge Workbook and other resources, but it also trains the candidate to find information, which is an important skill for a leadership-level diver. You can integrate independent study into your course schedule so that candidates work on it in their spare time between class sessions and exercises. Educational studies show that inde-pendent study consistently produces better-prepared candidates and, by reducing the need to establish base concepts in the classroom, allows the instructor to de-vote more time to applying information to individual

Mentor Relationship

Course Conductand Structure

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide ix

needs, to addressing specific learning obstacles, and to developing a personal rap-port with candidates.

2. Encourage creativity and novel points of view. During the Practical Application Module, candidates often have unique approaches to solving problems or tackling a situation. Since there’s rarely only one right way to do something, encourage creativity by discussing the merits of these ideas, and permitting candidates to pursue their own approach-es as appropriate. This is a good way for you to learn as well as teach.

3. Develop candidates’ ability to recognize and reinforce themselves internally. Internal reinforcement means that candidates recognize when they’re doing something well without you having to tell them. For example, if in discussing role modeling you tell candidates, “When a student diver approaches you to discuss a personal diving problem, it means you’ve gained that person’s respect as a dive profession-al,” then this event will re-inforce good role modeling whenever it happens – even after the course concludes.

You increase internal reinforcement by deempha-sizing score numbers and your evaluation and em-phasizing their awareness of their own performance and abilities, so that can-didates set goals based on their expectations of them-selves rather than on simply attaining a number. Avoid suggestions that insufficient

performance comes from a lack of ability. Instead, emphasize that insufficient performance means the candidate needs to expend more effort (usually in the form of practice and study).

It’s also important to avoid the impression that scoring is negative; treat it as neutral – a placemark by which candidates use your observations to gauge themselves. Asking the candidate questions about a performance during coun-seling and following the answers with reinforcement, additional information, and ways to self-assess are ways to do this.

4. Be a role model and expect role model behavior. In a mentor role, your candi-

dates will follow your lead, just as other divers follow theirs. One of the strongest influences on attitudes, value and judgment is a role model. To be an effective role model, the candidates must respect and identify with you as a dive professional. Then, you need to portray the kind of diver and leader you want them to be. It’s important to remember that candidates can learn unintended attitudes as well as those you want them to learn; this is why “do as I say, not as I do” frequently fails as a teaching method. Finally, make it clear that you expect role model behavior from your candi-dates.

5. Encourage curiosity. A PADI Divemaster is expected to have a broad base of diving knowledge. You enhance this base by getting candi-dates to pursue information for its own sake. At this lev-el, it’s not so important that every piece of information relate directly to a learn-ing objective — candidate interest is enough. When candidates want to know more about a topic, or ask “why?”, answer and apply the answer to the discussion. Direct the candidates to easily accessible sources of information about the ques-tion.

Candidates at the PADI Divemaster course level have a solid diving founda-tion from previous training and experience, and you can present “extra” infor-mation (material not in the outline or learning objec-tives) they ask for without

Self Assessment ExampleDuring demonstration quality skill development, mask clearing:

You: What was your score for your mask clearing demonstration?

Candidate: It was okay. I think I earned a 3.

You: That’s what I saw. You’ll do better with some practice. What could you do to make it a 4?

Candidate: I think I need to slow down some more.

You: Good. Exaggerat-ing and stopping before each step would help, too. Practice with your buddy while I talk with the rest of the group, and let me know when you’re doing it at the 4 level or better.

x Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

too much concern that you’ll be overteaching. Be cautious about “volunteering” extra information when they don’t ask, however, because not asking may indicate that they’re struggling to learn the primary material.

In addition to that, con-stantly find ways to relate information to candidate needs and interests. The more value information has for candidates, the more they will seek it.

6. Use discussions as a teaching method. While lectures work well for delivering facts, and questions within a lecture

work as a general tool for evaluating candidate understanding, educational research shows that dis-cussions promote problem solving abilities and shape attitudes more efficiently.

7. Have candidates run their debriefings. After exercises, rather than you leading briefings by telling candi-dates what you saw, have candidates tell you what hap-pened, what they learned and what their performance was. This further encourages problem solving develop-ment, and it gives you a clearer idea about why

candidates perform the way they do by letting you hear what candidates think. Often following a poor performance, a candidate will tell you that it was poor, why it was poor, and what to do about it the next time, all without prompting from you. The only caution in this technique is that some candidates set high expec-tations for themselves and tend to be harder on them-selves than you would be. Don’t let such individuals discourage themselves. Offer genuine positive comments to maintain a good outlook.

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

Professional Association

of Diving Instructors

Who is a PADI Divemaster?The dive community expects several characteristics of an individual with the PADI Divemaster rating. These include:

• Exemplary diving skills. The PADI Divemaster’s skills can be used as demonstrations for student divers.

• Rescue skill. The PADI Divemaster can prevent and manage acci-dents, and role model rescue skills for student divers in training.

• Professional-level knowledge of dive theory. Depth of theoretical knowl-edge goes hand-in-hand with ex-pertise and professionalism. This is the foundation for problem solving and creativity in the divemaster’s duties, and for subsequent growth as a PADI Assistant Instructor.

• Competence as a certified assistant. PADI Divemasters know how to sup-port instruction by handling logisti-cal, supervisory and limited educa-tional duties under an instructor’s supervision.

• Dive management and supervision abilities. PADI Divemasters accept appropriate, limited responsibility for certified divers within the con-text of leading or managing diving activities. This requires good people skills and good judgment along with a strong working knowledge of dive environments and activi-ties. The PADI Dive-master assists the dive operation with risk management.

Goals and Purpose of the PADI Divemaster Course

As the entry to professional levels in diver training, the PADI Divemaster course plays

a pivotal role within the PADI System of diver education. Those who join the PADI

Divemaster ranks assist you and other instructors with training student divers. They su-

pervise diving activities for certified divers, snorkelers and skin divers. Obviously, these

entry-level professionals can strongly influence the safety and fun divers enjoy during

training and diving. At the same time,

many PADI Divemasters are looking ahead, gaining professional experience they will

apply as PADI Assistant Instructors and Open Water Scuba Instructors. In conducting

the PADI Divemaster course, you’re training today’s certified assistants and laying the

foundation for many of tomorrow’s instructors.

OneIntroduction

1-2 One: Introduction

• Ethical role model behavior. PADI Divemasters are expected to display common honesty and courtesy, and follow accepted, responsible dive practices. Their behavior reflects well on them, the dive operation for which they work, and the PADI organization.

• Enthusiasm and fun. People learn to dive for the excitement, adven-

ture, and challenge – or broadly, for fun. They look to PADI Dive-masters to assist them in having fun within their interests and skill levels. Divers expect PADI Divemasters to be pleasant and sociable individuals to interact with. The PADI Divemaster assists with the dive community’s diver retention efforts.

Course GoalsTo develop the previous characteristics in an individual, the PADI Divemaster course has five broad goals:

1. To develop the knowledge, attitudes, judgment and skills for su-pervising certified divers in shore-based and boat-based diving activities.

2. To develop the knowledge, attitudes, judgment and skills for assisting with training divers in PADI courses.

3. To develop the knowledge, attitudes, judgment and skills for independently conducting specific PADI programs for certified divers and nondivers (e.g., Scuba Review, Discover Snorkeling, PADI Skin Diver course).

4. To develop the candidate’s dive theory knowledge, waterskills, rescue skills and experience to the levels necessary to enter the PADI Assistant Instructor course and the PADI Instructor Devel-opment Course. And to encourage the candidate to continue into those programs.

5. To promote each can-didate’s growth to meet individual needs and interests, and to meet the dive community’s needs and expectations in dive leaders (e.g., risk manage-ment, personal health and safety, the needs of the dive retailer).

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide 1-3

PADI Divemaster DutiesThe following lists the duties and ben-efits of PADI Divemasters as they apply to PADI courses and PADI Standards.

Certified and new/renewed PADI Divemasters who are in Active status are authorized to:

1. Independently guide Open Water Diver/Scuba Diver students on the tour portion of Open Water Diver course Training Dives 2 through 4, at a ratio of two student divers per certified divemaster.

2. Accompany Open Water Diver/Scuba Diver students under the indirect supervision of a PADI Instructor:

a. during surface swims to and from the entry/exit point.

b. during the navigational exercises during Dive 4.

c. with the group, either on the surface or underwater, while the instructor con-ducts a skill, such as an ascent, with an individual student diver or buddy team.

3. Conduct any subsequent dives for Discover Scuba Diving par-ticipants, at a ratio of 2:1, if insured, after the participants have satisfactorily completed the first dive under the super-vision of a PADI Instructor.

4. Conduct the PADI Discover Local Diving experience, (pro-vided the divemaster meets insurance requirements).

5. Conduct the PADI Discover Snorkeling program, (provided the divemaster meets insur-ance requirements).

6. Conduct the PADI Scuba Re-view program for certified Open Water Divers, divers

with higher certifications. or for PADI Scuba Divers who want only to refresh their skills (provided the divemas-ter meets insurance require-ments).

7. Accompany student divers during training dives for the PADI Adventures in Div-ing program, Specialty Diver courses, or the Rescue Diver course.

8. Generally supervise both training and nontraining-re-lated activities by assisting divers and student divers in the planning, organizing and direction of dives.

9. Assist a Teaching status PADI Instructor in the open water training of divers. The allow-able student diver-to-instruc-tor ratio increases by four additional student divers for each certified, renewed PADI Divemaster for all PADI programs and courses, un-less stated otherwise by that course/program’s standards.

For the PADI Open Water Diver/Scuba Diver course, the allowable student diver-to-in-structor ratio increases by two additional student divers for each certified, renewed PADI Divemaster, to a maximum of 12 student divers to one in-structor.

10. Assist a Teaching status PADI Instructor in the confined wa-ter training of divers. Use of certified, renewed PADI Dive-masters increases the allow-able student diver-to-instruc-tor ratio in confined water by four additional student divers per divemaster for all courses, unless stated otherwise by that course/program’s stan-dards.

1-4 One: Introduction

11. Teach and certify PADI Skin Divers independently (pro-vided the divemaster meets insurance requirements). This includes conducting the PADI Seal Team AquaMission: Skin Diver Specialist following Skin Diver course standards.

12. Conduct the skin diving skills segment of the Open Water Diver Course during ei-ther Confined Water Dive Two, Three, Four or Five (provided the divemaster meets insur-ance requirements).

13. Teach Emergency First Re-sponse courses after success-fully completing an Emergen-cy First Response Instructor course.

14. Independently conduct Dis-cover Scuba Diving (2003 revised program) in a pool or in confined open water to a maximum depth of 6 me-tres/20 feet if qualified as a Discover Scuba Diving Leader. Qualification includes complet-ing an internship that consists of conducting four separate Discover Scuba Diving pool or confined wa-ter experiences under the direct su-pervision and guidance of a PADI Instructor. (See Discover Scuba Div-ing Leader Internship Completion Form in Appendix.)

Divemaster candidates (trainees) are authorized under the direct supervision of the instructor to:

1. Guide individuals who have com-pleted all the requirements for the Scuba Diver or higher certification.

2. Accompany Open Water Diver/Scuba Diver student divers on the tour portion of Dives 2 through 4.

Benefits and Renewal Requirements of PADI Divemaster CertificationPADI Divemasters are members of PADI. Membership provides ben-efits, including a subscription to The Undersea Journal, member pricing on selected PADI materials and services, and eligibility to purchase professional underwater liability insurance offered by PADI’s agents. (Other benefits vary based on local needs and requirements and the serving PADI Office).

It is recommended that divemasters involved in training or supervising activi-ties carry liability insurance. Requirements may vary from one PADI Office to an-other.

Renewal requirements for PADI Divemasters include submit-ting a completed renewal appli-cation along with dues annually. A PADI Divemaster whose member-ship has lapsed may also need to meet additional requirements designated by the PADI Training and Quality Management Department to regain Active status. The requirements may vary depending on how long since the divemaster’s last renewed member-ship, changes to the PADI System and Standards during that interval, and other factors.

When an individual becomes a PADI Divemaster, PADI assigns the person a PADI Member number. When the PADI Divemaster becomes a PADI Assistant Instructor or Instructor, the number remains the same, though the prefix/suffix changes to reflect the new level.




Two

Course StandardsCourse PrerequisitesTo qualify to enter the PADI Divemas-ter course, an individual must:

1. Be certified as a PADI Advanced Open Water Diver or have a qualifying certification from another training organization. A qualifying certification is defined as proof of certification beyond entry level, and proof of 20 or more logged dives documenting experience in deep diving and underwater navigation.

2. Be certified as a PADI Rescue Diver or have a qualifying certifi-cation from another training or-ganization. A qualifying certification is defined as proof of certification in diving rescue from a training organi-zation other than PADI. If the candidate demonstrates poor or inadequate performance during the diver rescue assess-ment, then the candidate must complete a PADI Rescue Diver course.

3. Have completed and logged at least 20 dives as documented by the individual’s personal log book.

4. Be at least 18 years old at the start of PADI Divemaster training.

5. Submit, to the instructor, medical clearance for diving signed by a physician, attesting to fitness to dive. The medical clearance must be current within the previous 12 months. The physician sign-ing the form cannot be the indi-vidual.

6. Submit proof of Emergency First Response Primary Care (CPR) and Secondary Care (First Aid) train-ing (or other qualify-ing CPR/first aid training) within the last 24 months.

General Standards and Course Overview

2-2 Two: General Standards and Course Overview

Certification RequirementsAt the time of certification, a PADI Divemaster candidates must:

1. Show proof of 60 logged dives documenting experience in night diving, deep diving and under-water navigation.

2. Read and agree to abide by the PADI Membership and License Agreement.

Instructor SupervisionThe maximum candidate-to-instruc-tor ratio for confined and open water training activities is eight divemaster candidates per instructor (8:1). This ratio may not be increased through the use of certified assis-tants. You may use certified assistants to aid logistics, or play the role of student divers.

There is no maximum ratio for Knowledge Development activities. This limit is set by you based on logistics and the ability to facilitate candidate learning.

EquipmentCandidate equipmentDuring open water scuba training, each divemaster candidate must be equipped with the proper equipment for the diving environment. This includes, but is not limited to: fins, mask, snorkel, cylinder, regulator, alternate air source, buoyancy con-trol device (BCD) with low pressure inflator, backpack (if not integrated into the BCD), where weights are appropriate, a quick release weight system, appropriate exposure suit for the environment, timing device and depth gauge (or dive computer), compass, knife/dive tool (unless pro-hibited by local laws or regulations) and an emergency signaling device (whistle, flare, inflatable signal tube).

Instructor/certified assistant equipmentYou must meet the same equipment requirements as the candidates. In addition, ensure that a dive flag is used if required by local law. You’re encouraged to use a float large enough to provide buoyancy for a diver with the dive flag, when appropriate for the local diving environment. You’re also encouraged to have a first aid kit and emergency oxygen on site, if available and legally permitted in the local area.

Training MaterialsThe following materials are required in training PADI Divemasters:

1. PADI Divemaster Course Instruc-tor Guide.

2. PADI Instructor Manual. It’s recom-mended that candidates have a copy for their own use and reference.

3. PADI Divemaster Manual. All can-didates must read the manual and complete the Knowledge Reviews (unless unavailable in a language the candidate under-stands).

4. PADI Divemaster Video (unless unavailable in a language the candidate understands). It’s recommended that candidates watch the diver version during independent study, and that you use the video for in-class review.

5. The Recreational Dive Planner, Table and Wheel versions

6. Forms and releases as required by the General Standards section of the PADI Instructor Manual, and any other forms re-quired by your PADI Office.

7. All other equipment and materi-als needed to meet performance requirements in confined and open water training activities. It’s recommended that candidates person-ally provide materials they will need regularly as PADI Divemasters.


The following lists materials recommend-ed in training PADI Divemasters. You may find other PADI materials that aren’t listed useful as well.

1. The Encyclopedia of Recreational Div-ing Multimedia or book (for candidate independent study of dive theory).

2. The PADI Diving Knowledge Workbook (for candidate independent study of dive theory).

3. PADI Underwater Navigator Manual and Underwater Navigation video (for navigation skill review and mapping assignment)

4. PADI Deep Diver Manual and Deep Div-ing video (for deep diving knowledge development)

5. PADI Rescue Diver Manual and Video (for rescue accident management knowledge development and training exercises)

6. Giant RDPs, table and The Wheel

7. Discover the Underwater World video (for divemaster conducted programs knowledge development)

8. Scuba Tune-up guidebook (for dive-master conducted programs knowl-edge development)

9. The Business of Diving (for business of diving knowledge development)

10. Divemaster Slates (for open water training exercises)

11. Dive Roster slate (for open water training exercises)

12. Divemaster Candidate Information and Evaluation Form (for recording candidate performance throughout the program)

13. The Law and the Diving Professional (for risk management knowledge develop-ment)

14. The Best of the Undersea Journal (for risk management, business of diving knowledge development, open water and confined water training dives )

15. Peak Performance Buoyancy video

16. Open Water Diver Multimedia (RDP table and Wheel tutorial)

17. Skill Evaluation Slate (for confined waterskills evaluation and develop-ment)

18. Student Record File

19. Divemaster Skill Development Score Sheets

20. Practical Application Record Sheets

21. Adventure Log

22. All training materials for courses leading up to the PADI Divemaster level, including the manuals, videos, and multimedia products for the PADI Open Water Diver course, Adventures in Diving program and Rescue Diver course.

ReferralsReferrals allow divemaster candidates who complete part of the course requirements with one PADI Instructor to finish the requirements with another PADI Instructor in another location. The referral procedure is not needed or required between instruc-tors who team teach the course through a single facility where they can communi-cate and share records.

To refer someone who begins training with you, use the Divemaster Candidate Information and Evaluation Form (see Appendix), which should be filled out list-ing scores for all the performance require-ments that the candidate has completed, along with instructor signatures and numbers for each. Make a copy of the form, as well as the candidate’s medical approval, and forward both to the receiv-ing instructor. You may include copies of exam answer sheets, practical evaluation records, etc. Alternatively, you may give the documentation to the candidate to take to another instructor. If feasible, it’s recommended, but not required, that you contact the receiving instructor to discuss the candidate’s performance.

A referral expires after 12 months. Be sure to explain this to the candidate, and that costs charged by

5-4 Five: Practical Application

4. Have each team swim from the shallow area of the pool/confined water to wa-ter too deep in which to stand.

5. In deeper water, have them begin buddy breathing, then exchange all equip-ment except exposure suit and weight belts.

6. When the exchange is complete, have them return to the shallow area while continuing to buddy breathing.

Notes:1. Variation from normal diving practice is acceptable during the exchange because this

exercise creates highly unusual circumstances. You should evaluate the candidate’s ability to control stress while solving problems – normal skill competence may suffer under these conditions.

2. It may be necessary and acceptable to give each member of a buddy team different scores if one member dominates the exercise, or if it is obvious that difficulties lie with one member substantially more than the other.

Equipment Exchange Evaluation CriteriaCandidates must perform to a level of 3 or higher prior to certification.

Score Criteria

5 Task performed in a well-thought-out, efficient and purposeful manner with no sign of problems. Very low anxiety level. Looks routine and fun.

4 Task performed competently with a relatively low anxiety level. Problems encountered were easily and efficiently handled.

3 Complete exchange occurred without surfacing. However, nu-merous problems were encountered that delayed the speed and efficiency of the performance. The grade is also appropriate for a buddy who was overly dependent on the other, and who, in es-sence, had everything done for him.

2 Significant problems demonstrated, and exchange completed only after one or both team members surfaced once.

1 Inability to complete the exchange, or exchange completed but required one or both members to surface more than once.

Required Training Exercise 3Divemaster Conducted Programs[Prerequisite: Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs]This exercise familiarizes candidates with programs they may conduct without in-structor supervision. This scenario builds upon what candidates learned in Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs by having them conduct part or all of a simu-lated or actual Discover Snorkeling, Scuba Review, Discover Local Diving, Discover Scuba Diving program (confined water option) or PADI Skin Diver course.

If simulating this exercise, the minimum number of role players re-quired is 4.


level appropriate for demonstrating to student divers, and to prepare for higher training levels. The Stamina Assessment and Development portion evaluates basic swimming skills, with opportunity for you to develop those candidates who need to improve. During the Diver Rescue Assess-ment and Development phase, you assess candidate rescues of a simulated unre-sponsive, nonbreathing diver. The goal is to refine their skills beyond the Rescue Diver level. In the Confined Waterskill As-sessment and Development, you evaluate and develop to demonstration quality the 20 basic scuba skills from the PADI Skill Evaluation.

In the Practical Application Module, candidates put into practice skills typical of a divemaster. There are three Required Training Exercises, followed by either an internship with specific internship criteria or four Practical Training Exercises. The Required Training Exercises include map making, underwater problem solving, and a divemaster conducted program. The internship and Practical Training Exercises allow candidates to practice and develop divemaster skills with real or simulated student divers, and with real or simulated supervised divers, under your supervision.

Sequencing within the PADI Divemaster CourseThe PADI Divemaster course integrates knowledge and skill development through the three modules. You have a great deal of latitude in how you sequence course components. There are a few requirements to ensure that candidates develop the nec-essary prerequisite knowledge and skills before attempting more complex topics and tasks.

• Knowledge Development Topic 1 – Course Introduction: The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster must precede all other components of the PADI Divemaster course.

• Knowledge Development Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Pro-grams must precede Required Train-ing Exercise 3 – Divemaster Conduct-ed Programs.

You may wish to cover independent study and emergency assistant plan as-signments as part of your first Knowledge Development Presentation.

It’s highly recommended that candi-dates complete knowledge development sessions that deal with supervising or as-sisting divers before completing the Intern-ship or Practical Training Exercises.

All other course sequencing is left to your discretion based on class size, local conditions, logistics, candidate needs and other variables. See Sample Schedules for suggestions.

Key StandardsPrerequisite Certification: Advanced Open Water Diver or qualifying certifi-cation, and PADI Rescue Diver or qualifying certification

Prerequisite Dives: 20 to start training. Prior to certification: 60

Minimum Age: 18 (by course start date)

Recommended Hours: 50 hours (based on a class of six candidates)

Maximum Candidate-to-Instructor ratio for confined and open water training activities: 8 to 1

Minimum Instructor Rating: PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor


Sample Divemaster Course Schedule

The following sample schedules suggest ways you can organize the PADI Dive-master course. Of course, you may rearrange the schedule to any sequence that fits your logistical and candidate needs. Independent study assignments may shift around, or even precede the first meeting with candidates, to meet sched-uling requirements.

Session One

Classroom: Topic 1: The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Dive-master

Practical: Waterskills and Stamina Exercises One and Two – Con-fined Water

Independent Study: Chapters 1 and 2 of the Divemaster Manual

PADI Divemaster Video

Emergency Assistance Plan – assigned to be completed before certification

Session Two

Classroom: Topic 2 (Part 1): Supervising General Diving Activities for Certified Divers (Objectives 1-18)

Practical: Waterskills and Stamina Exercises Three and Four Equipment Exchange – Required Training Exercise Two

Independent Study: The Physics of Diving

Session Three


Practical: Diver-Rescue Assessment Confined Waterskills Assess-ment

Independent Study: The Physiology of Diving

Chapter 3 and 4 of the Divemaster Manual

Session Four

Classroom: Topic 3: Assisting with Students in Training

Independent Study: Mapping Project – Required Training Exercise One – As-signed to be completed before certification.

Equipment

Chapters 5 and 6 of the Divemaster Manual


Session Five

Classroom: Topic 9: Divemaster Conducted Programs

Topic 10: Risk Management

Practical: Divemaster Conducted Programs – Required Training Exercise Three

Independent Study: Decompression Theory and the RDP

Chapter 7 of the Divemaster Manual

Session Six

Classroom: Topic 4: Dive Theory Introduction

Topic 5: The Physics of Diving – review and answer questions

Topic 6: The Physiology of Diving – review and answer questions

Practical: Makeup and Remedial Training

Begin Internship and/or Practical Training Exercises

Independent Study: Chapters 8 and 9 of the Divemaster Manual

Session Seven

Classroom: Topic 7: Equipment – review and answer questions

Topic 8: Decompression Theory and the RDP –review and answer questions

Topic 11: The Business of Diving

Practical: Internship and/or Practical Training Exercises

Session Eight

Classroom: Topic 12: Furthering Your Dive Career

Divemaster Exams



Sample Schedule

Weekend FormatIndependent Study: Chapters 1 and 2 of the Divemaster Manual (assigned at

registration to be completed prior to first weekend)

PADI Divemaster Video

Weekend One

Day One

Classroom: Topic 1: The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemas-ter

Topic 2 (Part 1): Supervising General Diving Activities for Certified Divers (Objectives 1-18)

Practical: Waterskills and Stamina Exercises One and Two – Con-fined Water

Equipment Exchange – Required Training Exercise Two

Independent Study: Emergency Assistance Plan – assigned to be completed before certification

Chapter 3 of the Divemaster Manual

Day Two


Topic 3: Assisting with Students in Training

Practical: Diver-Rescue Assessment Waterskills Assessment

Waterskills and Stamina Exercises Three and Four

Independent Study: (complete before next weekend) The Physics of Diving

The Physiology of Diving

Chapter 4, 6, 7 of the Divemaster Manual

Weekend Two

Day Three

Classroom: Topic 9: Divemaster Conducted Programs

Topic 10: Risk Management

Practical: Divemaster Conducted Programs – Required Training Exercise Three

Independent Study: Mapping Project – Required Training Exercise One – As-signed to be completed before certification.


Day Four

Classroom: Topic 4: Dive Theory Introduction

Topic 5: The Physics of Diving – review and answer ques-tions

Topic 6: The Physiology of Diving – review and answer questions

Practical: Makeup and Remedial Training

Begin Internship or Practical Training Exercises

Independent Study: (to be completed before next weekend) Decompression Theory and the RDP

Equipment

Chapters 5, 8 and 9 of the Divemaster Manual

Weekend Three Day Five

Classroom: Topic 7: Equipment – review and answer questions

Topic 8: Decompression Theory and the RDP –review and answer questions

Topic 11: The Business of Diving


Day Six

Classroom: Topic 12: Furthering Your Dive Career

Divemaster Exams




ThreeKnowledge Development

level divers, dive planning principles, rescue management, and rudimenta-ry instructional concepts. During these discussions, you will guide candidates to shape the attitudes and skills they’ll apply in the Practical Application Module and later, as certified PADI Divemasters.

Following the overall standards that apply to this module, you’ll find a subsection for each of the 12 Knowledge Development Topics. Each subsection provides the standards and learning objectives/performance requirements that relate to the topic, suggested methods for reaching those objectives (e.g., independent study, presentations, discussions), suggested and required study materials, and a presentation outline. Note that for several topics when using independent study a presentation may not be required, though it’s recommended that you give candidates the oppor-tunity to meet with you to ask questions and review the

Conduct and StandardsMuch of this section focuses on devel-oping candidate knowledge of dive theory. This has two important roles. First, research into problem solving shows that experts in a given field solve problems well because they have a large knowledge base upon which to draw when looking for solutions. Second, many candidates will continue on to the PADI Assistant Instructor and Open Water Scuba Instructor levels. Training at these levels builds upon candidates’ established knowledge of dive theory, and there is no training in the IDC for theory (except for optional remediation).

Besides dive theory, the Knowl-edge Development Module establishes information important to an indi-vidual who will be working in or with a professional dive operation and instructional staff. These include risk management, customer perspectives, the needs of a dive business, and career opportunities. Other portions of this module address professionalism and the qualities expected in leadership-

The Knowledge Development Module establishes the knowledge foundation PADI

Divemasters apply as certified assistants, while supervising general dive activities

with certified divers, and as they gain experience leading into the PADI Assistant

Instructor and Instructor Development Courses.



3-12 Three: Knowledge Development

material, prior to taking the Divemas-ter Exams.

Learning objectives are written as questions that you can read to your candidates. The outlines were written for direct presentation to your student divers. You’ll find notes intended for you to read but not present clearly set apart in brackets or boxes. Notes for emphasis to divemaster candidates stand apart similarly, preceded by “Note to candidate:.”

EvaluationBecause the Knowledge Development Module develops different types of knowledge for different purposes, you’ll apply different evaluations to assess whether candidates meet the perfor-mance objectives.

ExamsThere are eight required PADI Dive-master Exams: Physics, Physiology and First Aid, Equipment, Decompression Theory and the RDP, Dive Skills and the Environment, Supervising Activi-ties for Certified Divers, Supervising Student Divers in Training, and PADI Divemaster Conducted Programs. Prior to certification, each can-didate must show mastery by demonstrating acceptable per-formance on each of the PADI Divemaster Exams. Candidates take the exams under direct staff supervision, with no notes or aids allowed except the Recre-ational Dive Planner (table and The Wheel), a calculator, scratch paper and pencil or pen. The candidate may also use the PADI Instructor Manual with the PADI Divemaster Course Instructor Guide removed.

Acceptable performance means that the candidate scores 75 percent or better on each exam (not averaged together). If the candidate scores less than 75 percent, then you must have the candidate retest. Besides scoring 75 percent or higher, the candi-date must show mastery of all exam items. To accomplish this, review questions missed or not completed until the candidate understands each.

The candidate signs and dates the candidate statement on each examination after you score it and explain missed, incomplete or unanswered questions to verify that you reviewed these and the candidate now understands them. It’s recommended, but not required, that you have candidates initial missed questions in addition to signing the candidate statement. You must keep a written record of the exam answer sheet in the candidate’s permanent records (Student Record File).

Candidates who were certified as PADI Advanced Plus Divers have already completed knowledge de-velopment in dive training theory. Therefore, you may, at your discretion, exempt them from presentations or in-dependent study for Topics 5, 6, 7, and 8. However, they must complete all evaluation areas including the Divemaster Exams.

Knowledge ReviewsEach chapter in the PADI Divemaster Manual ends with a Knowledge Review. Divemaster candidates must com-plete and turn in each Knowledge Review. Candidates must master all items. Review any questions


AssignmentEmergency Assistance PlanEach divemaster candidate must complete an Emergency Assis-tance Plan individually (not in teams or pairs) for a dive site. It is recommended the plan be for a destination commonly visited by divers from the local area. It’s recommended, but not required, that you assign a different site to each candidate.

You evaluate the Emergency Assistance Plans based on their completeness in providing information someone would need to manage a diving accident at the assigned site. The plan may include information such as local emergency medical contact informa-tion, contact information for local authorities involved in evacuating an injured diver, contact for area diver emergency service (if present in the area), nearest operational recompression chamber (for areas not served by DAN or DES or a similar service), communication requirements (such as if the area has no cellular service) and any other information you indicate would apply to the particular area. If a candidate’s Emergency As-sistance Plan is incomplete, have the candidate revise the plan until it is complete. It’s a good idea to have candidates make copies of their completed plans for each other’s reference and use.

missed or left incomplete until the candidate understands each. The candidate signs and dates the candidate statement on each Knowledge Review to verify that you reviewed these and the can-didate now understands them. It’s recommended, but not required, that

you have candidates initial missed questions in addition to signing the candidate statement. You must keep a record of the completed and signed Knowledge Reviews in the candidate’s permanent records (Student Record File).


DM 1 - DM 1 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Role and Characteristics �of a PADI Divemaster�

■ The Role and Characteristics �of a PADI Divemaster�

■ Benefits and Responsibilities of PADI Divemaster Membership�

■ Benefits and Responsibilities of PADI Divemaster Membership�

■ How to Succeed in This Program�■ How to Succeed in This Program�

■ Course Logistics – Assignments, Responsibilities, Schedule and Administration

■ Course Logistics – Assignments, Responsibilities, Schedule and Administration

Topic 1 – Course Introduction

The Role and Characteristics of a PADI DivemasterRecommended Materials and Methods for Covering This TopicThis is the first presentation for the PADI Divemaster course and must be conducted before any other course components. It’s most effective for you to use the following outline to present the information in a classroom-like setting.

Much of this presentation sets the tone for the course and lays the groundwork for developing professionalism and desired attitudes in candi-dates. Encourage discussion and interaction in your group, which not only assists in attitude development, but will help develop familiarity between your candidates, you and your staff.

The first chapter of the PADI Divemaster Manual supports this topic. If possible, have candidates read the chapter and complete the Knowledge Review before attending. However this presentation covers additional mate-rial specific to the logistics that apply to your divemaster candidates and the local area, and therefore aren’t covered by the manual.

The PADI Divemaster Video also strongly supports this presentation. It’s recommended that you have candidates watch the video prior to this presen-tation, or immediately after it.

PresentationOverview and Learning Objectives I. Introductions

II. The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster 1. What three broad characteristics may divers expect

in a PADI Divemaster?

2. What five criteria define “professionalism” as it ap-plies to the PADI Divemaster?

3. What is a “role model”?

4. What are the characteristics and attributes of a good role model PADI Divemaster?

5. What are the characteristics and attributes of a poor role model divemaster?

6. How may role model behavior affect other divers?

7. How may role model behavior affect your ability to function as a divemaster?

8. How may good role model behavior benefit student divers when you assist with training?


DM 1 - DM 1 -

What criteria define professionalism?What criteria define professionalism?

44

■ Expertise�■ Expertise�

■ Judgment�■ Judgment �

■ Appearance and manner �■ Appearance and manner �

■ Interpersonal skills�■ Interpersonal skills �

■ Exemplary rescue skills■ Exemplary rescue skills

DM 1 - DM 1 -

The Role and Charact eristics of a PADI Divemaster�

�

The Role and Charact eristics of a PADI Divemaster�

�

33

What is a PADI Divemaster?

What is a PADI Divemaster?

III. Benefits and Responsibilities of PADI Divemaster Membership

9. What are the benefits and responsibilities of a PADI Divemaster?

IV. How to Succeed in This Program

V. Assignments, Responsibilities, Course Schedule and Administration

Outline

I. IntroductionA. Introductions [Introduce yourself and have your staff and candidates

introduce themselves. Encourage a relaxed, light at-mosphere and try to get everyone interacting. This gets the course off to a good start.]

B. [Paperwork]

II. The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster What is a PADI Divemaster?A. The goal of this course is to qualify you as a PADI

Divemaster. This raises the question, “What is a PADI Divemaster?”

[Use the question to launch a five minute class discus-sion about what a PADI Divemaster is. Write the an-swers down as you go, and treat answers as a basis for further discussion.]

B. What three broad characteristics may divers expect in a PADI Divemaster?

[Use the candidates’ answers to note the characteristics that divers expect in a PADI Divemaster.]1. professionalism2. role model behavior3. ability to assist with supervising dive activities and

dive trainingC. What five criteria define “professionalism” as it

applies to the PADI Divemaster?1. “Professionalism” means different things depending

upon the activity. Specific to a PADI Divemaster, a professional is someone who:a. has expertise in diving: dive theory, dive skills

and dive management.


b. has good judgment. The PADI Divemaster follows responsible diving practices when conducting/as-sisting with PADI-sanctioned programs, follows PADI Standards, and errs to the conservative when making decisions that could affect diver safety.

c. maintains a professional appearance and man-ner.

d. has good interpersonal skills.e. has exemplary rescue skills.

[Ask the candidates why people expect these qualities. Encourage a five minute discussion about this topic, with you confirming and elaborating on appropriate candidate responses.]

D. What is a “role model”?1. A “role model” is someone who other people base

their behavior on because they respect and identify with the role model.

2. What are the characteristics and attributes of a good role model PADI Divemaster?a. good dive skillsb. commitment to beliefs – there’s no question that

the divemaster believes in responsible dive prac-tices and PADI Standards because the individual follows them consistently.

c. uses up-to-date, well maintained dive equipment.d. maintains self – stays physically fit for diving and

stays up-to-date on dive trends, theory, equip-ment, etc.

e. agrees with the PADI training philosophy and supports the instructor with that philosophy when assisting with student divers in training.

f. accepts and empathizes with divers and students in supervisory situations.

g. inspires other divers to pattern their dive habits after the divemaster.

h. supports the business needs of the dive operation.

i. easily establishes rapport with divers and custom-ers.

j. earns and maintains respect, trust and confidence of divers and customers.


DM 1 - DM 1 -

How does role model behavior

affect other divers?

How does role model behavior

affect other divers?

77

DM 1 - DM 1 -

What is a role model?What is a role model?

■ Negative behavior�■ Negative behavior�

66

◆ Lacks conviction and commitment �◆ Lacks conviction and commitment �

◆ Disregards personal fitness�◆ Disregards personal fitness �

◆ Uncaring, contradictor y, �and unsuppor tive

◆ Uncaring, contradictor y, �and unsuppor tive

3. What are the characteristics and attributes of a poor role model divemaster?a. hypocrisy and lack of conviction – pays lip service

to responsible dive practices and standards by say-ing one thing and doing another, or only follow-ing those practices and standards when compelled to do so by standards or an employer. Doesn’t ap-pear to stand for anything that’s not convenient at the moment – may take a “do as I say, not as I do” approach.

b. disregards personal fitness and does not keep cur-rent on dive information and practices.

c. uncaring and unempathetic of other divers and their skill levels. Behaves in ways that causes other divers to not respect the individual.

d. contradicts or disagrees with an instructor in front of student divers or other assistants.

e. not a “team player” and fails to support the cus-tomer service and equipment counseling aspects of the dive operation’s business needs.

4. How may role model behavior affect other divers?

[Ask the class, based on the above attributes, “How might good and poor role modeling make you more and less effective as divemasters?” Encourage a five minute discussion, elaborating on appropriate candi-date comments. The following summarizes the con-clusions the class should reach – fill in any missing concepts.]a. How may role model behavior affect your

ability to function as a divemaster?1. Good role model behavior can aid other div-

ers by giving them a behavior pattern to follow with respect to responsible dive practices and habits. Poor role model behavior can cause them to question these practices and habits. People follow your example as much as (some-times more than) what you say.

2. Alternatively, poor role modeling can cause div-ers to question you and your suggestions. Divers may be less likely to act on your advice. Good role modeling is more likely to give you cred-ibility and encourages divers to follow accepted dive practices and consider your suggestions.


DM 1 - DM 1 -

What are the benefits of becoming a Divemast er?What are the benefits of becoming a Divemast er?

88

■ PADI Membership�■ PADI Membership�◆ Receive pub lications and updates �

– The Under sea Journal �◆ Receive pub lications and updates �

– The Under sea Journal �◆ Access to PADI materials and

educational consultation �◆ Access to PADI materials and

educational consultation �◆ Access to pr ofessional �

liability insurance �◆ Access to pr ofessional �

liability insurance �

■ Earn income by conducting PADI programs

■ Earn income by conducting PADI programs

b. How may good role model behavior benefit student divers when you assist with train-ing?1. Good role model behavior helps student divers,

who learn much by watching the instructor and assistants. Consistency between you and the instructor reinforces what student divers learn. Good role model behavior earns student respect, which means they listen and learn from you better when you’re assisting in training.

III. Benefits and Responsibilities of the PADI Divemaster Membership[If possible, show the This is PADI video to start this sub-ject.]A. Benefits

1. As a PADI Divemaster you’ll be a member of PADI, the world’s largest and most respected diver training organization.

2. As a PADI Member, you:a. receive regular mailings of information, standards

changes and industry alerts. [Identify the publica-tions they get from the applicable PADI Office in-stead of or in addition to The Undersea Journal, etc. If PADI Divemasters for your area receive Assisting and Divemastering, either as part of the Journal or separately, call attention to this publication dedi-cated specifically to their duties.]

b. have access to certain PADI materials at the PADI Divemaster rate as well as access to educational consulting at your PADI Office.

c. have access to Professional Liability Insurance and to the dive industry’s most experienced legal defense team. You’ll learn more about this later in the course.

d. may earn income or benefits by assisting with PADI Diver courses, and by conducting some PADI programs independently (more about these later). Divemaster also have access to PADI’s job place-ment information service.

B. Being a PADI Divemaster has responsibilities:1. Adhering to PADI Standards when assisting with

and/or conducting PADI programs as identified in the PADI Instructor Manual or other PADI materials. Much of what you learn in this course applies to this.


DM 1 - DM 1 -

How to SucceedHow to Succeed■ Start independent study EARLY�■ Start independent study EARLY�

1010

◆ Read man ual, watch video and complete Kno wledge Reviews�

◆ Read man ual, watch video and complete Kno wledge Reviews�

■ Seek more information �– don’t limit yourself�

■ Seek more information �– don’t limit yourself�

■ Practice, practice, practice�■ Practice, practice, practice�

■ Ask for help – help others■ Ask for help – help others

2. Staying current with PADI Standards by reading the quarterly Training Bulletin.

3. Representing the PADI organization favorably as you conduct yourself professionally.

4. Maintaining your PADI Membership. [Review re-newal requirements as listed in the Introduction of this instructor guide, page 1-4.]

5. Keeping PADI informed of your current address so that you will receive important mailings, and so you can connect with the appropriate PADI Office for service.

V. How to Succeed in This ProgramA. Success in this program comes through applying your-

self to the assignments and exercises consistently and as directed by your instructor. Like any learning pro-cess, you get out of this course what you put into it.

B. Candidates usually find that the following suggestions benefit their learning at this level:1. Read each appropriate PADI Divemaster Manual

chapter, watch the PADI Divemaster Video and com-plete the Knowledge Reviews enough ahead of schedule to do so without rushing. Write in your books as you study – make notes, highlight impor-tant concepts to review, etc.

2. Start independent study and projects as soon as they’re assigned. Take advantage of all study media available – video, multimedia products, manuals, etc. Each type has different advantages in learning; the more you use, the more effective your learning.

3. Don’t limit yourself. If you’re interested in some-thing, find out all you can about it, even if it’s be-yond the course requirements.

4. Practice outside scheduled sessions with classmates. This is useful with physics problems, demonstration skill practice, rescue and other skills.

5. If you’re having trouble mastering or understanding something, let the instructor know as soon as pos-sible.

6. Help your fellow candidates and let them help you. You learn by helping and being helped.

[Note to instructor: The professional edition of the PADI Divemaster Video provides you with suggestions and techniques for conducting the program.]


DM 1 - DM 1 -

Course Log isticsCourse Log istics

■ Assignments�

■ Materials and Equipment �

■ Schedule�

■ Administrative Requirements

■ Assignments �

■ Materials and Equipment �

■ Schedule�

■ Administrative Requirements

1111

VI. Assignments, Responsibilities, Course Schedule and AdministrationA. Assignments

1. [Tell candidates about assignments and due dates, including independent study assignments. It’s rec-ommended that you give independent study assign-ments for Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8 as early in the course as possible. You may assign the Emergency Assis-tance Plan, tell candidates the locations they should prepare their plans for, the date due and the criteria for a complete plan. You may also discuss the Map-ping Project]

2. [Advise candidates to watch the PADI Divemaster Vid-eo, read the PADI Divemaster Manual and complete the Knowledge Review at the end of each chapter to hand in.]

B. In this course, you’re responsible for:1. Completing assignments on time.2. Conducting yourself in a professional manner.3. Following instructions from the instructor and staff.4. Providing equipment and materials [list all equip-

ment and materials candidates must provide].C. Schedule [Give candidates the course schedule, including ses-

sion times and locations, integrating assignment and Knowledge Review due dates.]

D. Monitoring progress [Give candidates a copy of the Skill Development Score

Sheet and Practical Application Record Sheet. Explain that you’ll be tracking their progress and critiquing their performances regularly using these.]

E. Administration [Finish any paperwork, collect remaining course fees,

additional fees not covered by the course fee (such as boat fees) etc.]

F. [It’s recommended that you finish this session with a break that allows social interaction and a chance for candidates and staff to get to know each other.]


Topic 2 – Supervising General Diving Activities for Certified Divers

Recommended Materials and Methods for Covering This TopicThe PADI Divemaster Video and the Divemaster Manual cover much of the ma-terial in this topic. Preferably, have candidates see the video, read Chapter 2 and complete the Knowledge Review prior to this presentation. Your pre-sentation is important in this topic because it includes discussions to begin establishing problem solving skills, judgment and attitudes.

This is a long topic, so you may want to plan breaks in the presentation, or deliver the presentation in two or more sessions. Use of independent study materials will allow you to go more quickly through much of the material, since candidates will already be familiar with it.

The following PADI materials support this topic: Adventures in Diving, (manual and video) Underwater Navigator Manual, Deep Diver Manual, Deep Diving video, Night Diver Manual, Night Diving video, Enriched Air Diver Manual, Enriched Air Diving video.

Presentation - Part 1Overview and Learning Objectives I. The Divers You Supervise 1. Why do certified divers want the assistance of a

PADI Divemaster?

2. What individual differences in divers does a dive-master have to be prepared to accommodate?

3. What are six characteristics of responsible diver be-havior?

4. What are four ways to encourage responsible div-ing?

II. Dive Planning 5. What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning

for a group of certified divers?

6. How do you plan a dive by “thinking through the dive”?

7. What aspects of dive planning are and are not the divemaster’s responsibility?

8. What aspects of dive planning and diving must each diver retain responsibility for?

9. How do you assess divers before a dive for experi-ence level, possible stress and possible equipment problems?

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Overview — Part 1Overview — Part 1

22

■ The Divers You Supervise�■ The Divers You Supervise�

■ Dive Planning�■ Dive Planning�

■ Dive Management�■ Dive Management�

■ Helping Divers Manage �Predive Stress�

■ Helping Divers Manage �Predive Stress�

■ Mapping Dive Sites■ Mapping Dive Sites


10. What is Discover Local Diving, and for who is it in-tended?

11. How do you evaluate general dive conditions, and how do conditions affect diving?

12. What are three aspects of planning dives for remote ar-eas?

III Dive Management 13. What are four aspects of supervision in managing

dives?

14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwa-ter versus out of water supervision, and the advantag-es and disadvantages of supervision vantage points inwater versus out of water?

15. What eight types of equipment can assist in supervis-ing certified divers?

16. What is the primary purpose of diver accounting pro-cedures?

IV. Helping Divers Manage Predive Stress 17. What are the characteristics of predive stress, and

how do you help divers deal with it?

V. Mapping Dive Sites 18. What are the general steps for mapping a dive site,

and what elements do you include in a dive site map?

Outline I. The Divers You Supervise

A. Why do certified divers want the assistance of a PADI Divemaster?1. Although there may be some situations in which divers

need supervision, the primary reason they dive under divemaster supervision is they want the services, educa-tion and benefits a divemaster provides. Practices vary greatly from one area to another and the successful divemaster recognizes that neither supervisory recom-mendations nor procedures apply to all locales and circumstances.a. The divemaster makes the dive more fun by guiding

divers to the best diving.b. The divemaster can help divers improve their safety

by providing information such as local dive condi-tions and protocols/techniques, and by being avail-able to manage and assist with a dive accident.

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Why do cer tified divers want the assistance of a PADI Divemaster?

Why do cer tified divers want the assistance of a PADI Divemaster?

33

■ Guidance�■ Guidance�

■ Safety�■ Safety�

■ Handling logistics�■ Handling logistics�

■ FUN■ FUN


DM 2 - DM 2 -

What individual differences might you encount er?What individual differences might you encount er?

66

■ Skill level�■ Skill level�

■ Physical and intellectual �challenges�

■ Physical and intellectual �challenges�

■ Cultural differences�■ Cultural differences�

■ Responsible behavior■ Responsible behavior

c. The divemaster often assists with boat handling and logistics, freeing the divers to simply relax and enjoy the trip.

d. The divemaster can help divers assess whether their skills and experience level match the planned dive, by being available to answer ques-tions, and by helping them brush up on skills when they feel it necessary.

e. The divemaster adds to the enjoyment by being a fun person – friendly, approachable, warm, and someone others like to be around. The divemaster adds to the fun by giving local area information or history of a dive site.

B. Being a person other divers want as a divemaster is important to your success and the success of the dive operation you represent.

C. What individual differences in divers does a di-vemaster have to be prepared to accommodate?1. As a professional divemaster, you need to accept div-

ers you supervise as they are. [Ask candidates: Why? Encourage a brief discus-sion about this before continuing. How candidates answer is less important than that they think about this and come up with their own reasons.]

2. Divers will vary in several ways:a. Skill level — adapt your interaction based on

general skill levels. (e.g., known skill levels may influence where you take the boat, or suggested techniques or courses to follow.) [Ask candidates: If everyone had leadership-level dive skills, would there be any need for divemas-ters?]

b. Physical/intellectual challenges — individuals with special challenges may need your assistance with unusual, but acceptable, dive techniques.

c. Different cultures — culture affects how people approach the social interaction side of diving. Be sensitive to cultural needs of those you supervise, and the local culture where you work.

d. Responsible behavior — a divemaster can encour-age responsible behavior in divers. The divemas-ter is alert for the appropriate behavior or lack of, and tries to encourage it, but this doesn’t imply that the divemaster is responsible for the behav-

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Demand for you as a divemaster

= Success

Demand for you as a divemaster

= Success

44


DM 2 - DM 2 -

How can you encourage responsible behavior?How can you encourage responsible behavior?

88

■ Role modeling�■ Role modeling �

■ Dive planning and briefings �■ Dive planning and briefings �

■ Logistical arrang ements�■ Logistical arrang ements�

■ Reward and acknowledgment■ Reward and acknowledgment

ior of trained and certified divers. This would be neither realistic nor appropriate.

D. What are six characteristics of responsible diver behavior?1. Stays within personal limits – plans dives within lim-

its of training and experience for diver and buddy.2. Properly equipped – uses the equipment generally

accepted as required for a dive.3. Equipment care – maintains equipment properly

and checks it before diving.4. Conservative air supply management – checks air

supply frequently and ends dive with an appropriate reserve.

5. Conservative computer/table use – stays well within no stop limits, avoids “sawtooth” profiles and makes safety stops.

6. Environmental awareness – avoids contact with sensitive aquatic life, dives in an environmentally sensitive manner.

E. What are four ways to encourage responsible diving?1. Role modeling – ensure that your dive habits reflect

the characteristics of a responsible diver.2. Dive planning and briefings – it may be appropriate

at times to suggest or remind of responsible diving behaviors during dive planning and briefings (You’ll learn more about dive planning next and briefings shortly).

3. When practical make responsible behaviors easier logistically (e.g., in some situations, a bar at 5 me-tres/15 feet assists safety stops, etc.)

4. Reward responsible behaviors (e.g., after a guided dive, acknowledge appropriate behavior and skills, etc.)

II. Dive PlanningA. What is the role of the divemaster in dive plan-

ning for a group of certified divers?1. Your role as a divemaster is to provide broad plan-

ning for the group – basic logistics and emergency preparation, and helping divers plan their own dives.

B. How do you plan a dive by “thinking through the dive”?1. Thinking through the dive is an effective way to

DM 2 - DM 2 -

What is responsible diver behavior?What is responsible diver behavior?

77

■ Knows and abides b y personal limits�■ Knows and abides b y personal limits �■ Uses proper equipment �■ Uses proper equipment �

■ Maintains equipment �■ Maintains equipment �

■ Manages air suppl y conser vatively �■ Manages air suppl y conser vatively �

■ Uses dive computer or tab le conservatively�

■ Uses dive computer or tab le conservatively�

■ Remains en vironmentall y aware■ Remains en vironmentall y aware

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Dive Planning��

Dive Planning��

99

What is the divemaster’s role

and responsibility?

What is the divemaster’s role

and responsibility?


plan a dive. Imagine everything on a dive – predive preparation, loading, diver check in, on the boat/at the beach, postdive, etc. – make a list of what needs to be done, in order. Think through possible inci-dents or emergencies that you should prepare for and add them to the list.

2. Think through the information that individual div-ers need to plan their own dives (conditions, depth, training requirements, etc.) so you can provide as much as reasonably possible to the divers.

3. Thinking through a dive gives you a list of what to do, in order, preparations for possible emergencies, and information to gather for divers. Much of what you learn in this course teaches you how to find, gather and use information for dive planning.

C. What aspects of dive planning are and are not the divemaster’s responsibility?1. Your responsibility – plan a dive envelope the group

stays within and that prepares for reasonably fore-seeable diving emergencies. Advise divers of known unusual hazards. Orient divers to site.

2. You are not normally responsible for planning the individual dives of certified divers.

D. What aspects of dive planning and diving must each diver retain responsibility for?1. Divers’ responsibility – Each diver must retain re-

sponsibility for planning the individual characteris-tics of the dive within the limits you set and imple-menting the plan.a. Divers will bear the consequences of the dive

plan, so they must accept responsibility for it.b. Conditions change, – divers may have to revise

dive plan accordingly within their personal limi-tations.

c. You cannot control a diver; divers are responsible for their own actions.

d. You cannot know divers’ comfort/training/experi-ence levels as well as they do – they have to set their own limits.

E. Although divers are responsible for their plans, you can assist them with their individual plans. If asked, you can help them choose responsible courses of ac-tion. The information you provide assists them to plan their individual dives.

DM 2 - DM 2 - Dive PlanningDive Planning

Divemaster’s RoleDivemaster’s Role■ Basic logistics and site orientation�■ Basic logistics and site orientation�

1010

■ Emergency preparation�■ Emergency preparation�

■ Help diver’s� plan their �individual �dives

■ Help diver’s� plan their �individual �dives

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Diver’s ResponsibilityDiver’s Responsibility■ Planning and implementation of �

own dive plan ■ Planning and implementation of �

own dive plan

1111Dive PlanningDive Planning


DM 2 - DM 2 -

Diver AssessmentDiver Assessment■ How do you assess divers �

before a dive?■ How do you assess divers �

before a dive?


Indirect�equipment�

behavior�

signs of illness �or injury

Indirect�equipment �

behavior�

signs of illness �or injury

Direct�log book�

registration�

interview

Direct�log book �

registration �

interview

F. How do you assess divers before a dive for expe-rience level, possible stress and possible equip-ment problems?1. Diver assessment – while it’s often impossible for a

divemaster to assess the skill and review the equip-ment of all divers, the following techniques may be used to estimate skill level, stress and equipment concerns during normal interaction with divers. If you observe possible problems, you should alert the diver and provide opportunities to rectify the prob-lems. General observations may assist with recom-mendations for group planning and individual plans.

2. Indirect assessment – observations include:a. Equipment condition, configuration and age. For

example, all rental gear may indicate a novice or infrequent diver. Inappropriate or missing gear for the dive may require your counsel. Old gear may indicate a rusty diver returning to diving. Dangling equipment may indicate inexperience or lack of familiarity with environmentally sensi-tive dive techniques.

b. Behavior. For example, withdrawal, excessive talking, excessive time preparing may indicate stress or concerns about the dive. Overdependence on a dive buddy for planning, gear setup, etc. may indicate inexperience.

c. Signs or symptoms of illness or injury.3. Direct assessment – depending on circumstances, the

following may be useful techniques:a. Check log books and certifications.b. Have divers fill out contact, certification, experi-

ence and other emergency contact information when they register for the dive.

c. Interview – if practical, ask the diver about con-cerns, experience, etc., particularly if indirect as-sessment raises a question.

G. What is Discover Local Diving, and for who is it intended? 1. Discover Local Diving, an environmental orientation,

is a briefing that covers the unique aspects of a par-ticular dive environment so divers can include these in their dive plans.

2. It is intended for certified divers who have little or no experience in the local environment.


DM 2 - DM 2 -

Dive ConditionsDive Conditions


■ How do you evaluate general dive conditions and how do conditions affect diving?�

■ How do you evaluate general dive conditions and how do conditions affect diving?�

◆ What’s acceptab le?�◆ What’s acceptab le?�

◆ Weather�◆ Weather�

◆ Tides and current �◆ Tides and current �

◆ Visibility◆ Visibility

3. You can include an environmental orientation in your supervision when your assessment suggests div-ers may benefit from it, or when asked.

4. Discover Local Diving is PADI’s environmental ori-entation program. You’ll learn more about this in a later presentation.

H. How do you evaluate general dive conditions, and how do conditions affect diving? 1. Dive conditions affect diving, and therefore are an

important part of dive planning.a. Determining “acceptable” conditions may depend

partly on the skill and experience of the divers. Your briefings and recommendations help divers determine whether the conditions are acceptable for them.

b. It helps divers plan their own dives when you tell them your observations and conclusions regard-ing the conditions. It also teaches them about evaluating conditions.

c. There is a broad range of acceptable conditions. You advise divers of the conditions, but divers must accept the responsibility of assessing their own skills and deciding whether or not to dive.

2. Weathera. Information sources include:

1. TV, radio and newspaper2. Government radio broadcasts, such as Nation-

al Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Weather Service broadcasts on VHF-FM (marine) radio in North America

3. Telephone services4. Your experience with local weather behavior

b. Effect of weather on dive conditions:1. Wind – can cause waves, surf and surge, plus

poor visibility. Offshore wind can calm surf and cause an upwelling and good visibility.

2. Rain – runoff can cause poor visibility or poor water quality. Prolonged rain can cause rivers to back up into lakes and springs.

3. Temperature – can cause discomfort before or after dive. Air temperature can sometimes change water temperature in a couple of days.


3. Tide and currentsa. Information sources include:

1. Tide charts2. Local weather reports may provide tide and

current information.3. Local dive reports may provide tide and current

information.4. Your experience with local conditions – you

can often observe tides and currents from an elevated vantage point – watch boats at an-chor and drifting flotsam (note that wind and current may be from different directions, affect-ing where a boat sits at anchor).

b. Effect of tides and currents on dive conditions:1. Major currents may have eddies that run coun-

ter to the main current direction.2. Long shore currents – caused by eddies or

waves striking shore at an angle – creates wa-ter flow down the coast.

3. Tidal currents flow in and out of restricted ar-eas (bays, etc.) – strength depends on time dur-ing tidal cycle, how restricted the flow, and the amount of water entering or exiting the area.

4. Ideal dive time is usually slack tide when high tide peaks.

4. Visibilitya. weather – as mentioned, rain runoff and surge

due to wind or waves can stir up sediment.b. season – warm temperature can cause plankton

blooms. Some seasons associated with more wind and rain

c. bottom composition – the finer the bottom, such as mud or silt, the easier it is disturbed.

d. waves – can reduce light that penetrates the sur-face, and stir up sediment.

e. time of day – affects the amount of light. Propor-tionately more reflects off surface when sun is low in sky.

f. oceanic currents – can affect the amount of nutri-ents in water and therefore, plankton blooms.

g. tides – incoming (rising) tides usually bring in clear water; outgoing tides (falling) tides usually pick up sediment and have poorer visibility.


DM 2 - DM 2 -

What are four aspects of supervision in managing dives?

What are four aspects of supervision in managing dives?

1717Dive ManagementDive Management

■ Preparation �■ Preparation �

■ Communication�■ Communication�

■ Vantage Point�■ Vantage Point�

■ Recognition■ Recognition

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Dive Management��

Supervision of �certified divers

Dive Management��

Supervision of �certified divers

1616

DM 2 - DM 2 -

What are three aspects of dive planning for remote areas?

What are three aspects of dive planning for remote areas?


■ More involved logistics�■ More involved logistics�

■ More complex �emergency procedures�

■ More complex �emergency procedures�

■ Increased self-sufficiency■ Increased self-sufficiency

h. location – determines the prevailing nature of the aquatic environment (e.g., warm clear current, silty lake, clear spring water, etc.)

I. What are three aspects of planning dives for remote areas? (e.g., those that are hours away from dive services, emergency medical personnel, etc.)1. Plans need to cover more logistics – food, sleeping

arrangements, compressors for filling tanks, etc.2. Emergency procedures – may need to plan for com-

plex evacuations, having appropriate medical sup-plies available and people who can use them (e.g., several hours worth of emergency oxygen).

3. Think in terms of self-sufficiency. (e.g., What would you do if the boat engine broke down?)

III. Dive ManagementA. Dive management involves supervision of certified divers.

1. It is difficult or impossible to exercise direct, physical control of certified divers (though it may be appro-priate when supervising student divers).

2. Therefore, supervision means nonphysical influence, by providing adequate and appropriate information and advice.

B. What are four aspects of supervision in manag-ing dives?1. Preparation – adequate dive planning as just dis-

cussed, having appropriate equipment, and being ready to respond to problems.

2. Communication – informing the divers about proce-dures, the dive plan, and other information, usually in a dive briefing (discussed shortly).

3. Vantage Point – putting yourself in the most effec-tive position to see and assist divers.

4. Recognition – anticipating and identifying possible problems so you can prevent, correct or respond to them.

C. What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out of water supervision, and the advantages and disadvantages of supervi-sion vantage points inwater versus out of wa-ter?1. Choose your vantage point for supervising certified

divers by considering:a. Your ability to spot and respond to a problem.

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Choosing a Vantage PointChoosing a Vantage Point

■ Inwater supervision�◆ Advantages?�

◆ Disadvantages?�

■ Inwater supervision�◆ Advantages?�

◆ Disadvantages?�


■ Out of water supervision�◆ Advantages?�

◆ Disadvantages?

■ Out of water supervision�◆ Advantages?�

◆ Disadvantages?


1. You want to be in the most advantageous spot to see or be aware of divers’ locations.

2. You want to be at the most advantageous spot to lend assistance – anticipate likely problem areas based on diver skill level, environment, etc.

3. These may conflict (e.g., the best place to watch isn’t always the best place to respond from) – you may need to compromise.

b. The skill and experience level of diversc. Number of divers and diver groups or buddy

teamsd. Environmental conditions

2. Inwater supervision – you dive with the group, or escort on surface by snorkel, etc.a. Advantages:1. Puts you close to divers to respond to or prevent

problems.2. Minimizes problems such as divers acciden-

tally exceeding their maximum depth, mak-ing navigation errors or running low on air because you’re there to guide and remind them to check air, etc.

3. Diving with group adds to interest because you can guide divers to best spots, etc.

b. Disadvantages:1. You can only watch one group, so may not be

appropriate with multiple groups or buddy teams diving independently (depends on diver experience, environment, etc.) unless there are other supervisors at the surface.

2. Some divers don’t like diving in a group. It may reduce their enjoyment if they prefer to explore independently.

c. Procedures:1. Identify most likely problem sources – diver, en-

vironmental effects, etc. and accompany group where you can best prevent or respond to these problems.

2. Brief divers so they know where you will be in relation to the group, and your role (guide, escort following their lead, etc.)

3. Out of water supervision – you supervise from boat or shore.


DM 2 - DM 2 -

What types of equipment can assist in supervising certified divers?

What types of equipment can assist in supervising certified divers?


■ Management equipment – roster, binoculars, site maps�

■ Management equipment – roster, binoculars, site maps�

■ Emergency equipment – oxygen, first aid kit, float, radio/phone�

■ Emergency equipment – oxygen, first aid kit, float, radio/phone�

■ Other dive equipment – tool kit, flag and float, scuba equipment

■ Other dive equipment – tool kit, flag and float, scuba equipment

a. Advantages:1. Usually most effective way to supervise mul-

tiple buddy teams and groups at once.2. Usually puts you close to emergency related

equipment (oxygen, first aid, radio, etc.) for rapid deployment.

3. Often gives diver teams more individual op-tions in where they go during the dive.

b. Disadvantages:1. You’re not on hand to remind divers of their

responsibilities to follow appropriate dive pro-cedures.

2. You can’t show divers around the points of in-terest on the site.

c. Procedures:1. Choose the best vantage point for visibility and

ability to respond as previously discussed.2. Have appropriate emergency and response

equipment at hand.3. During the briefing, tell divers where you’ll be

and establish surface signals, recall procedures, etc. (more detail about briefings shortly)

D. What eight types of equipment can assist in su-pervising certified divers?1. Management equipment – may be useful depending

upon the environment.a. clipboard/dive rosterb. binocularsc. dive site maps

2. Emergency response equipment (see also Chapter 3 of the PADI Rescue Diver Manual)a. emergency oxygen b. first aid w/pocket mask and barriersc. rescue float or life ring with lined. marine radio/cellular telephone

3. Other useful equipmenta. tool kit with spare o-rings/fin straps, weight belt

buckles, etc.b. dive flag/floatc. spare regulator, BCD and other equipment (in

case of malfunction or loss)


d. spare equipment specific to conditions (e.g., dive lights for night diving, inflatable signal tube for diving in currents, etc.)

E. What is the primary purpose of diver account-ing procedures?1. When supervising more than a handful of divers,

the primary concern is making sure each diver is back aboard/ashore after a dive.

2. Procedure – Names usually recorded on dive roster as divers arrive on board/at dive site, and as they enter and exit water. Typically, you call roll after each dive with all divers visually present to confirm everyone is out of the water.

3. When practical in some situations, it may be useful to record additional information, which may assist in selecting subsequent dive sites.a. time entered waterb. time exited water

Note that certified divers are responsible for tracking their own dive profiles.

F. Integrating customer service and management.1. Divers come to you for convenience and to

enhance their fun as well as the safety benefits. They’re customers.

2. Dive management requires influencing and advis-ing divers to dive safely without ignoring the enjoy-ment of the dive.

3. Customer service dive management tips:a. Explain the basis for guidelines and procedures so

they don’t seem arbitrary.b. Be open to alternative ways to accomplish some-

thing, such as an entry, to accommodate individ-ual preferences.

c. Be flexible within the limits of responsible div-ing – the supervision procedures you apply with novices may not be appropriate or necessary with a very experienced Rescue Diver, for example.

d. Give as much attention to assuring convenience, fun and adventure as you do to assuring safety.

DM 2 - DM 2 -

What is the primary purpose of diver

accounting procedures?

What is the primary purpose of diver

accounting procedures?


DM 2 - DM 2 -

Customer Service T ipsCustomer Service T ips

2121

■ Explain the basis for �guidelines — why?�

■ Explain the basis for �guidelines — why?�

Dive ManagementDive Management

■ Be open to �alternative �methods�

■ Be open to �alternative �methods�

■ Be flexible �■ Be flexible �

■ Consider convenience, fun and adventure along with safety

■ Consider convenience, fun and adventure along with safety


IV. Helping Divers Manage Predive Stress [Refer candidates to the PADI Rescue Diver Manual –

Chapter 1]A. What are the characteristics of predive stress,

and how do you help divers deal with it?1. You may notice physical and/or psychological stress

in a diver. Signs and symptoms include:a. Behavior change – diver becomes withdrawn, ir-

ritable, talkative, distracted, etc.b. Perceptual narrowing – diver focuses on an action

or task to the exclusion of alternative actions or considerations; often associated with distracted or irritable behavior

c. Physical signs or symptoms – sweating profusely, exhaustion, vomiting or nausea

d. Diver expresses concerns about the dive to a buddy or to you.

e. A diver may report stress observed in another diver.

B. Consequences of stress [Refer to Stress Management Chart]1. Stress response cycle

a. Stress causes psychological and physical stress responses.

b. If the diver recognizes stress, the diver will reduce activity, think and begin problem solving. This usually solves problem and ends stress.

c. If the diver doesn’t recognize stress, anxiety re-sults. Anxiety produces psychological and physi-cal stress and adds to original stress.

d. Raised stress increases stress responses. This be-gins an uncontrolled cycle of rising stress until stress is excessive.

e. Eventually, stress exceeds the diver’s ability to self-control emotions. The diver reverts to instinctive reactions and uncontrolled behavior (panic).

f. In the water, this can cause an accident requiring a rescue.

2. Therefore, it is best to handle stress as much as pos-sible prior to a dive.

C. Some stress is normal; it is how the mind and body activate mechanisms for handling perceived threats. It benefits divers by helping them focus on equipment

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Helping Divers Manage Stress�Stress Management Chart

Helping Divers Manage Stress�Stress Management Chart

2222

ProblemProblem

StressStress ResponseResponse

AnxietyAnxiety

RecognitionRecognition Stop�Think �Breathe

Stop�Think �Breathe

Action = �SolutionAction = �Solution

ReactionReaction

PanicPanicRescue �

RequiredRescue �

Required


preparation, dive planning, etc. Certified divers are re-sponsible for expressing concerns and monitoring their own psychological/physical state, but if you observe possible excessive stress, you may be able to assist the diver cope with it.1. Try to confirm that the diver is stressed – usually it’s

simplest to ask the diver about the signs observed.2. Try to determine cause of stress.

a. May be obvious, such as physical stress caused by overheating.

b. If willing, the diver may tell you what the stressor is.

c. In some instances, you may not be able to deter-mine the stressor and the diver may not tell you – use your best judgment as to what the stressor may be.

D. Relieving stress. Stress is relieved by either removing the stressor, or by changing the diver’s perception of the stressor so that it’s no longer threatening, or chang-ing the perception of the diver’s ability to cope with the stressor. The dive briefing often helps, but sometimes you may be able to individually assist divers manage their stress.1. Physical stressors – simple actions may relieve these.

(e.g., diver overheated in exposure suit, offer to spray with water, suggest slowing activity, or open-ing suit to cool a bit.)

2. Explain procedures – stress about dive often comes from lack of information about how to handle a perceived threat or concern; providing information may reduce or relieve stress. (e.g., divers concerned about strong currents may feel better if you review current diving procedures and explain what to do if the current carries them past the boat.)

3. Offer choices – you may be able to offer alterna-tives that relieve stress. (e.g., diver who is concerned about successful navigation during a dive may appreciate the option to make a guided dive. Diver concerned about making a deep dive may appreci-ate option to swim in shallows along top of wall.)

4. Provide information – new or accurate information may reduce stress by removing perception of threat. (e.g., diver hears that nurse sharks are common at dive site and may experience stress through fear of shark attack. Telling the diver that nurse sharks are


docile and not associate with attacks (except when molested) may greatly reduce stress.)

5. Let them off the hook – make it clear to all divers that if someone doesn’t feel up to a dive for any rea-son, it’s okay not to dive.

V. Mapping Dive SitesA. There are several reasons to map a dive site.

1. as a briefing tool2. to provide you a navigation reference when leading

dive tours3. to provide divers you supervise with a navigation

reference when diving independently 4. to show divers local facilities, entry and exit points,

and points of interest5. to have a reference against which to observe chang-

es in the dive site over timeB. Mapping tools – the following will be necessary or

helpful in mapping.1. dive compass2. large slate3. buoys/markers with lines and weights4. graph paper5. protractor and ruler

C. What are the general steps for mapping a dive site, and what elements do you include in a dive site map? [see also the PADI Underwater Navigator Manual]

Note to instructor: This is one technique. There are others you may wish to recommend. Consider drawing a sample map to illustrate these steps for candidates.

1. Identify a central point, or place a buoy from which to gather data, and determine the map boundaries.

2. Swim a large search pattern, such as a U-pattern, that covers the map area, away from the point. You may need to use several sets of patterns to cover the whole area.

3. Count kick cycles and record depth and features as you go, noting the pattern leg and distance when you find features.

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Mapping Dive Sit esMapping Dive Sit es

2323

■ Why?�■ Why?�

◆ Use during briefings �◆ Use during briefings �

812

18

◆ Provide navigation ref erence�◆ Provide navigation ref erence�

◆ Orient diver s �to site�

◆ Orient diver s �to site�

◆ Note changes to �site over time

◆ Note changes to �site over time

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Mapping ToolsMapping Tools■ How?�■ How?�

2424

◆ Tools�✚ Compass, slate, markers and line ,

graph paper , protractor and ruler �

◆ Tools�✚ Compass, slate, markers and line ,

graph paper , protractor and ruler �

◆ Steps�✚ Define area�✚ Use appropriate sear ch pattern�✚ Record depth and f eatures�✚ Plot data on graph paper

◆ Steps�✚ Define area �✚ Use appropriate sear ch pattern �✚ Record depth and f eatures �✚ Plot data on graph paper


4. On each leg, record the kick cycle where you hit specified depths to show contour (e.g., 3 metre/10 foot increments).

5. Draw the pattern on graph paper in pencil. Use pro-tractor to keep heading angles accurate, ruler and graph lines to maintain scale. Include depths and features noted on the pattern.

6. Connect same depths with lines to show contour, and fill in headings and distance from shore refer-ence to points of interest.

7. Fill in shore line, facilities and topside features.8. To finish map, use ink on parts of map you wish to

keep and erase the pencil portions. Or, use blue pen-cil and blue graph paper to draw map, then black ink for final version and photocopy through blue gelatin.

D. [Mapping Project – If you have not given mapping project assignments, you may want to do so now. If necessary, review search pattern procedures and have candidates practice a U-pattern in open water prior to beginning the Mapping Project.]

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Part 1�

Questions? ��

Supervising Diving Activities for Certified Divers

Part 1�

Questions? ��

Supervising Diving Activities for Certified Divers

2525


Topic 2Presentation - Part 2Overview and Learning Objectives

VI. Dive Briefings 19. What 10 points does a dive briefing usually in-

clude?

20. What predive suggestions can you give to help div-ers interact responsibly with the environment and aquatic life?

VII. Problem Management and Judgment 21. How do you prepare to handle problems that may

occur at a dive site?

22. What are the general steps for handling a novel dive problem?

23. When does dive supervision and problem manage-ment call for your judgment, and how do you de-velop good judgment?

VIII. Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management 24. What are the two likely roles of the divemaster in

the event of a dive accident?

IX. Supervising Specialized Dive Activities 25. What general equipment, concerns and procedures

apply when supervising each of the following ac-tivities:

• deep diving? • boat diving? • altitude diving? • drift diving? • shore/surf diving? • night diving? • cold water diving? • enriched air and technical diving?

Outline VI. Dive Briefings

[Begin this section by giving a typical dive briefing for your local area. As you cover the following topics, refer to the relevant components in your example.]

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Overview — Part 2Overview — Part 2

2626

■ Dive Briefings�■ Dive Briefings�

■ Problem Management and Judgment�

■ Problem Management and Judgment�

■ Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management�

■ Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management�

■ Supervising Specialized Dive Activities

■ Supervising Specialized Dive Activities

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Dive Briefings��

Enhance diver safety �and increase fun

Dive Briefings��

Enhance diver safety �and increase fun

2727


A. A dive briefing has two main goals: to enhance diver safety, and to make the dive fun.

B. Treat the briefing as an overview of your thinking when you planned the dive.1. This gives credibility to your recommendations.2. It cues divers to adapt if conditions change.3. It provides a basis for alternative recommendations

when necessary.C. On a dive boat, boat-specific information (rules, off-

limit areas, personal flotation devices, etc.) isn’t techni-cally part of the dive briefing, but may be combined with the briefing.

D. What 10 points does a dive briefing usually in-clude? (Order may vary and you may need to include addi-tional information depending upon the circumstances)1. Dive site name2. Site description: topography, points of interest, haz-

ards to avoid, water conditions, depth range, facili-ties (a map helps, when available), where to locate emergency equipment, etc.

3. Your role (topside supervisor, guide, etc.) May want to tell divers how to recognize you (e.g., you always wear a ball cap or bright colored fins.)

4. Entry and exit techniques5. Dive procedures – suggested course to follow, prob-

lem avoidance in local conditions, safety stops, air reserves, group control, etc.

6. Emergency proceduresa. Discuss protocols, and review problems unique

to dive site and those most likely to occur in the conditions.

b. Buddy separationc. Low-on-air/out-of-air proceduresd. If appropriate for local practices, diver recall pro-

cedures.7. Signal review – review signals that you’ll use with

the group (surface or underwater). It may be appro-priate to remind buddy teams to review their own signals.

8. Roster/buddy check – you can do this apart from the briefing, but you may find it convenient to do this while everyone’s together. Check that you have

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Ten briefing points...Ten briefing points...

6 – Emergency procedures� 6 – Emergency procedures�

2929Dive BriefingsDive Briefings

7 – Signal review� 7 – Signal review�

8 – Roster/Buddy check� 8 – Roster/Buddy check�

9 – Environmental awareness� 9 – Environmental awareness�

10 – Predive safety check10 – Predive safety check

DM 2 - DM 2 -

What ten points does a briefing usually include?What ten points does a briefing usually include?


1 – Site name�1 – Site name�

2 – Site description�2 – Site description�

3 – Divemaster’s role�3 – Divemaster’s role�

4 – Entry and exit techniques�4 – Entry and exit techniques�

5 – Dive procedures/group control5 – Dive procedures/group control


everyone on the dive roster and everyone has a buddy. Identify those without buddies so they can choose buddy teams among themselves.

9. What predive suggestions can you give to help divers interact responsibly with the environment and aquatic life? Environmental interaction suggestions:a. Identify organisms divers need to respect and be cau-

tious about.b. Tell divers how to avoid damage to sensitive organ-

isms (e.g., maintain buoyancy control, stay well off reef, avoid touching, etc.); suggest techniques in a positive context and remind divers to be AWARE div-ers.

c. If divers will be hunting, require any necessary licens-es and ask divers to take only what they will eat.

d. Discourage feeding by destroying organisms to do so (e.g., cutting up urchins to feed fish)

e. Leave the environment as you find it (e.g., don’t turn over rocks, don’t leave anything behind, etc.)

10. Predive safety check – remind divers of their responsibil-ity to perform a predive safety check (BWRAF).a. As divers suit up to enter water, it’s customary to con-

firm that they have ample air for the dive.b. Although it is neither practical nor necessary to in-

dividually assess certified divers, who are responsible for their own safely, being alert for the following may help the diver who makes an error with equipment setup:1. Low pressure inflator that isn’t connected or diver

has insufficient air to float in BCD (if floating is ap-propriate to entry technique).

2. Weight that looks excessive or insufficient.3. Disconnected releases or the weight system not

clear for release.4. Equipment not in correct place.

E. Make the briefing fun, interesting and relate each topic to their needs, experience level and interests (not to yours).1. Divers pay attention, respond and remember better

when its fun.2. Divers are there to have fun – this is an important part

of customer service.F. It’s a good idea to remind divers that your briefing doesn’t

replace their own dive planning – they should plan their

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Make briefings positive, interesting and short!�

�

Make briefings positive, interesting and short!�

�


Remind divers to plan their own dives

Remind divers to plan their own dives


individual dives with the information and within the limits you provide, and following responsible diving practices.

G. Things to avoid in briefings include:1. Being negative in a way that takes the fun out of the

dive.2. Overstressing hazards – give realistic appraisals of

possible hazards.3. Being long, redundant and boring. They’re called

“briefings” because they’re supposed to be brief.4. Ignoring people’s comfort. Be sensitive to those who

may not feel well on a rocking boat Give briefing before divers climb into hot exposure suits.

Note to instructor: Remind candidates that they will apply what they’re learning here by giving briefings during the Practical Training Exercises. Suggest that they review their notes and the PADI Divemaster Manual prior to sessions in which they will practice giving briefings.

VII. Problem Management and JudgmentA. As a divemaster, you’ll be looked upon as a problem

solver. Problems at a dive site can range from incon-veniences to emergencies, but you can group them into two categories – “routine” and those you’ve never encountered.2. Routine problems are those for which you already

have a solution, (e.g., a diver breaks a mask strap and you have spares.)a. Through experience, you already know how to

handle many routine problems.b. Assuming you have the resources, you usually

handle routine problems easily. 3. Those you’ve never encountered are called “novel”

problems, (e.g., the boat arrives at the dive site and for the first time ever, the mooring buoy is missing).a. You’ll need to determine how to handle these on

the spot.b. Proper preparation, specific dive skills and follow-

ing the steps for problem solving increase your ability to successfully manage novel problems.

c. After handling a novel problem, it becomes part

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Problem Management and

Judgment��

Routine vs. Novel

Problem Management and

Judgment��

Routine vs. Novel3131


of your experience; the next time it arises, you al-ready know the solution – this is why experience as a diver is important to being a professional.

B. How do you prepare to handle problems that may occur at a dive site?1. Have a strong knowledge base of dive theory – good

problem solvers have a lot of knowledge resources to draw upon. (More about this in Topic 4 – Dive Theory Introduction)

2. Have the physical resources to handle problems, such as spare equipment, tools, first aid kit, oxygen, etc., that you’ve learned about in this and previous PADI courses, and through experience

3. Continue your education regularly (PADI Specialty courses, Assistant Instructor course, equipment re-pair, seamanship, etc.)a. Continuing education provides exercise for the

brain – improves your thinking skills and prob-lem solving ability. It gives you more knowledge and skills that you can apply to solve a problem. It also provides experience opportunities so you encounter fewer novel problems.

C. Problem solving is a skill. You normally solve problems without thinking consciously about the process, much of which is intuitive. But, to improve, pay attention to the steps. Improving each step increases problem solv-ing skill. With experience, you go through these steps quickly and automatically.

D. What are the general steps for handling a nov-el dive problem?:1. Identify the problem precisely. The more specific the

problem, the more specifically you can apply a solu-tion.

2. Inventory your resources. Think about what resourc-es you can apply to the problem, including tools, hardware, your skills and knowledge and those of other people who may help.

3. Create several possible solutions. Try to make these as different as possible.

4. Choose the best. Pick the most feasible and likely to succeed and devote your energy to that solution.

5. Assess and revise. As you handle the problem, as-sess your progress and adjust the solution as you go,

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How do you prepare to handle problems at a dive site?

How do you prepare to handle problems at a dive site?

3232Problem ManagementProblem Management

■ Develop strong �knowledge base�

■ Develop strong �knowledge base�

■ Have equipment �and tools�

■ Have equipment �and tools�

■ Continue your� education

■ Continue your� education

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What are the steps for handling a novel problem?What are the steps for handling a novel problem?

3333Problem ManagementProblem Management

■ Identify the problem precisely�■ Identify the problem precisely�

■ Inventory resources�■ Inventory resources�

■ Create several possible solutions�■ Create several possible solutions�

■ Choose a solution�■ Choose a solution�

■ Assess and revise as necessary■ Assess and revise as necessary


building on the ideas and experience you gain by applying the solution.

E. When does dive supervision and problem man-agement call for your judgment, and how do you develop good judgment?1. Dive supervision and problem management call for

your judgment when you have incomplete informa-tion, or when the information doesn’t direct a clear decision.

2. You apply your judgment to many elements of diver supervision, such as:a. Evaluating whether dive conditions are accept-

able.b. Choosing which dive techniques to recommend.c. Picking a vantage point for supervising dive ac-

tivities.d. Choosing the best of several possible solutions to

problems.3. To develop good judgment:

a. Gain experience with more experienced profes-sionals who can explain their judgments to you (in this course, instructors and staff members).

b. When in doubt or making decisions that you have less experience with, decide to the conser-vative. Being unnecessarily cautious is generally better than being insufficiently cautious.

c. Be cautious to avoid letting emotions or desires inappropriately influence your judgment. For example, you wouldn’t want to continue a dive in poor conditions just because you don’t want the divers to be disappointed.

d. As with problem solving, dive experience and continuing your education provide you with knowledge that help you make good judgments.

Note to instructor: Tell candidates that they’ll work on develop-ing good judgment as part of the Practical Application sessions.

VIII. Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management [Refer candidates to the PADI Rescue Diver Manual

and the dive management section of the Rescue Diver Video as a review for this subject.]

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JudgmentJudgment■ When do you apply judgment?�■ When do you apply judgment?�

3434

■ How do you develop �good judgment?�

■ How do you develop �good judgment?�◆ Gain experience�◆ Gain experience �

◆ Be conser vative�◆ Be conser vative�

◆ Avoid emotional influences �◆ Avoid emotional influences �

◆ Continually learn◆ Continually learn


A. What are the two likely roles of the divemaster in the event of a dive accident?1. If you’re the most qualified person present, you will

probably manage the accident. As a PADI Divemaster, this would be the expected situation when supervising certified divers. In these situations, you’ll want to have a plan ready (Emergency Assistance Plan) to deal with emergencies.

2. If a more qualified person is present, you will probably assist under that person’s management. This would be the expected situation when assisting an instructor with student divers.

B. Emergency Management Steps1. Assess the situation — as with any problem, the strategy

is to first consider resources and possible plans of action, then choose the plan most likely to be successful.

2. Act on your plan — take control of the situation and start the action.

3. Delegate — assign tasks to suitably qualified individu-als. Handle tasks yourself if no one qualified is available. Even untrained people can help under your direction, such as contacting emergency medical care– but don’t ask people to do things for which they’re not trained or qualified if doing so might put them in a hazardous situ-ation.

4. Provide basic life support (BLS) and first aid as necessary for the patient. Use barriers to protect yourself and the patient.

5. Control the scene — keep bystanders under control and make sure that first aid and BLS continue until emer-gency care arrives. Do not speculate or draw conclusions about what caused the accident or assign blame.

6. Evacuate the patient — in a serious emergency, you need to get the patient to the closest appropriate medical facility. If not done already, contact the local EMS, and DAN or DES if the area is served by either. Ideally, refer to your Emergency Assistance Plan for the area for the local emergency contact information.

C. Emergency Oxygen1. Emergency oxygen is the primary first aid for decompres-

sion illness (DCI) and near drowning. 2. When supervising divers, if permitted by local law, be

sure that emergency oxygen is available. Be familiar

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Accident Management�

�

Accident Management�

�

3535

Divemaster Roles: Manage or AssistDivemaster Roles: Manage or Assist

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Emergency Management Emergency Management

3636

■ Assess the situation�■ Assess the situation�

Accident ManagementAccident Management

■ Act on your plan�■ Act on your plan�

■ Delegate�■ Delegate�

■ Provide basic life support/first aid�■ Provide basic life support/first aid�

■ Control the scene�■ Control the scene�

■ Evacuate the patient■ Evacuate the patientBe familiar with emergency o xygen protocolsBe familiar with emergency o xygen protocols


with emergency oxygen protocols and stay current in emergency oxygen recommendations.

Note to instructor: This section is primarily a review of prin-ciples candidates will already know from prerequisite training and experience. Emphasize that now candidates need to think about specialized dive activities in a supervisory context. Refer candidates to the PADI Adventures in Diving, Rescue Diver, Deep Diver, Night Diver, Altitude Diver, Boat Diver, Drift Diver, Ice Diver and Enriched Air Diver specialty instructor guides, manu-als and videos.

IX. Supervising Specialized Dive ActivitiesA. What general equipment, concerns and proce-

dures apply when supervising specialized dive activities?1. The following discussion covers the equipment, con-

cerns and procedures distinct to various specialized activities that you should consider along with gen-eral supervisory considerations.

2. You can learn more and gain experience by com-pleting the appropriate specialty course.

B. Deep diving activities – generally defined in recre-ational diving as dives between 18 metres/60 feet and 40 metres/130 feet.1. Equipment – for deep diving you and the divers you

supervise need to consider:a. Regulator – in good condition, properly main-

tained according to manufacturer recommenda-tions.

b. Cylinder – adequate for the planned dive and safety stop with an adequate reserve.

c. Exposure suit – adequate for the cooler water at depth; wet suits compress with depth and insulate less.

d. Emergency air source – it’s common to have a spare tank and regulator or regulator on a hose from the surface to assure ample air for safety stops or emergency decompression stops.

e. Dive computers and tables – divers usually want to carry dive tables so they can recalculate times if they accidentally exceed planned time or depth, or if using a computer, in case the computer fails.


f. Ascent/descent line – if there’s no contour to fol-low, it’s usually easier and more reassuring to follow a line down and back up; this may be a weighted line from the stern, or the anchor/moor-ing line may suffice.

g. Gauges – if not using a computer, it’s best for each diver to have a timer and depth gauge.

h. Divers using enriched air – this may help them stay well within no stop limits for dives between 18 metres/60 feet and 30 metres/100 feet (more about this consideration later).

2. Concernsa. Diver training and experience – remind divers to

make deep dives within the limits of their training or experience, and to increase their experience under appropriate supervision.

b. Dive site selection1. Currents can be a problem in deep water sites

and need to be planned for.2. Dives along walls/slopes have the concern of

accidentally descending below the planned depth or recreational depth limits.

3. Temperature at depth may be cooler than at the surface.

c. Decompression sickness 1. Deep diving frequently takes divers closer to

the no decompression limits.2. Post dive activities – exercise, alcohol consump-

tion may predispose divers to DCS.d. Nitrogen narcosis – may affect diver judgment.

3. Proceduresa. Choosing a vantage point – inwater supervision

may be a good choice (dive site and diver experi-ence determining factors).1. Easier to help divers stay above maximum

depth, especially along walls.2. You’re present if narcosis becomes a factor.3. You can remind divers to check their air more

frequently.b. Contingency planning – during briefing, it’s a

good idea to present contingency plans if divers accidentally exceed planned depth and time to assist them with their personal plans.


c. Encourage divers who have questions about dive planning or who are rusty with table use to ask for your assistance and recommendations.

d. Remind and encourage divers to practice behav-iors that reduce DCI risk:1. Safety stops2. Remain hydrated, avoid alcohol and caffeine.3. Avoid strenuous exercise before and immedi-

ately after a dive.4. Avoid sawtooth profiles. Make each dive pro-

gressively shallower and start at the deepest point and work shallower.

5. Avoid rapid ascents.6. Watch air supply closely to avoid emergency

ascent situations.e. Provide ascent/descent line and emergency

breathing equipment at 5 metres/15 feet if practi-cal and appropriate.

C. Boat diving activities1. Equipment

a. The boat itself – style affects diving techniques and conditions in which it may operate and the number of divers it may carry.

b. Lines – those used by divers (swim lines, trail lines, gear lines, safety stop/descent line etc.) and those used by the boat (mooring line, dock lines, etc.).

c. Boat safety equipment – personal flotation devic-es, fire extinguishers, signal devices (horns, lights, flares) and radio

d. dive safety equipment – dive flags, emergency oxygen, first aid, life ring, etc., as appropriate for local diving practices and procedures.

2. Concernsa. diver familiarity – some divers may have no boat

experience, or may not be familiar with local boat diving procedures.

b. space – usually at a premium on a dive boat and dictates equipment setup and stowage procedures.

c. entries and exits – boat configuration (deck height, presence or absence of ladder/swim step, etc.) will affect preferred entry and exit methods and locations.


d. seasickness – advise divers prone to seasickness to stay on deck in the center of the boat and out of boat’s exhaust, to avoid greasy food, and to take seasickness medication prior to departure accord-ing to instructions/doctor recommendations. If seasick, vomit over leeward rail (wind headed away from boat)

Note to candidates: If your function involves the diving activities and you’re not part of the boat’s staff, you’re not usually consid-ered part of the boat crew. If you’re employed by the dive boat and are expected to assist with boat operation, you’re usually considered crew as well as a divemaster. Since this is a common divemaster employment opportunity, training in boat handling and seamanship is an excellent additional skill for a divemaster.

3. Proceduresa. Welcome divers aboard. Have them sign in on

roster and list certification information, sign li-ability release, and stow/secure equipment before the boat departs. Reconfirm all aboard by calling roll from roster before departure.

b. Orient divers to boat facilities and rules (e.g., off-limits areas, where to put cameras, time to dive destination, where to locate safety equipment.) Crew may do this if you’re not part of the boat staff.

c. Equipment setup – may be before boat departs or underway, depending on boat size and time to dive site. Remind divers to work in and out of gear bags to reduce deck clutter.

d. Anchoring/mooring – captain determines when boat is secure. You may determine whether condi-tions are suitable for diving.

e. Briefing – include boat specific techniques for entries, exits, use of swim lines/current lines, sur-face signals to boat, emergency/recall procedures, what to do if seasick, etc.

f. Entry – suggest that divers avoid walking around with fins on

g. Post dive – may need to remind divers exit proce-dures (e.g., don’t wait under someone climbing ladder, etc.), keep deck clear of equipment, call roll and make sure that you actually see each diver.


h. Before boat leaves the site – assure equipment stowed properly, conduct final visual roll call.

D. Altitude diving activities – dives above 300 me-tres/1000 feet to maximum 3000 metres/10,000 feet of altitude.1. Equipment

a. Exposure suit – altitude diving is usually cooler water diving.

b. Depth gauge/computer – older depth gauges/computers designed for sea level may not read/compute properly at altitude.

c. Theoretical Depth at Altitude tables – used to convert depths at altitude to a depth that may be used on the RDP. You find these tables in Adven-tures in Diving. (Capillary depth gauges read theo-retical depth at altitude and do not need further conversion.)

2. Concernsa. Diver training and experience – divers may not

be familiar with altitude diving procedures, or may not be aware a site is at altitude.

b. Arrival at altitude – diver must wait six hours or determine a pressure group before diving if us-ing RDP. Many computers account for arrival at altitude – check manufacturer instructions.

c. Thin air – divers may tire more easily during en-tries, exits and surface swims.

3. Proceduresa. Confirm diver familiarity with altitude proce-

dures. For those not familiar, assist in dive table planning/computer use to accommodate altitude considerations – advise divers that your supervi-sion isn’t a training course.

b. Confirm use of suitable tables, computers, expo-sure suits, etc.

c. To reduce likelihood of exhaustion at altitude, recommend a dive plan that minimizes strenuous activity at the surface.

E. Drift diving activities – diving in which divers drift with the current and exit downstream1. Equipment

a. Surface float, descent line, reel or caddie (if used – depends on technique)

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Specialized Activities...Specialized Activities...■ Altitude diving�

◆ Equipment�◆ Concerns�◆ Procedures

■ Altitude diving�◆ Equipment�◆ Concerns�◆ Procedures

3838

■ Drift diving�◆ Equipment�◆ Concerns�◆ Procedures

■ Drift diving�◆ Equipment �◆ Concerns �◆ Procedures


b. Surface signal devices (inflatable signal tubes, mirrors, etc.) recommended for each diver.

2. Concernsa. Diver training and experience – divers may not

be familiar with drift diving procedures, or the specific procedures used at the dive site.

b. Depth – drift dives are often deep dives.c. Group contact – drift diving is often a single

group dive. It’s important for the group to stay together and know what to do if separated.

d. Change of current direction – can disrupt coordi-nation with boat.

3. Proceduresa. Briefings – brief group on procedures that will be

used on the dive and include what to do if sepa-rated from group, unable to descend, etc.

b. Vantage point – consider inwater supervision and supervision on the boat. Divemaster handles float/line in the water (if used).

c. Entries and descents – usually made as a group, quickly with divemaster paying out line that oth-er divers keep contact with and follow to divemas-ter’s depth. Group then drifts along together.

d. Ascents and exits – techniques vary; everyone sur-faces and makes safety stop along line when first diver reaches low air or teams may surface indi-vidually along line and get picked up by boat. In both cases, advise divers not to swim toward boat – let boat come to them.

F. Surf diving activities – diving from shore through waves large enough to cause divers to lose their bal-ance.1. Equipment

a. Equipment loss – the stronger the surf, the more potential for equipment loss or damage – a con-sideration for underwater photographers/videog-raphers.

b. Regulator freeflowing – most models of regulators are prone to freeflowing if they get sand in them.

c. Equipment caused delays – entries and ex-its through surf are made by moving quickly through surf zone – equipment that causes delays can cause problems.

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Specialized Activities...Specialized Activities...■ Shore/surf diving�


■ Shore/surf diving�◆ Equipment �◆ Concerns �◆ Procedures

3939

■ Night diving�◆ Equipment�◆ Concerns�◆ Procedures

■ Night diving�◆ Equipment �◆ Concerns �◆ Procedures


2. Concernsa. Diver training and experience – Divers may not

be familiar with surf diving procedures.b. Air reserve for exits – divers may accidentally run

low on air before exiting, leaving little to use dur-ing exit through surf zone

c. Assessing conditions – need to watch wave pat-tern long enough to determine how high the larg-est surf is and when it hits.

d. Large surf – experienced divers may be able to enter and exit effectively, but diving conditions usually aren’t worth the effort.

3. Proceduresa. Briefing usually includes entry technique remind-

ers — don all equipment before entering surf (ex-cept fins, depending on entry technique), deflate BCD, breathe from regulator and move rapidly through surf zone, walk backwards with fins on, turn sideways, hold mask and lean against waves or duck through base of tall waves, tow float behind, as soon as possible either submerge and swim out on bottom, or inflate BCD and swim quickly past surf zone.

b. Briefing usually includes exit technique reminder —save enough air to breathe from regulator during exit, pause outside surf zone and observe waves to time exit, swim under waves as close as possible to shore then exit quickly watching waves, and if you fall, it’s usually easier to stay down and crawl out.

c. Vantage point – elevated positioning makes it easier to see over waves.

d. Supervisory personnel should have equipment standing by to enter water and assist if necessary.

G. Night diving activities 1. Equipment

a. Dive lights – one dive light per diver, with two each recommended. Have spares at hand in case a diver forgets a light, or one doesn’t work.

b. Chemical light/personal marker light – one for each diver recommended.

c. Surface lights – area lights for gearing up, marker lights to identify exit point. Avoid anything that might be confused with navigational markers.


d. Underwater markers – strobes or a suspended light can aid navigation in reasonably clear water.

e. Exposure protection – because it’s easier to bump into things in the dark, full exposure protection is recom-mended even in warm water.

f. Descent/ascent line – may make controlled ascent/de-scents easier, especially if bottom isn’t visible from the surface.

2. Concernsa. Light failure – encourage divers to carry backup

lights.b. Disorientation – easier to lose your way in the dark.c. Diver familiarity – night diving isn’t difficult, but it

can be stressful to a diver who has never done it.d. Timing – some divers prefer to enter water with some

daylight so it gets dark during the dive while oth-ers prefer a later dive to see nocturnal organisms. It sometimes helps to plan the dive so everyone sets up gear during daylight.

3. Proceduresa. Supervision is generally effective from boat or shore

because you can see glow of dive lights a long way.b. Briefing usually includes these reminders – watch

depth, time, direction and air more frequently than usual, maintain good buoyancy control to reduce silt, to avoid damage to the environment and avoid con-tact with potentially harmful organisms, plan to stay closer to exit to simplify navigation, be careful not to shine lights in eyes of supervisors/other divers during entries and exits.

c. Emergency plans generally need to include assuring that rescuers have lights/personal markers so they can be tracked in the water.

H. Cold water diving activities 1. Equipment

a. Exposure protection – full wet suit that double layers torso area (6 or 7 mm/1/4 in) with hood and boots, or dry suits with undergarment rated for water tempera-ture and recommended hood. Gloves usually required in all cases.

b. Weight systems – cold water exposure suits require lots of weight. Weight system needs to accommodate weight in a manner that allows dumping enough quickly to attain positive buoyancy.

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Specialized Activities...Specialized Activities...■ Cold water diving�


■ Cold water diving�◆ Equipment �◆ Concerns �◆ Procedures

4040

■ Enriched air and �technical diving�◆ Equipment�◆ Concerns�◆ Procedures

■ Enriched air and �technical diving�◆ Equipment �◆ Concerns �◆ Procedures


c. Pre/post dive wear – maintaining body heat be-fore and after dive requires proper exposure pro-tection for air temperature.

2. Concernsa. Diver comfort – cold divers aren’t having fun.b. Hypothermia – divers who over-cool may suffer

hypothermia. c. Dry suit use – divers who have never used a dry

suit should seek an orientation or training when using one for the first time.

3. Proceduresa. Briefings usually remind divers to stay warm

before and after dives, and to end the dive if they begin shivering uncontrollably.

b. If divers seem insufficiently protected, advise them accordingly.

c. Divers need to be sure that weight systems are clear for release, and that they won’t release ac-cidentally and cause a runaway ascent.

d. Supervisory personnel who may have to enter water in an emergency need to account for water temperature and exposure protection in emergen-cy planning.

e. Emergency planning will generally include how to handle a diver with hypothermia.

f. Plan dives and surface intervals to allow sufficient rewarming between dives.

g. It’s a good idea to remind divers to plan cold water dives with a depth 4 metres/10 feet deeper than actual on the RDP, or as instructed by their computer manufacturer.

I. Enriched air and technical diving [Refer candidates to the PADI Enriched Air Diver course

materials, and the Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving ]1. For the purposes of this discussion, “enriched air

diving” is the use of enriched air for no stop recre-ational diving to depths of 40 metres/130 feet or less. “Technical diving” is noncommercial diving using extensive equipment and procedures to make dives beyond the no stop limits or deeper than 40 me-tres/130 feet.

2. Enriched Air Equipmenta. Dedicated cylinders – Enriched air cylinders are

usually assigned to a specific diver.


b. Manufacturers recommendation – many manu-facturers have specific recommendations for using their equipment with enriched air with respect to the need for oxygen cleaning.

c. Special tables/computers – tables designed for en-riched air use and special enriched air computers may be used.

3. Technical Diving Equipment – equipment is exten-sive and varies with the specific technical diving activity. Commonly includes, but isn’t limited to:a. Double cylinders (may have helium blends or

enriched air)b. Stage bottles – single tanks worn on the side, of-

ten for decompression purposes c. Specialized high capacity BCDsd. Three or more regulators per divere. Lift bags, lines, and reels

4. Concernsa. Separating equipment – keeping divers from in-

advertently using enriched air or other cylinders dedicated to technical divers. Enriched air divers always personally verify the oxygen content of the cylinder they will use, so divers can’t grab just any tank available.

b. Separating activities – recreational divers need to understand that technical divers follow differ-ent and more complex procedures and, therefore, have differing rules and limits. They should not attempt to follow technical divers on the dive.

c. Qualifications – enriched air divers are expected to be certified before using enriched air. Technical divers may be certified in their particular activity or have other experience/qualification.

d. Beyond help – technical divers frequently take themselves into situations in which there is no practical way to respond (overhead environment, extreme depth) This is part of the risk they accept as individuals.

5. Enriched Air Diving Proceduresa. Enriched air divers usually try to buddy together

to take advantage of longer no stop time.b. Enriched air divers may have shallower depth

limit depending on the blend they use.


c. May be useful to ask divers to be back by a spe-cific time that balances enriched air diver’s longer no stop time with consideration for other divers waiting.

d. When diving in multiple groups, it’s common to get enriched air divers into water first so there’s less gap between when they return and when other return.

e. Aside from depth and time limits, and equipment considerations, other enriched air dive procedures are the same as those for air recreational diving.

Note to candidates: No dive operation is under any obligation to accept and supervise technical diving if it doesn’t wish to. This policy should be clear to potential technical divers well in advance of the dive. In addition, exceeding recreational diving limits without using specific equipment and procedures to man-age the added risk is not considered technical diving; If your op-eration caters to technical divers, the operation is not obligated to accept individuals who want to disregard both accepted safe diving practices and accepted technical diving practices.

5. Technical Diving Proceduresa. Technical divers may have depth and time limits

very different from recreational divers. It’s com-mon to ask technical divers when to expect to find them at a certain point, such as decompress-ing.

b. While its not unusual to confirm a recreational diver’s tank valve is open, the general practice in technical diving to not touch any equipment un-less asked by the diver.

c. Technical divers may have special support re-quests, such as having someone check on them during decompression (within recreational depths) Both you and the divers need to agree on what will and won’t be possible in this regard.

d. If technical divers tell you they will be leaving stage bottles unattended within recreational lim-its (common for wreck penetration), it’s a good precaution to remind recreational divers that such equipment isn’t abandoned and should be left alone.


Topic 3 – Assisting with Student Divers in Training

Recommended Materials and Methods for Covering This TopicThe PADI Divemaster Video and the Divemaster Manual cover much of the material in this topic. Preferably, have candidates watch the video, read Chapter 3 and complete the Knowledge Review prior to this presentation. Your presentation is important in this topic because it includes discussions that will be the basis for assisting with student divers in training. This is a long topic, so you may want to plan breaks in the presentation, or deliver the presentation in two or more sessions.

You’ll introduce and refer to the PADI Instructor Manual in this presenta-tion. Encourage candidates to have personal copies of the manual.

Presentation Overview and Learning Objectives I. The Instructor/Assistant Relationship 1. What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster

compared to that of a PADI Instructor in an in-structional setting?

2. What seven functions may a divemaster fulfill as an instructional assistant in confined and open water?

3. What is the primary characteristic that makes a PADI Divemaster an ideal instructional assistant?

4. What is a “mentor relationship” between the in-structor and you?

5. What are four reasons why a PADI Divemaster benefits by having a personal copy of the PADI In-structor Manual?

II. The Student Diver/Assistant Relationship 6. What is your primary role in the relationship be-

tween you and student divers in training?

III. PADI Certified Assistant Responsibilities 7. With respect to PADI programs, what is meant by

a “certified assistant”?

8. Under PADI Standards, what can a certified assis-tant do?

DM 3 - DM 3 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Instructor/Assistant Relationship �■ The Instructor/Assistant Relationship �

■ The Student Diver/Assistant Relationship�

■ The Student Diver/Assistant Relationship �

■ PADI Cer tified Assistant Responsibilities �

■ PADI Cer tified Assistant Responsibilities �

■ Control, Supervision and Logistics �■ Control, Supervision and Logistics �

■ Demonstrating Skills �■ Demonstrating Skills �

■ Assisting Student Diver s with Problems■ Assisting Student Diver s with Problems


IV. Control, Supervision and Logistics 9. How does positioning affect your ability to assist

with student diver control?

10. What are two common examples of Open Water Diver course student arrangement for skill prac-tice and assistant positionings, and what are their advantages and disadvantages with respect to your role?

11. What are five examples of logistical functions you can perform to assist with diver training at the sur-face, and what are five examples of logistical func-tions you can perform to assist with diver training underwater?

V. Demonstrating Skills 12. When would a PADI Divemaster demonstrate a

skill, and for what reasons?

13. What are the characteristics of a demonstration quality skill?

14. What are the 20 basic skills of the PADI Skill Evalu-ation?

15. How do you develop demonstration quality skills?

VI. Assisting Student Divers with Problems 16. What common problems may you encounter as

student divers develop skills in confined and open water?

17. What four steps can you take to help a student diver master a dive skill?

18. Where do you find skill performance requirements student divers must master for PADI courses?

Outline I. The Instructor/Assistant Relationship

A. What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster compared to that of a PADI Instructor in an instructional setting?1. PADI Divemasters are not authorized to teach scuba

courses. (You’ll learn about programs you can con-duct in Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs.)

2. As a PADI Divemaster, you can enhance the efficien-cy of PADI Diver courses by assisting a PADI Instruc-tor.

DM 3 - DM 3 -

What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster in an

instructional setting? ��

What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster in an

instructional setting? ��

33

Handling Logistics �Assisting With Students

Handling Logistics �Assisting With Students


3. In assisting with a course, you’re part of a team led by the PADI Instructor. It’s your job to support the instructor’s decisions and efforts.

4. In an instructional setting, your primary role, un-der the instructor’s direction, is handling logistics and assisting with student diver supervision. The instructor’s primary role is to focus on teaching and individual student diver learning.

B. What seven functions may a divemaster fulfill as an instructional assistant in confined and open water?1. Supervise the predive equipment distribution to

student divers, postdive equipment collection, and handling equipment difficulties.

2. Supervise student divers not being immediately watched by the instructor.

3. Handle logistics and coordinate student diver flow to keep things moving during training.

4. Conduct the tour for experience portion of dives.5. Provide the instructor with additional information

about student diver performance.6. Check divers in and out of the water at a training

site.7. Help student divers with learning difficulties on an

individual basis.C. [Ask candidates, based on the previous list, “What is

the primary characteristic that makes a PADI Divemaster an ideal instructional assistant?” Start a discussion that identifies characteristics and leads to the following conclusion:] The primary characteristic that makes a PADI Dive-

master an ideal instructional assistant is anticipating and providing what is needed by the instructor to meet the needs of student divers.

D. What is a “mentor relationship” between the instructor and you?

1. Your relationship with me [the instructor] will be more of a mentor relationship than simply a teacher-student diver relationship. This means I’m trying to guide or coach you toward the ranks of PADI Assistant Instruc-tor and Instructor. This relationship extends beyond this course and applies to any instructor you may as-sist.

2. A mentor relationship benefits you by:

DM 3 - DM 3 -

What functions may a divemaster fulfill?What functions may a divemaster fulfill?

44

■ Supervise predive and �postdive activities�

■ Supervise predive and �postdive activities�

■ Watch students �not under the �instructor’s control�

■ Watch students �not under the �instructor’s control�

■ Handle logistics�■ Handle logistics�

■ Conduct tours■ Conduct tourscontinued...continued...

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Divemaster functions...Divemaster functions...

■ Advise instructor about student performance�

■ Advise instructor about student performance�

55

■ Check students in and out of the water�

■ Check students in and out of the water�

■ Assist students �who are having �difficulty

■ Assist students �who are having �difficulty

DM 3 - DM 3 -

What characteristic makes �a divemaster an ideal

instructional assistant? ��

What characteristic makes �a divemaster an ideal

instructional assistant? ��

66

Anticipate and ProvideAnticipate and Provide

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What is a mentor relationship?

What is a mentor relationship?

77


a. Giving you hands-on experience with student div-ers in training.

b. Helping you learn about decision making and judgment by giving you access to the instructor’s experience and thinking.

c. Letting you learn to handle the logistics and other duties under an instructor’s ultimate responsibility – the same responsibilities you will have later as an instructor.

E. What are four reasons why a PADI Divemaster benefits by having a personal copy of the PADI Instructor Manual?1. The manual gives you access to the standards the

instructors you assist follow. This makes you more effective as an assistant.

2. The manual gives you access to standards for pro-grams you can conduct independently as a PADI Divemaster (more about these in Topic 9). This gives you additional opportunities beyond supervising certified divers and assisting with classes.

3. Becoming familiar with using the manual is a re-quired skill of a PADI Instructor. Starting now gives you a head start on the process.

4. As a PADI Divemaster, you will receive the Training Bulletin and other updates to the manual. This per-mits you to stay current and informed on training standards.

II. The Student Diver/Assistant RelationshipA. What is your primary role in the relationship

between you and student divers in training?1. The relationship between you and student divers is

similar to, but not identical to, the relationship be-tween student divers and the instructor.

2. Your primary role in this relationship is as a role model and as an intermediary between the student divers and the instructor. Fulfilling this role includes:a. Behaving as a role model consistent with PADI

Standards and the instructor. Student divers learn as much (or more) by what they see you do as from what they’re told to do. Make good dive habits conspicuous so they’re imitated and ide-ally, don’t have any bad ones.

b. Listening to concerns and problems. As a dive-

DM 3 - DM 3 -

Why should you have a �PADI Instructor Manual ?Why should you have a �PADI Instructor Manual ?

88

■ Access to PADI Standards�■ Access to PADI Standards�

■ Access to guidelines for programs you can conduct independently�

■ Access to guidelines for programs you can conduct independently�

■ Preparation for becoming a �PADI Instructor�

■ Preparation for becoming a �PADI Instructor�

■ Staying current – incorporate changes and announcements

■ Staying current – incorporate changes and announcements

DM 3 - DM 3 -

What is your relationship with students?What is your relationship with students?

99

■ Act as a role model�■ Act as a role model �

■ Listen to concerns and pr oblems�■ Listen to concerns and pr oblems�

■ Keep training enjo yable�■ Keep training enjo yable�

■ Help new divers dive as �soon as possib le

■ Help new divers dive as �soon as possib le


master, you’re closer to the student’s level and may appear less threatening to talk to than the instructor. You take these concerns to the instruc-tor, as appropriate.

c. Keeping training enjoyable. People learn to dive to have fun, so you need to help make the train-ing process fun. [Ask candidates to suggest ways to keep training fun while adhering to the needs of safety and training requirements.]

d. Doing all you can to get new divers diving as soon as possible. Diver education is increasingly emphasizing diving as soon as possible. Indepen-dent study helps minimize formal class sessions and increases interaction with instructional and dive operation staff to fulfill personal needs.

B. Part of the performance criteria for the Practical Appli-cation Internship or Practical Training Exercises 2 and 3 include fulfilling your relationship with the instruc-tor, and with the student divers.

III. PADI Certified Assistant ResponsibilitiesA. With respect to PADI programs, what is meant

by a “certified assistant”?1. Under PADI Standards, a certified assistant is a re-

newed PADI Instructor, PADI Assistant Instructor or PADI Divemaster. Individuals in nonrenewed status, who are inactive, or who are suspended, expelled or on administrative hold cannot function as PADI certified assistants.

2. Instructors, assistants or divemasters from other training organizations do not qualify as certified as-sistants.

3. PADI Divemaster candidates do not qualify as cer-tified assistants. [Explain to candidates who will participate in the Practical Application Internship that they will work with actual student divers. How-ever, apart from the candidates, there will be fully qualified instructors or certified assistants present as required by standards to supervise the student div-ers.]

B. Under PADI Standards, what can a certified as-sistant do?1. As a renewed PADI Divemaster, you will be quali-

fied to act as a certified assistant. Under PADI Stan-dards, certified assistants may be used to increase

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What is a cer tified assistant?��

What is a cer tified assistant? ��

1010

A renewed PADI Instructor, �PADI Assistant Instructor �

or PADI Divemaster

A renewed PADI Instructor, �PADI Assistant Instructor �

or PADI Divemaster


the number of student divers and perform specific functions, as noted by each course’s standards.

2. [Review the duties of a certified, renewed PADI Dive-master in Section 1 of this guide.]

IV. Control and Supervision, and LogisticsA. Compared with supervising certified divers in general

diving activities, you can usually apply more direct control when supervising student divers in training.1. Usually, the instructor is responsible for maintaining

control. You are one of the resources the instructor uses to do so.

2. In many training situations, your role is to maintain control and respond to problems for the bulk of stu-dent divers while the instructor works with a single student.

3. Through practice and experience, you learn tech-niques that let you supervise the group, while per-mitting the instructor to direct the overall activities.

B. How does positioning affect your ability to as-sist with student diver control?1. Positioning affects how close you are to student div-

ers and your ability to see them.2. Good positioning:

a. Where you can see the entire group, and the in-structor.

b. Where you can quickly respond to a student diver who has problems.

c. Where you can direct student diver movement to and from the instructor (if required).

d. Where student divers can alert you easily if they need your assistance.

C. What are two common examples of Open Wa-ter Diver course student arrangement for skill practice and assistant positionings, and what are their advantages and disadvantages with respect to your role?1. Example 1 — student divers form semicircle or line

with instructor centered in front; you supervise from behind – directly opposite instructor. Typically, instructor moves from student to student to conduct exercises. a. Advantage – you can see entire group and in-

structor, and you’re close to all student divers.

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Control and Supervision �Control and Supervision �

1111

CA = Cer tified � Assistant �S = Student Div er�I = Instructor

CA = Cer tified � Assistant �S = Student Div er�I = Instructor

— Good Positioning— Good Positioning

Example #1Example #1

CACASS SSSS

SSSS

IIExample #2Example #2

CACASS SSSS SSSS

II


b. Disadvantage – student divers can’t see you and will need to turn around to get your attention.

2. Example 2 — student divers in a line with instructor at one end, you at the other. Each student completes exercise and swims to you. You put student at end of line and line moves down until all student divers complete exercise.

a. Advantage – you can see entire group and in-structor, and they can see you.

b. Disadvantages – you are at one end, put-ting you far from student divers at other end (though instructor is there). Student divers more likely to kick up silt, affecting visibility.

3. There are variations on these arrangements. The instructor will tell you which system to use.

4. Whatever your position, maintain communication with the instructor to reduce any delays the instruc-tor may have in giving you directions.

D. What are five examples of logistical functions you can perform to assist with diver training at the surface, and what are five examples of logistical functions you can perform to assist with diver training underwater?1. Surface logistical functions:

a. Coordinate student divers – at training site, show students where to go and what to do (set up equipment, change into swimsuit, etc.). Direct student flow during multiple level training.

b. Enforce safety or facility rules – remind students not to run in pool area, not to practice scuba skills before the instructor covers them, etc.

c. Equipment – assist with loading and unloading of vehicles, picking equipment up from a remote site, handling air fills between dives, etc.

d. Student diver preparation – assist with students gearing up and performing initial equipment checks.

e. Escort student divers in and out of the water or to and from the boat or shore to the float.

f. Handle paperwork – assist by separating groups, recording scores, etc. under instructor’s direction.

3. Underwater logistical functions a. Lead or follow – either lead the group with the

DM 3 - DM 3 -

Logistical FunctionsLogistical Functions

■ What logistical functions can you perform at the surface?�

■ What logistical functions can you perform at the surface?�

1212

◆ Coordinate students �◆ Coordinate students �

◆ Enforce safety rules�◆ Enforce safety rules �

◆ Assist with equipment �◆ Assist with equipment �

◆ Help students prepare �◆ Help students prepare �

◆ Escort students in/out of the water �◆ Escort students in/out of the water �

◆ Handle paperw ork◆ Handle paperw ork

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What logistical functions can you perform underwat er?

What logistical functions can you perform underwat er?

1313

■ Lead or follow the class�■ Lead or follow the class�■ Escort students�■ Escort students�■ Check air supplies�■ Check air supplies�■ Supervise students while the

instructor works with one student�■ Supervise students while the

instructor works with one student�■ Assist with navigation■ Assist with navigation


instructor taking up the rear, or take up the rear when the instructor leads.

b. Escort – for training of certified divers in many activities (specialties), the instructor doesn’t need to be with student divers. You can escort student divers.

c. Air checks – reminding students at regular inter-vals to check air. Tell instructor how much they have.

d. Standby supervisor – staying with student divers if one separates, such as when the instructor has to assist someone with unequalized ears and rest of class continues descending.

e. Navigation – helping keep track of course to fol-low back to exit.

V. Demonstrating SkillsA. When would a PADI Divemaster demonstrate a

skill, and for what reasons?1. Particularly in the PADI Open Water Diver course,

the instructor demonstrates skills for student divers. However, there are times and reasons when you will demonstrate.a. To assist with a two-person demonstration – skills

such as alternate air source use require a two people.

b. When helping a student diver with a problem learning a skill – the student diver would have already seen the instructor’s demonstration, but you may demonstrate additional times to help the student (more about helping student divers shortly).

c. To maintain instructor control – instructor may prefer at times to keep an eye on student divers while you demonstrate. The instructor must be confident that you have demonstration quality skills to accomplish this.

B. What are the characteristics of a demonstra-tion quality skill?1. To someone unfamiliar with a skill, a skill is actu-

ally a series of key subskills or steps performed in se-quence. The steps are called critical attributes because without them, the student diver will not be able to perform the skill correctly.

DM 3 - DM 3 -

Demonstrating SkillsDemonstrating Skills■ When would a divemaster

demonstrate skills?�■ When would a divemaster

demonstrate skills?�

1414

■ What are the characteristics of a demonstration quality skill?�

■ What are the characteristics of a demonstration quality skill?�◆ Slow�◆ Slow�◆ Emphasiz es critical attrib utes�◆ Emphasiz es critical attrib utes�◆ Shows sequence�◆ Shows sequence �◆ Easily seen�◆ Easily seen�◆ Fluid, mastered and automatic◆ Fluid, mastered and automatic


2. A demonstration quality skill performance is conduct-ing a skill in a manner that allows student divers to learn how to perform the skill themselves. It has these characteristics:a. Slow – You perform it slowly so that student divers

can see the details of the skill.b. Critical attribute emphasis – You emphasize criti-

cal attributes, especially those that may be easy to miss by someone who has never performed the skill.

c. Sequence emphasis – You emphasize critical attri-bute sequence when it is important to the skill.

d. Adequately seen – You perform it so all student divers can see it adequately, repeating if necessary to show more than one angle, or so all student div-ers in a group can see it.

e. Mastered and automatic – You not only perform the skill correctly, but fluidly with little or no con-scious attention to the steps. The skill is automatic.

D. What are the 20 basic skills of the PADI Skill Evaluation? 1. Equipment assembly, adjustment, preparation,

donning and disassembly 2. Predive safety check (BWRAF) 3. Deep water entry 4. Buoyancy check at surface 5. Snorkel-regulator/regulator snorkel exchange 6. Five point descent 7. Regulator recovery and clearing 8. Mask removal, replacement and clearing 9. Air depletion exercise and alternate air source use

stationary10. Freeflow regulator breathing11. Fin pivot (neutral buoyancy)12. Five point ascent13. Remove and replace weight system on the surface14. Controlled Emergency Swimming Ascent (CESA)15. Hovering motionless16. Underwater swim without a mask17. Remove and replace weight system underwater18. Remove and replace scuba unit underwater19. Remove and replace scuba unit on the surface20. Buddy breathing stationary and swimming (donor

and receiver)

DM 3 - DM 3 -

What 18 skills are part of the PADI Skill Evaluation?

What 18 skills are part of the PADI Skill Evaluation?

1515

Fin Piv otFin Piv ot

Five Point DescentFive Point Descent

Buoyancy Chec kBuoyancy Chec k

Predive Saf ety Chec kPredive Saf ety Chec k

Equipment PreparationEquipment Preparation

Snorkel-Regulator Exc hangeSnorkel-Regulator Exc hange

Five Point AscentFive Point Ascent

Remove/Replace WeightsRemove/Replace Weights

Deep Water Entr yDeep Water Entr y

Free Flo w �Regulator BreathingFree Flo w �Regulator Breathing

Controlled Emer gency �Swimming AscentControlled Emer gency �Swimming Ascent

Alternate Air Sour ce UseAlternate Air Sour ce Use

Mask Remo val/ReplacementMask Remo val/Replacement

Buddy Breathing (s wimming)�donor and receiverBuddy Breathing (s wimming) �donor and receiver

Buddy Breathing (stationar y)Buddy Breathing (stationar y)HoverHoverRemove/Replace ScubaRemove/Replace Scuba


E. How do you develop demonstration quality skills?

1. Watch demonstrations of the skills (instructor, PADI Open Water Diver Video or Multimedia, etc.) and note the critical attributes. The Skill Evaluation Slate and Divemaster slate lists all 20 of the skills for reference in confined water.

2. Consult the PADI Instructor Manual for the perfor-mance requirements of each skill. [Explain to can-didates that demonstrations don’t always have to meet all performance requirements. For example, student divers perform freeflow regulator breathing for 30 seconds, but you can demonstrate the skill for a shorter period.]

3. Practicea. Only way to master a motor skills is through

repeated practice with knowledge of results (how well you perform the skill).

b. If you can’t assess your performance (was it slow enough, etc.), practice with someone who can tell you how you’re doing.

c. Practice until each skill is fluid and automatic.

VI. Assisting Student Divers with ProblemsA. Helping student divers with problems is an important

role of a training assistant.1. You may need to assist student divers with problems

when they occur, especially if the instructor is work-ing with another student diver.

2. You may work with student divers who need addi-tional time to master a skill while instructor contin-ues with the rest of the class.

B. What common problems may you encounter as student divers develop skills in confined and open water?1. Most student diver problems are predictable, so with

training and experience you’ll know appropriate responses in advance.

2. [Discuss potential student problems with the follow-ing skills. Encourage candidates to mention prob-lems they’ve seen during their diving experiences and refer them to the list in the PADI Divemaster Manual.]• Equipment assembly/suiting up

DM 3 - DM 3 -

Assisting Students with ProblemsAssisting Students with Problems■ What common problems do �

students encounter?�■ What common problems do �

students encounter?�

1717

■ How can you help students �master skills?�

■ How can you help students �master skills?�◆ Evaluate critical attrib utes�◆ Evaluate critical attrib utes�

◆ Redemonstrate skill �◆ Redemonstrate skill �

◆ Take it slow to assure earl y success◆ Take it slow to assure earl y success

DM 3 - DM 3 -

How do you develop demonstration quality skills?How do you develop demonstration quality skills?

1616

■ Observe�■ Observe�

■ Consult�■ Consult�

■ Practice■ Practice


• Donning scuba/weights • BCD inflation/deflation• Regulator recover and clear• Mask clearing• Fin use• Equalization• Ascents/descents• Controlled seat entry• Snorkel clearing blast method• Snorkel/regulator exchange• No mask breathing• Deep water exit• Giant stride entry• No mask swim• Fin pivot• Alternate air source use• Freeflow regulator breathing• Controlled emergency swimming ascent• Head first skin dive• Snorkel clear – displacement method• Hovering• Buddy breathing• Weight system remove/replace• Scuba unit removal and replacement• Underwater tour• Compass use

C. What three steps can you take to help a student diver master a dive skill?1. Helping student divers who have difficulty with a

skill requires patience, but it also gives you experi-ence for when you become an instructor.

2. At the Open Water Diver level, student divers always begin by seeing the instructor’s demonstration and practicing with the instructor.

3. To assist the student diver with difficulty, follow these three steps:a. Look for missing or improperly performed critical

attributes while having the student attempt the skill. 1. If the student’s actions create a safety concern

(such as a rapid ascent), tell the student diver


to stop, or stop the student’s action yourself im-mediately.

b. Redemonstrate the skill, pointing out the missed attribute(s). Repeated demonstrations help be-cause student divers see more detail as they be-come familiar with a skill.

c. Assure early success 1. Failure is discouraging – success is needed for

motivation.2. Have student diver practice successful attri-

butes and give positive reinforcement first if necessary to maintain encouragement.

3. Keep the student challenged, but add attributes slowly enough so the student enjoys success as the skill develops

4. Continue until the student diver can perform the entire skill successfully without undue dif-ficulty or stress

4. Remember that after you feel the student diver is performing the skill adequately, the instructor assess-es student skill mastery personally before the student rejoins the class and begins learning new skills un-der the instructor’s direction.

D. Where do you find skill performance require-ments student divers must master for PADI courses?1. The PADI Instructor Manual lists the skill perfor-

mance requirements student divers must meet in each course. Keep in mind that there are different techniques for meeting the same performance re-quirements. Individuals with physical challenges may use unusual techniques and still meet the re-quirements.

DM 3 - DM 3 -

Check your PADI Instructor Manual for skill performance requirements

Check your PADI Instructor Manual for skill performance requirements

1818

Professional Association of Diving Instructors


Instructor Manual

Instructor Manual


Topic 4 – Dive Theory Introduction

Recommended Materials and Methods for Covering This TopicThis section acquaints candidates with why they need to be familiar with dive theory, and their expected performance requirements. This is important because divemaster candidates don’t always recognize the usefulness of be-ing familiar with dive theory. Although this is a brief presentation, it shapes candidate attitudes so that they put serious effort into learning dive theory.

PresentationOverview and Learning Objectives I. The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge 1. In a given field, what characteristic allows experts

to more easily solve problems than nonexperts?

2. What are three reasons why the PADI Divemaster course emphasizes learning dive theory?

3. Why does it benefit you to have a dive reference library, and what might you include in such a li-brary?

4. How does completing specialty training help you learn dive theory?

II. Dive Theory Performance in This Course 5. How will you demonstrate mastery of dive theory

for this course?

6. Where will you get the dive theory information you must learn for this course?

7. How do you continually improve and update your dive theory knowledge as a dive professional?

Outline I. The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge

A. In a given field, what characteristic allows ex-perts to more easily solve problems than non-experts?1. Research in cognitive psychology shows that experts

in a given field solve problems better than nonex-

DM 4 - DM 4 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge�

■ The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge�

■ Dive Theory Performance in This Course

■ Dive Theory Performance in This Course

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Broad Theoretical KnowledgeBroad Theoretical Knowledge

33

■ Why?�■ Why?�◆ Experts identify, avoid and solve

problems better than none xperts�◆ Experts identify, avoid and solve

problems better than none xperts�

◆ Divemaster s are experts, professionals and leader s�

◆ Divemaster s are experts, professionals and leader s�

◆ You’ll apply knowledge during the Practical Application Module

◆ You’ll apply knowledge during the Practical Application Module


perts because they have a large knowledge base to draw upon.a. This base helps identify cause/effect relationships

or allows you to make reasonable speculations of them.

b. You learn to handle some “problems” before you ever encounter them.

c. Familiarity enables you to more quickly identify a problem’s cause so you can apply the right solu-tion.

B. What are three reasons why the PADI Divemas-ter course emphasizes learning dive theory?

[Have candidates briefly discuss why they’re learning dive theory at this point in their training. Identify the following three reasons.]1. A large knowledge base is the mark of an expert,

and expertise is one characteristic of a professional – the PADI Divemaster level is the first leadership level in the PADI System.

2. You will need to apply theoretical knowledge within the Practical Application Module of this course.

3 You will need this knowledge as an instructional assistant, and later as an instructor. [Explain that theory isn’t covered in the IDC because you learn it as a divemaster, but you are tested on it in the IE.]

C. Why does it benefit you to have a dive reference library, and what might you include in such a library?1. You benefit because it:

a. Provides a ready place to look up information.b. Keeps you up-to-date with changing theory.c. Increases your expertise by broadening your

knowledge beyond what you learn in this course.2. A dive reference library may include:

a. PADI manuals, books, videos and multimedia products

b. Technical and scientific dive textsc. Dive magazine subscriptionsd. Underwater wildlife guides and magazinese. Dive travel guides and mapsf. Historical nautical references to dive sites and

wrecks

DM 4 - DM 4 -

What should you include in your diving reference library?What should you include in your diving reference library?

44

■ PADI Manuals�■ PADI Manuals�

■ Technical and scientific texts�■ Technical and scientific texts�

■ Dive magazines�■ Dive magazines�

■ Underwater wildlife guides�■ Underwater wildlife guides�

■ Dive travel guides�■ Dive travel guides�

■ Historical nautical references■ Historical nautical references


D. How does completing specialty training help you learn dive theory?1. Specialties often go into more theoretical detail of

a specific area. (e.g., underwater photography and the behavior of light.)

2. Specialties often give you a chance to apply theo-retical knowledge. (e.g., search and recovery and Boyle’s Law/gas expansion in the lift bag.)

Note to instructor: As part of this discussion, review the specific meetings and methods you’ll have candidates use to master dive theory in the course.

II. Dive Theory Performance in This CourseA. How will you demonstrate mastery of dive

theory for this course and where will you get the dive theory information you must learn for this course?1. You will study dive physics, physiology, equipment

and decompression theory by:a. attending class presentations [if applicable].b. by reading the appropriate sections of the Ency-

clopedia of Recreational Diving and completing the Diving Knowledge Workbook.

c. You will complete an examination in each of these areas with a score of 75 percent or better in each – if lower, you must restudy and take a makeup exam.

d. You will be expected to successfully and appro-priately apply dive theory principles during the Practical Application Module.

2. You will also take an exam on dive skills and the environment.a. There are no particular books or presentations

directed specifically to this exam.b. You learn these aspects of dive theory through

your previous training and experience, and through the various training and experience categories of this course.

c. You must earn 75 percent or better.d. You will be expected to successfully and appro-

priately apply dive skills and the environment

DM 4 - DM 4 -

How does completing specialty training help you learn dive theory?

How does completing specialty training help you learn dive theory?

55

■ Specialties often go into specific theoretical detail�

■ Specialties often go into specific theoretical detail�

■ Specialties allow you to apply theoretical knowledge

■ Specialties allow you to apply theoretical knowledge

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Dive Theory and YouDive Theory and You■ How will you learn dive theory

during this course?�■ How will you learn dive theory

during this course?�

66

■ Exam passing �score = 75%�(100% mastery)

■ Exam passing �score = 75%�(100% mastery)


theory principles during the Practical Application Module.

B. You will also complete exams on supervising certified divers, supervising student divers, and on PADI pro-grams you can conduct, based on what you learn in this course.

C. How do you continually improve and update your dive theory knowledge as a dive professional?1. After this course, it’s important to maintain your

dive theory knowledge as a professional – failure to do so reduces your expertise and skill as a leader:a. Subscribe to and read dive magazines.b. Reread and review the Encyclopedia and other ma-

terials periodically.c. Help others who are learning dive theory – teach-

ing helps you learn.d. Take specialty courses that apply your knowledge.e. Attend seminars and meetings about diving sci-

ence, the environment, etc.

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How do you improve and update your knowledge as a dive professional?

How do you improve and update your knowledge as a dive professional?

77

■ Read�■ Read�

■ Review�■ Review�

■ Teach�■ Teach�

■ Continue your education�■ Continue your education �

■ Attend seminar s■ Attend seminar s


Topic 5 – The Physics of Diving

Recommended Materials and Methods for Covering This TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about dive physics is to have candidates read the Physics of Diving section of The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and complete the physics section in the Diving Knowl-edge Workbook. Have them consult the related objectives in the Appendix of the PADI Divemaster Manual to be sure they can meet all the performance requirements.

After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a group. Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook, then answer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and review the material, based on how they completed their workbooks. Use the presentation outline as a guide for a complete review.

If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Work-book don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can develop knowledge by giving the following presentation in detail. To aid learning, use lots of problem examples and have candidates work through them for you.

PresentationOverview and Learning Objectives I. Light, Heat and Sound in Water 1. Why does water dissipate body heat faster than air

does, and at what rate does it do so?

2. What effect does water’s ability to dissipate heat have on a diver?

3. What does light do when it passes from air into water, or vice-versa, and how does this affect a diver?

4. What is refraction?

5. What is visual reversal, and how does it affect a diver?

6. Why does sound travel faster in water than in air, and how much faster is it in water?

7. How does the speed of sound in water affect hear-ing?

II. Buoyancy and the Weight of Water 8. Given the weight and displacement of an object,

calculate the buoyancy change by adding air or

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OverviewOverview■ Light, Heat and Sound in Water�■ Light, Heat and Sound in Water�

22

■ Buoyancy and the Weight of Water�■ Buoyancy and the Weight of Water�

■ Pressure and Water�■ Pressure and Water�

■ The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume, Density and Temperature�

■ The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume, Density and Temperature �

■ The Beha vior of Gases Underwater: Partial Pressure�

■ The Beha vior of Gases Underwater: Partial Pressure �

■ The Beha vior of Gases Underwater: �Gas Absorption and Elimination

■ The Beha vior of Gases Underwater: �Gas Absorption and Elimination


adding weight required to either float, sink or make neutral the object in both fresh and sea wa-ter.

III. Pressure and Water 9. What is meant by gauge, absolute, and ambient pres-

sure?

10. Calculate the absolute and gauge pressure at any depth in fresh or sea water in atmospheres/bar, and convert it to another pressure measurement.

IV. The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume, Density and Temperature

11. What is the relationship between changes in abso-lute pressure and the volume of a gas?

12. Calculate the volume changes that occur to a gas when raised or lowered in the water in a flexible container.

13. What is the relationship between depth and the density of the air a diver breathes?

14. Given a diver’s air consumption rate at one depth, calculate how that consumption rate changes with depth.

15. What is the relationship of pressure, volume and temperature with a gas in a flexible container and with a gas in an inflexible container?

V. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Partial Pressures 16. What is partial pressure?

17. Given their percentages, calculate the partial pres-sures of gases in a mixture at any depth.

18. How does the physiological effect of breathing a given percentage of gas at depth compare to breathing the same percentage of the gas at the surface?

19. For a given percentage of a gas in mixture, and the depth at which a diver breathes that gas, calculate the percentage of the gas that would produce the same physiological effects on a diver at the surface.

VI. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Gas Absorption and Elimination

20. What happens when you raise the pressure of a gas in contact with a liquid?

21. What is supersaturation?

22. What happens when you quickly reduce the pres-sure on a liquid that is saturated with dissolved gas at a higher pressure?


Outline

I. Light, Heat and Sound in WaterA. Why does water dissipate body heat faster

than air does, and at what rate does it do so?1. Water absorbs tremendous amounts of heat (high

heat capacity). Water conducts heat more efficiently than air because water molecules are closer together. Air is, however, a good insulator because it does not conduct heat efficiently.

B. What effect does water’s ability to dissipate heat have on a diver?1. Because of water’s high heat capacity, the human

body when submerged in water loses heat more than 20 times faster than in still air.

2. This means a diver will become chilled in water at temperatures that would be considered comfortable in air.

C. What does light do when it passes from air into water, or vice-versa, and how does this af-fect a diver?1. The speed of light depends on the density of the

medium it is traveling through – the denser the medium, the slower the speed.

2. When light goes from one medium to another, it changes speed. This causes the light ray to change direction, or “bend.”

3. What is refraction? This bending of light is re-ferred to as refraction.

4. Light coming to a diver’s eyes underwater moves through three different media – water, glass and air – refracting each time.

5. To the diver, refraction magnifies objects, making them appear larger/closer. This magnification oc-curs a ratio of about 4:3 according to their actual and apparent distance. When viewed underwater, objects tend to be magnified by a factor of about 33 percent.

D. What is visual reversal, and how does it affect a diver?1. Turbidity can partially obscure an object so that it

appears hazy, which in air the eye associates with

DM 5 - DM 5 -

What does light do when it passes from one medium to another?

What does light do when it passes from one medium to another?

44Light, Heat and SoundLight, Heat and Sound

■ Speed of light depends on density of medium — denser = slo wer�

■ Speed of light depends on density of medium — denser = slo wer�

■ Changing speeds cause light to bend — refraction�

■ Changing speeds cause light to bend — refraction �

■ To a diver, refraction ma gnifies objects at a ratio of about 4:3

■ To a diver, refraction ma gnifies objects at a ratio of about 4:3


being distant. So, the diver may perceive objects as farther away than they actually are. This phenom-enon is referred to as visual reversal.

E. Why does sound travel faster in water than in air, and how much faster is it in water?1. Because sound travels in pressure waves, it travels

faster in more dense mediums such as water than in less dense mediums like air.

2. Sound travels slightly more than four times faster in water than in air.

Note to instructor: Some candidates may observe that faster sound speed in a medium is a function of superior elasticity, not density. This is correct, but most (but not all) mediums that are denser also have greater elasticity, so it is “loosely” correct to say sound travels faster in denser materials.

F. How does the speed of sound in water affect hearing?1. Your brain determines sound direction by the slight

delay between when a sound reaches one ear or the other. In water, the faster speed of sound reduces the delay so much that the brain interprets the sound as reaching both ears at the same time. This makes most sounds seem to come from directly overhead, despite their actual source.

II. Buoyancy and the Weight of WaterA. The Greek mathematician Archimedes determined

that “An object wholly or partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.”1. An object that weighs less than the water it displac-

es floats and is positively buoyant. The buoyancy is expressed as a positive number, such as being “two kilograms positive.”

2. An object that weighs exactly the same as the water it displaces neither floats nor sinks. It is called neu-trally buoyant, and adding or removing weight will make it sink or float.

3. An object that weighs more than the water it dis-places will sink and is called negatively buoyant. Its buoyancy is expressed as a negative number, such as “two pounds negative.”

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Why does sound travel faster in water and how does it affect hearing?

Why does sound travel faster in water and how does it affect hearing?

66Light, Heat and SoundLight, Heat and Sound

■ Sound (pressure waves) travel faster in denser, more elastic mediums�

■ Sound (pressure waves) travel faster in denser, more elastic mediums�◆ Four time faster in water than in air �◆ Four time faster in water than in air �

■ Brain determines sound direction by delay between waves reaching the ears �

■ Brain determines sound direction by delay between waves reaching the ears �◆ Speed of sound underwater makes

direction difficult to determine◆ Speed of sound underwater makes

direction difficult to determine

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Buoyancy�Buoyancy�

77

Archimedes determined that: �“An object wholly or par tially

immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the

fluid displaced by the object. ”

Archimedes determined that: �“An object wholly or par tially

immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the

fluid displaced by the object. ”

WATER

OBJECTOBJECTPositivePositive

WATEROBJECTOBJECT

NeutralNeutralWATER

OBJECTOBJECT

NegativeNegative


B. To determine the buoyancy of an object in water, you need to know:1. The object’s weight out of water.2. How much water the object displaces (the object’s

volume).3. The weight of the displaced water.

C. The weight of water:1. 1 litre of sea water weighs 1.03 kg.2. 1 litre of fresh water weighs 1 kg.3. A cubic foot of sea water weighs 64 lbs.4. A cubic foot of fresh water weighs 62.4 lbs.

D. To determine the buoyancy of an object, subtract its weight from the weight of the water it displaces. 1. A negative number means the object is negatively

buoyant, a positive number means it’s positively buoyant, and zero means it is neutrally buoyant.

2. To make a negatively buoyant object neutral, the buoyancy must increase by the amount it is nega-tive (usually by adding air to a lifting device to increase the volume displaced). To make it positive, it must increase by more than that.

3. To make a positively buoyant object neutral, the buoyancy must decrease by the amount it is posi-tive (usually by adding weight to the object). To make it negative, it must increase by more than that.

4. Sample problems:

METRIC — Example #1

You plan to recover a 150 kg outboard motor in sea water that displaces 60 litres. How much air must you put in a lifting device to make the motor neutrally buoyant?

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Determining BuoyancyDetermining Buoyancy

88BuoyancyBuoyancy

■ You must know:�◆ Weight of the object �◆ Volume of the object �◆ Weight of the displaced fluid �

■ You must know:�◆ Weight of the object �◆ Volume of the object �◆ Weight of the displaced fluid �

■ Constants – weight of water:�◆ Litre of sea water – 1.03 kg (1.03 kg/l)�◆ Litre of fresh water – 1.0 kg (1.0 kg/l)�◆ Cubic foot sea water – 64 lbs (64 lb/ft3)�◆ Cubic foot fresh water – 62.4 lbs (62.4 lb/ft3)

■ Constants – weight of water:�◆ Litre of sea water – 1.03 kg (1.03 kg/l)�◆ Litre of fresh water – 1.0 kg (1.0 kg/l)�◆ Cubic foot sea water – 64 lbs (64 lb/ft3)�◆ Cubic foot fresh water – 62.4 lbs (62.4 lb/ft3)

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Calculating Changes in BuoyancyCalculating Changes in Buoyancy■ Object’s volume x constant �

= weight of water displaced �■ Object’s volume x constant �

= weight of water displaced �

BuoyancyBuoyancy

■ Object’s weight – water weight �= up/down buoyancy�

■ Object’s weight – water weight �= up/down buoyancy�◆ Positive number = sinks (downward force)�◆ Positive number = sinks (downward force)�

◆ Negative n umber = floats (buoyant force)�◆ Negative n umber = floats (buoyant force)�

◆ Zero = neutral◆ Zero = neutral

DM 5 - DM 5 -


You plan to reco ver a 150 kilogram/300 pound outboard motor in sea water that displaces 60 litres/2 cubic feet. How much air must you put in a lifting de vice to make the motor neutrall y buoyant?

You plan to reco ver a 150 kilogram/300 pound outboard motor in sea water that displaces 60 litres/2 cubic feet. How much air must you put in a lifting de vice to make the motor neutrall y buoyant?

1010BuoyancyBuoyancy

Given the weight and displace-ment of an object, calculate the buoyancy change by adding air or adding weight required to either float, sink or make neutral the object in both fresh and sea water.


METRIC — Answer: 85.6 litres of air.

A 150 kg motor that displaces 60 litres of sea water has a buoy-ancy the weight of the sea water it displaces less 150 kg.

60 litres of sea water weighs 61.8 kg (60 l x 1.03 kg/l = 61.8 kg)

The motor is 88.2 kg negatively buoyant in sea water (61.8 kg - 150 kg = -88.2 kg).

The lift bag must displace an amount of water that weighs 88.2 kg to make the object neutral (disregard the weight of the air and the lift bag). Divide the water weight desired by the weight of water per litre to get the required litres of air to add.

You must add 85.6 litres of air to the lift bag. (88.2 kg ÷ 1.03 kg/l = 85.6 l).

IMPERIAL — Example #1 You plan to recover a 300-pound outboard motor that displaces two cubic feet from the bottom in sea water. How much water must you displace by adding air to a lift bag to make it neutrally buoyant?

IMPERIAL — Answer: 2.68 ft3

A 300 lb motor that displaces 2 ft3 of sea water has a buoyancy that’s the weight of the sea water it displaces less 300 lbs.

2 ft3 of sea water weighs 128 lbs (64 lb/ft3 x 2 ft3 = 128 lb)

The motor is 172 lbs negatively buoyant in sea water (128 lb - 300 lb = -172 lb).

The lift bag must displace an amount of water that weighs 172 lbs to make the object neutral (disregard the weight of the air and the lift bag). Divide the water weight desired by the weight of water per cubic foot to get the required cubic feet of air to add.

You must add 2.68 cubic feet of air to the lift bag. (172 lbs ÷ 64 lb/ft3 = 2.68 ft3).

METRIC — Example #2 You’re assisting a research study and must sink into fresh water an object that weighs 50 kg. and displaces 300 li-tres. Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead, how much lead weight do you need to affix to the object to make it 10 kg negative on the bottom?

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Answer #1Answer #1

Metric = 85.6 litres�

Imperial = 2.68 cubic f eet�

Metric = 85.6 litres �

Imperial = 2.68 cubic f eet�


60 l x 1.03 kg/l = 61.8 kg �

2 ft3 x 64 lb/ft 3 = 128 lb�

60 l x 1.03 kg/l = 61.8 kg �

2 ft3 x 64 lb/ft 3 = 128 lb �

150 kg - 61.8 kg = 88.2 kg �

300 lb - 128 lb = 172 lb �

150 kg - 61.8 kg = 88.2 kg �

300 lb - 128 lb = 172 lb �

88.2 kg ÷ 1.03 kg/l = 85.6 l �

172 lb ÷ 64 lb/ft 3 = 2.68 ft 3

88.2 kg ÷ 1.03 kg/l = 85.6 l �

172 lb ÷ 64 lb/ft 3 = 2.68 ft 3

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Example #2Example #2You’re assisting a resear ch study and must sink into fresh water an object that weighs 50 kilograms /100 pounds and displaces 300 litres /5 cubic feet. Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead, how much lead weight do you need to affix to the object to make it 10 kilograms /20 pounds negative on the bottom?

You’re assisting a resear ch study and must sink into fresh water an object that weighs 50 kilograms /100 pounds and displaces 300 litres /5 cubic feet. Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead, how much lead weight do you need to affix to the object to make it 10 kilograms /20 pounds negative on the bottom?



METRIC — Answer: 260 kg

The weight of water displaced is 300 kg (300 l x 1 kg/l = 300 kg)

The object weighs 50 kg, so it is 250 kg positively buoyant (300 kg - 50 kg = 250 kg)

Add 250 kg to make it neutral, plus 10 kg to make it 10 kg negative for 260 kg total lead to add (250 kg + 10 kg = 260 kg)

IMPERIAL — Example #2You’re assisting a research study and must sink into fresh water an object that weighs 100 lbs. and displaces 5 cubic feet. Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead, how much lead weight do you need to affix to the object to make it 20 lbs negative on the bottom?

IMPERIAL — Answer: 232 lbs

The weight of water displaced is 312 lbs (5 ft3 x 62.4 lbs/ft3 = 312 lbs)

The object weighs 100 lbs, so it is 212 lbs positively buoyant (312 lbs - 100 lbs = 212 lbs)

Add 212 lbs to make it neutral, plus 20 lbs to make it 20 lbs negative for 232 lbs total lead to add (212 lbs + 20 lbs = 232 lbs)

Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as neces-sary until candidates can easily determine the amount of water to displace, or weight to add, to make an object negative, posi-tive or neutral in fresh water or sea water.

III. Pressure and WaterA. Pressure is equal to the force over a unit of area, and

may be expressed as kilograms per square centimeter or pounds per square inch.1. In diving, the easiest pressure unit to use is the at-

mosphere or bar. One atmosphere or bar is the pres-sure equal to the air pressure at sea level. There’s a slight difference between bar and atmospheres, but in diving they’re treated as equal.

2. 10 metres/33 feet of sea water exerts 1 atmosphere/bar of pressure.

3. 10.3 metres/34 feet of fresh water exerts 1 atmo-sphere/bar of pressure.

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Pressure and WaterPressure and Water

1414

P RESSURE =P RESSURE =F ORCEF ORCE

A REAA REA

■ Pressure is equal �to force per unit area �kg/cm2 or lb/in 2�

■ Pressure is equal �to force per unit area �kg/cm2 or lb/in 2�

■ Atmospheric pressure �is the air pressure at sea level �1 atm/bar, 760 mmHG,�1.03 kg/cm 2 or 14.7 psi

■ Atmospheric pressure �is the air pressure at sea level �1 atm/bar, 760 mmHG, �1.03 kg/cm 2 or 14.7 psi

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Answer #2Answer #2

Metric = 260 kilograms �

Imperial = 232 pounds �

Metric = 260 kilograms �

Imperial = 232 pounds �


300 l x 1.0 kg/l = 300 kg �

5 ft3 x 62.4 lb/ft 3 = 312 lb�

300 l x 1.0 kg/l = 300 kg �

5 ft3 x 62.4 lb/ft 3 = 312 lb �

50 kg - 300 kg = –250 kg �

100 lb - 312 lb = –212 lb �

50 kg - 300 kg = –250 kg �

100 lb - 312 lb = –212 lb �

(positively buoyant)




250 kg + 10 kg = 260 kg �

212 lb + 20 lb = 232 lb

250 kg + 10 kg = 260 kg �

212 lb + 20 lb = 232 lb


B. What is meant by gauge, absolute, and ambient pressure?1. Gauge pressure is a measurement that ignores the

atmospheric pressure. At sea level with no added pressure, gauge pressure is zero. Your submersible pressure gauge is an example.

2. Absolute pressure uses a vacuum as its zero point, so that it is gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. You generally add an “a” or the word “absolute” to pressure units: “psia” for pounds per square inch absolute, “ata” for atmospheres absolute, and “bar absolute.”

3. Ambient pressure means “surrounding pressure,” and may be expressed as absolute or gauge pressure.

C. Calculating pressures underwater1. To determine the pressure in ata/bar at any depth:

a. Divide the depth by 10 metres/33 feet for salt water, or 10.3 metres/34 feet for fresh water. This gives you atmospheres gauge at that depth.

b. Add 1 to account for the atmosphere of air and convert to absolute pressure.

Example: How many ata of pressure are there at 18 me-tres/60 feet of seawater?

Answer: 2.8 ataMETRIC – 18m ÷ 10m/atm = 1.8 atm; 1.8 atm + 1 atm = 2.8 ata IMPERIAL – 60ft ÷ 33ft/atm = 1.8 atm; 1.8 atm + 1 atm = 2.8 ata

2. To convert to another pressure measure, multiply ata by:a. 10 for msw (metres of sea water)b. 10.3 for mfw (metres of fresh water)c. 1.03 for kg/cm2

(kilograms per centimetre squared)d. 14.7 for psi (pounds per square inch)e. 33 for fsw (feet of sea water)f. 34 for ffw (feet of fresh water)

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Pressure TerminologyPressure Terminology■ Gauge – measured pressure minus

atmospheric pressure �(atm gaug e or psig)�

■ Gauge – measured pressure minus atmospheric pressure �(atm gaug e or psig) �

1515Pressure and WaterPressure and Water

■ Absolute – total pressure exerted, gauge plus atmospheric�(ata)�

■ Absolute – total pressure exerted, gauge plus atmospheric�(ata)�

■ Ambient – surrounding pressure, same as absolute pressure

■ Ambient – surrounding pressure, same as absolute pressure

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Calculating Pressure UnderwaterCalculating Pressure Underwater


SEA WATER =�1 atm every 10 m/33 ft�OR .100 ATM per metre �

OR .445 psi per f oot

SEA WATER =�1 atm every 10 m/33 ft�OR .100 ATM per metre �


FRESH WATER =�1 atm every 10.3 m/34 ft�OR .097 ATM per metre �


FRESH WATER =�1 atm every 10.3 m/34 ft�OR .097 ATM per metre �


Gauge PressureGauge Pressure0 0

1 ft

10 ft

20 ft

33 ft

1 m

5 m

10 m

.100 ATM

4.45 psi

8.9 psi

14.7 psi

.500 ATM

1 ATM

.445 psisea le vel

Calculate the absolute and gauge pressure at any depth in fresh or sea water in atmo-spheres/bar, and convert it to another pressure measurement.


DM 5 - DM 5 - 1717

Example #1Example #1What are the gaug e and absolute pressures (in atmospheres) at a depth �of 22.5 metres/74 feet in fresh water ?�

What are the gaug e and absolute pressures (in atmospheres) at a depth �of 22.5 metres/74 feet in fresh water ?�

Pressure and WaterPressure and Water

Metric and Imperial �= 2.18 atm gaug e and 3.18 ata �

22.5 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 2.18 atm gauge �74 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 2.18 atm gauge �

add 1 atm = 3.18 ata�

Metric and Imperial �= 2.18 atm gaug e and 3.18 ata �

22.5 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 2.18 atm gauge �74 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 2.18 atm gauge �

add 1 atm = 3.18 ata�

Can you find the pressures �in kg/cm2 or psi?Can you find the pressures �in kg/cm2 or psi?

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Example #2Example #2The pressure at 18 metres /60 feet in sea water equals the same pressure at what depth in fresh water?�

The pressure at 18 metres /60 feet in sea water equals the same pressure at what depth in fresh water?�


Metric = 18.5 metres�

Imperial = 61.2 feet�

Metric = 18.5 metres�

Imperial = 61.2 feet�

18 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 1.8 atm gaug e�

60 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 1.8 atm gaug e�

18 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 1.8 atm gaug e�

60 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 1.8 atm gaug e�

1.8 atm gaug e x 10.3 m/atm = 18.5 m �

1.8 atm x 34 ft/atm = 61.2 ft

1.8 atm gaug e x 10.3 m/atm = 18.5 m �

1.8 atm x 34 ft/atm = 61.2 ft

Example #1What are the gauge and absolute pressures in at a depth of 22.5 metres/74 feet in fresh water?What is the pressure in kg/cm2 / psi?

Answer: 2.18 atm gauge/3.18 ataMETRIC — 22.5 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 2.18 atmospheres gauge2.18 atm + 1 atmosphere = 3.18 ata

IMPERIAL — 74 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 2.18 atmospheres gauge

2.18 atm + 1 atmosphere = 3.18 ata

METRIC — Answer: 2.24 kg/cm2 gauge/3.28 kg/cm2 absolute 2.18 atm x 1.03 kg/cm2 = 2.24 kg/cm2 gauge 3.18 ata x 1.03 kg/cm2 = 3.28 kg/cm2 absolute

IMPERIAL — Answer: 32 psi gauge/46.7 psia2.18 atm x 14.7 psi/atm = 32 psi gauge3.18 ata x 14.7 psi/atm = 46.7 psia

Example #2The pressure at 18 metres/60 feet in sea water equals the same pressure at what depth in fresh water? (Depth = 0 at the surface, so this is a gauge pressure problem.)

METRIC — Answer: 18.5 m 18 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 1.8 atm gauge 1.8 atm x 10.3 m/atm = 18.5 m

IMPERIAL — Answer: 61.2 ft60 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 1.8 atm gauge1.8 atm x 34 ft/atm = 61.2 ft

Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as neces-sary until candidates can easily determine the atmospheres abso-lute and gauge pressures at various fresh and saltwater depths, and convert them into other pressure measures.

IV. The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume, Density and TemperatureA. What is the relationship between changes in

absolute pressure and the volume of a gas? 1. As absolute pressure increases on a gas, the volume

of the gas will decrease proportionately. DM 5 - DM 5 - 1919

Pressure, Volume and Density Relationship

Pressure, Volume and Density Relationship

0� 1 ATM� 0� 1 1 �� 10 33� 2 ATM� 1 ATM� 1/2 2�� 20 66� 3 ATM� 2 ATM� 1/3 3�� 30 99 4 ATM� 3 ATM� 1/4 4�� 40 132� 5 ATM� 4 ATM� 1/5 5

60 litres

30

20

15

12

DEPTH ABSOLUTE GA UGE AIR SURF ACE VOLUME EXAMPLE� PRESSURE PRESSURE VOLUME EQ UIVALENT�

�

DEPTH ABSOLUTE GA UGE AIR SURF ACE VOLUME EXAMPLE� PRESSURE PRESSURE VOLUME EQ UIVALENT � metres f eet �


For example, at 2 ata (10 m/33 ft in sea water) the volume is 1/2 the surface volume; at 3 ata (20 m/66 ft in sea water), 1/3 the surface volume, etc.

Formula: pressure (atm) x volume = new pressure x new volume

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2

2. As absolute pressure decreases on a gas, the volume will increase proportionately. For example, bring a gas volume to the surface from 2 ata the volume will be twice volume it was at depth; from 3 ata, three times the volume at depth, etc.

3. By determining ata/bar at depths, you can use this relationship to determine how much a gas volume changes in a flexible container (lift bag, BCD, balloon, etc.) when taken from one depth to another.

Formula: new volume = original ata ÷ new ata x original volume

V2 = P1 ÷ P2 x V1

Example #1: You take a gas volume of 14 litres/3 cubic feet at the surface to 30 metres/99 feet in sea water. What will the new volume be?

METRIC — Answer: 3.5 litresOriginal pressure = 1 ata (normal surface pressure)New pressure = 4 ata (30 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 3 atm; 3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata)New volume = (1 ata ÷ 4 ata) x 14 lNew volume = 3.5 l

IMPERIAL — Answer: .75 cubic feetOriginal pressure = 1 ata (normal surface pressure)New pressure = 4 ata (99 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 3 atm; 3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata)New volume = (1 ata ÷ 4 ata) x 3 ft3

New volume = .75 cubic feet

METRIC — Example #2 : You take a gas volume of 27 litres from 32 metres to 17 metres in fresh water. What will the new volume be?

METRIC — Answer: 41.8 litresDM 5 - DM 5 -

Example #2Example #2If you take a gas v olume of �

27 litres from 32 metres to 17 metres in fresh water, what will the

new volume be?�

If you take a gas v olume of �17 cubic feet from 122 feet to 58 feet in fresh water, what will the

new volume be?

If you take a gas v olume of �27 litres from 32 metres to 17

metres in fresh water, what will the new volume be? �

If you take a gas v olume of �17 cubic feet from 122 feet to 58 feet in fresh water, what will the

new volume be?2121Pressure and VolumePressure and Volume

DM 5 - DM 5 -


2020

If you take a gas v olume of �14 litres/3 cubic feet at the surface to 30 metres/99 feet sea water, what will the ne w volume be?�

If you take a gas v olume of �14 litres/3 cubic feet at the surface to 30 metres/99 feet sea water, what will the ne w volume be? �

Pressure and VolumePressure and Volume

Metric = 14 l ÷ 4 = 3.5 litres� (30 metres is 4 ata) �

Imperial = 3 ft 3 ÷ 4 = .75 ft3�

(99 feet is 4 ata)

Metric = 14 l ÷ 4 = 3.5 litres� (30 metres is 4 ata) �

Imperial = 3 ft 3 ÷ 4 = .75 ft3�

(99 feet is 4 ata)

Calculate the vol-ume changes that occur to a gas when raised or lowered in the water in a flex-ible container.


Original pressure = 4.1 ata (32 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 3.1 atm; 3.1 atm + 1 atm = 4.1 ata)New pressure= 2.65 ata (17 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 1.65 atm; 1.65 atm + 1 atm = 2.65 ata)New volume = (4.1 ata ÷ 2.65 ata) x 27 lNew volume = 41.8 litres

IMPERIAL — Example #2: You take a gas volume of 17 cubic feet from 122 feet to 58 feet in fresh water. What will the new volume be?

IMPERIAL — Answer: 29 cubic feetOriginal pressure = 4.6 ata (122 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 3.6 atm; 3.6 atm + 1 atm = 4.6 ata)New pressure = 2.7 ata (58 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 1.7 atm; 1.7 atm + 1 atm = 2.7 ata)New volume = (4.6 ata ÷ 2.7 ata) x 17 ft3

New volume = 29 cubic feet

Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as neces-sary until candidates can easily determine new volumes.

B. What is the relationship between depth and the density of the air a diver breathes?1. As volume decreases with pressure increase, air mol-

ecules squeeze closer together taking up less space, increasing the density of air within the space. For example, at 2 ata, air is 2 times denser than at the surface; at 3 ata it is 3 times denser, etc.

2. This increase in density affects the diver’s rate of air consumption because as depth and pressure increase, within each breath the diver inhales more molecules of air to fill the same lung volume. This is why the deeper the dive, the faster the diver uses air.

3. You can calculate density changes based on chang-es in absolute pressure (ata), and use the changes to determine changes in a diver’s air consumption.

4. Simplify depth-to-depth density/air consumption problems by converting to surface density first:

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Answer #2Answer #2Metric = 41.8 litres �

Imperial = 29 ft 3�

Metric = 41.8 litres �

Imperial = 29 ft 3�

2222Pressure and VolumePressure and Volume

Initial pressure – 32 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm �= 3.1 atm gaug e; add 1 atm = 4.1 ata �

Initial pressure – 122 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm �= 3.6 atm gaug e; add 1 atm = 4.6 ata �

Initial pressure – 32 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm �= 3.1 atm gaug e; add 1 atm = 4.1 ata �

Initial pressure – 122 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm �= 3.6 atm gaug e; add 1 atm = 4.6 ata �

New pressure – 17 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm �= 1.65 atm gaug e; add 1 atm = 2.65 ata �

New pressure – 58 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm �= 1.7 atm gaug e; add 1 atm = 2.7 ata �

New pressure – 17 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm �= 1.65 atm gaug e; add 1 atm = 2.65 ata �

New pressure – 58 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm �= 1.7 atm gaug e; add 1 atm = 2.7 ata �

(4.1 ata ÷ 2.65 ata) x 27 l = 41.8 l �

(4.6 ata ÷ 2.7 ata) x 17 ft 3 = 29 ft 3

(4.1 ata ÷ 2.65 ata) x 27 l = 41.8 l �

(4.6 ata ÷ 2.7 ata) x 17 ft 3 = 29 ft 3

Given a diver’s air consumption rate at one depth, calculate how that consump-tion rate changes with depth.


Example #1: A diver’s air consumption rate is 2 bar per minute (200 kPa/min)/25 psi per minute at the surface. What will the air density be at 30 metres/99 feet compared to the surface, and what will the diver’s air consumption be?

METRIC — Answer: 4 times as dense; 8 bar/min (800 kPa/min) 30 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 3 atm3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata (therefore 4 times as dense). 4 x 2 bar per min (200 kPa per min) = 8 bar per min (800 kPa per min)

IMPERIAL — Answer: 4 times as dense; 100 psi/min99 feet ÷ 33 ft/atm = 3 atm3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata (therefore 4 times as dense)4 x 25 psi/min = 100 psi/min.

Example #2: If a diver’s air consumption rate is 8 bar per minute (800 kPa/min)/100 psi per minute at 10 metres/33 feet, what will it be at 40 metres/132 feet?

METRIC — Answer: 20 bar/min (2000 kPa/min)Find surface consumption rate: 10 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 1 atm1 atm +1 atm = 2 ata8 bar/min (800 kPa/min) ÷ 2 ata = 4 bar/min surface rate (400 kPa/min)Determine rate at new depth:40 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 4 atm4 atm + 1 atm = 5 ata5 x 4 bar/min (400 kPa/min) = 20 bar/min (2000 kPa/min)

IMPERIAL — Answer: 250 psi/minFind surface consumption rate:33 feet ÷ 33 ft/atm = 1 atm1 atm + 1 atm = 2 ata100 psi/min ÷ 2 ata = 50 psi/min surface rateDetermine rate at new depth:132 feet ÷ 33 ft/atm = 4 atm4 atm+ 1 atm = 5 ata5 x 50 psi/min = 250 psi/min

Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as necessary until candidates can easily determine gas consump-tion rates.

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Example #1Example #1A diver’s air consumption rate is �2 bar/25 psi per minute at the surface . What is the diver’ s air consumption rate likely to be at 30 metres/99 feet?�

A diver’s air consumption rate is �2 bar/25 psi per minute at the surface . What is the diver’ s air consumption rate likely to be at 30 metres/99 feet?�

2424Pressure and DensityPressure and Density

Metric = 2 bar/min x 4 = 8 bar/min� (30 metres is 4 ata)�

Imperial = 25 psi/min x 4 = 100 psi/min� (99 feet is 4 ata)

Metric = 2 bar/min x 4 = 8 bar/min� (30 metres is 4 ata)�

Imperial = 25 psi/min x 4 = 100 psi/min� (99 feet is 4 ata)

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Answer #2Answer #2

Metric = 20 bar/min �Find surface rate – 8 bar/min at 2 ata �= 4 bar/min at 1 ata�

Imperial = 250 psi/min �Find surface rate – 100 psi/min at 2 ata �= 50 psi/min at 1 ata�

Metric = 20 bar/min �Find surface rate – 8 bar/min at 2 ata �= 4 bar/min at 1 ata�

Imperial = 250 psi/min �Find surface rate – 100 psi/min at 2 ata �= 50 psi/min at 1 ata�

2626Pressure and DensityPressure and Density

4 bar/min x 5 (40 m is 5 ata) = 20 bar/min�

50 psi/min x 5 (132 ft is 5 ata) = 250 psi/min

4 bar/min x 5 (40 m is 5 ata) = 20 bar/min�

50 psi/min x 5 (132 ft is 5 ata) = 250 psi/min


C. What is the relationship of pressure, volume and temperature with a gas in a flexible con-tainer and with a gas in an inflexible contain-er?1. Heat is the energy of molecular motion, therefore,

if you heat gases in a nonflexible container and the volume remains unchanged (as in a scuba tank), the molecules move more rapidly.

2. This causes molecules to impact the interior of the container with more force – thereby increasing the pressure.

3. Cooling means the molecules lose heat and slow down, reducing their impact and decreasing the pressure.

4. Pressure changes are calculated using absolute temperature, but for diving purposes, as a rule of thumb with scuba cylinders, the pressure change is 0.6 bar per 1° C/5 psi per 1° F.

Example: A scuba tank is filled to 200 bar/3000 psi at 20° C/70° F. What would happen to the pressure in that tank if it were put into a freezer at 0° C/32° F?

METRIC — Answer: The pressure would drop to 188 bar.20° C - 0° C = 20° C change20° C x .6 bar = 12 bar200 bar - 12 bar = 188 bar

IMPERIAL — Answer: 2810 psi70° F - 32° F = 38° F change38° F x 5 psi = 190 psi3000 psi - 190 psi = 2810 psi

D. Gas pressure, volume and temperature are interre-lated. For a given quantity of gas, if you change one, either or both of the others must change proportion-ately.1. You can predict diving-related changes to gas pres-

sure, volume and temperature.2. If you increase pressure by adding gas to a fixed

volume, the temperature will rise (such as a scuba tank being filled).

3. If you decrease pressure by releasing gas from a fixed volume, the temperature will fall. This ex-plains why a tank cools when you let the air out

DM 5 - DM 5 - 2727

What is the relationship �of pressure, volume and

temperature with gas in both flexible and inflexible containers?

What is the relationship �of pressure, volume and

temperature with gas in both flexible and inflexible containers?

Heat is the energy of molecule motion

Heat is the energy of molecule motion

BEFOREBEFORE

AFTER HEAT ADDED

AFTER HEAT ADDED

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Pressure and TemperaturePressure and Temperature

2828

■ As general rule of thumb, the pressure change is 0.6 bar per 1°C/5 psi per 1°F�

■ As general rule of thumb, the pressure change is 0.6 bar per 1°C/5 psi per 1°F�

■ Example: �If a scuba tank is filled to 200 bar/3000 psi at 20°C/70°F then placed in a freezer at 0°C/32°F, what is the likely new pressure?

■ Example: �If a scuba tank is filled to 200 bar/3000 psi at 20°C/70°F then placed in a freezer at 0°C/32°F, what is the likely new pressure?

DM 5 - DM 5 -

AnswerAnswerMetric = 188 bar �

Imperial = 2810 psi �

Metric = 188 bar �

Imperial = 2810 psi �

2929Pressure and TemperaturePressure and Temperature

20°C - 0°C = 20° c hange�

70°F - 32°F = 38° c hange�

20°C - 0°C = 20° c hange�

70°F - 32°F = 38° c hange�

20 x 0.6 bar = 12 bar �

38 x 5 psi = 190 psi �

20 x 0.6 bar = 12 bar �

38 x 5 psi = 190 psi �

200 bar - 12 bar = 188 bar �

3000 psi - 190 psi = 2810 psi

200 bar - 12 bar = 188 bar �

3000 psi - 190 psi = 2810 psi


rapidly, and why manufacturers recommend special modifications so that regulators won’t freeze when ice diving.

V. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Partial PressuresA. What is partial pressure?

1. In a mixture of gases, such as air, each gas exerts its individual pressure independent of other gases in the mixture (Dalton’s Law). The independent pres-sure of a gas is its partial pressure – that is, the part of the pressure exerted by the gas.

B. If you take a gas mixture underwater (the air you breathe, for example), the pressure increases with depth. The partial pressure of each gas in the mix also increases proportionately to its fraction in the mix.

1. You can easily deter-mine partial pressure by multiplying the gas percentage in the mix-ture by the total abso-lute pressure.

Example: What is the partial pressure of oxygen in air at a depth of 40 m/132 ft?

Answer: Oxygen partial pressure (abbreviated “PO2”) = 1.05 ataThe absolute pressure is 5 ata 40 m ÷ 10 atm/m = 4 atm / 132 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 4 atm4 atm + 1 atm = 5 ataAir consists of 21% oxygen. 5 ata x .21 = 1.05 ata.

Example: What is the partial pressure of oxygen when breathing 100% oxygen at the surface?

Answer: PO2 = 1.0 ata. The absolute pressure is 1 ata. The gas is 100% oxygen. 1 ata x 1.00 = 1 ata. (This illustrates that with a pure gas, the absolute pressure and the partial pressure are the same.)

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Behavior of Gases UnderwaterBehavior of Gases Underwater

3030

■ What is partial pressure?�■ What is partial pressure?�◆ In a gas mixture , each gas exerts its

individual pressure independent �of other gases in the mixture

◆ In a gas mixture , each gas exerts its individual pressure independent �of other gases in the mixture

O

O

O

PARTIAL PRESSURE �OF OXYGEN

(21%)

PARTIAL PRESSURE �OF OXYGEN

(21%)

++

N N NNN NNN N

N N

N

PARTIAL PRESSURE �

OF NITR OGEN�

(79%)

PARTIAL PRESSURE �

OF NITR OGEN �

(79%)

==

NN

NNN NNN N

N N

NO

O OTOTAL

PRESSURE OF AIR�

(100%)

TOTAL PRESSURE

OF AIR �(100%)

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Partial PressurePartial Pressure■ What is the partial pressure of

oxygen (in atmospheres) at 40 metres/132 feet?�

■ What is the partial pressure of oxygen (in atmospheres) at 40 metres/132 feet?�

3131

◆ PO2 = 5 ata x .21 = 1.05 ata �◆ PO

2 = 5 ata x .21 = 1.05 ata �

■ The body responds to a gas �based on its par tial pressure — �the higher the par tial pressure , �the greater the potential physiological eff ect

■ The body responds to a gas �based on its par tial pressure — �the higher the par tial pressure , �the greater the potential physiological eff ect

Given their percent-ages, calculate the partial pressures of gases in a mixture at any depth.


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ExampleExampleAn air mixture has 0.5% carbon monoxide. Breathing this air at 40 metres/132 feet would be the equivalent of breathing what percent at the surface?�

An air mixture has 0.5% carbon monoxide. Breathing this air at 40 metres/132 feet would be the equivalent of breathing what percent at the surface?�

3232Partial PressurePartial Pressure

Answer = 2.5%�5 ata x .005 = .025; 2.5% surface equivalency�

NOTE: This level of CO is considered toxic

Answer = 2.5%�5 ata x .005 = .025; 2.5% surface equivalency�

NOTE: This level of CO is considered toxic

C. How does the physiological effect of breathing a given percentage of gas at depth compare to breathing the same percentage of the gas at the surface?1. The body responds to a gas you breathe based on its

partial pressure – not on the percentage of the gas in the mix. This means that as pressure increases, the physiological effect increases.

2. The increased partial pressure of nitrogen (also called “PN2”) causes nitrogen narcosis.

3. The increased partial pressure of oxygen can cause oxygen toxicity (more of a concern when diving with enriched air nitrox than with air within recre-ational limits).

4. The body’s response to partial pressure is important regarding contaminated air because contamination levels that are harmless at the surface may become toxic under elevated partial pressures at depth.

5. In the previous examples, the physiological effect of oxygen from breathing air (21% oxygen) at 40 m/132 feet (PO2 = 1.05 ata) is approximately the same as breathing 100% oxygen at the surface (PO2 = 1.0 ata)

D. Surface equivalency is the fraction of a gas you would have to breathe at the surface to produce the same ef-fect at a particular depth. To find surface equivalency,

use the gas partial pressure at depth as the fraction of the gas at the surface.1. Note that if the partial pressure at depth exceeds 1.0 ata, there can be no surface equivalency because the partial

pressure would exceed the total pressure available at the surface (1.0 ata).

Example: An air mixture has .5% carbon monoxide (CO). Breathing it at 40 metres/132 feet would be the equivalent of breathing what percent at the surface?

For a given percentage of a gas in mixture, and the depth at which a diver breathes that gas, calcu-late the percentage of the gas that would produce the same physiological effects on a diver at the surface.


DM 5 - DM 5 -

Absorption and EliminationAbsorption and Elimination

3333

■ What happens when y ou raise �the pressure of gas in contact �with a liquid?�

■ What happens when y ou raise �the pressure of gas in contact �with a liquid? �◆ More gas dissolves into the liquid �◆ More gas dissolves into the liquid �◆ Equilibrium or saturation is �

reached eventually�◆ Equilibrium or saturation is �

reached eventually�

■ What is supersaturation ?�■ What is supersaturation ?�◆ Gas pressure within a liquid is

greater than the pressure of gas in contact with the liquid

◆ Gas pressure within a liquid is greater than the pressure of gas in contact with the liquid

Answer: 2.5%. (this level of CO would be considered toxic).Absolute pressure = 5 ata 40m ÷ 10 m/atm = 4 atm / 132 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 4 atm4 atm + 1 atm = 5 ata5 ata x .005 = .025 partial pressure.025 = 2.5% surface equivalency

Example: Central nervous system (CNS) oxygen toxicity is only expected with oxygen partial pressures above 1.4 ata. Would CNS toxicity ever be likely breathing any gas mix-ture with oxygen at the surface?

Answer: No. The highest fraction of oxygen you can have is 100%. Breathing 100% oxygen at the surface is a PO2 of 1.0 ata. – the highest partial pressure you can have at the surface. Therefore, you cannot reach the 1.4 ata required for CNS toxicity.

VI. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Gas Absorption and EliminationA. What happens when you raise the pressure of a

gas in contact with a liquid?1. Gases in contact with a liquid dissolve into the liq-

uid proportionately to the pressure. 2. If the pressure increases, more gas dissolves into the

liquid. 3. If the pressure decreases, the gas dissolves out of the

liquid (Henry’s Law). Carbonated beverages are a good example of this.

4. Because the human body is comprised mainly of water, this is the principle underlying decompres-sion sickness and the basis for dive tables/comput-ers.

B. Gases dissolved in a liquid still exert pressure, which is referred to as gas tension.

C. Gas does not dissolve instantly into or out of a liquid when the pressure changes. 1. It does so gradually over a period that depends on

the liquid, the gas, and the contact area between the gas and the liquid.

2. Eventually, however, the pressure of the gas dis-solved within the liquid will become equal to the pressure of the gas in contact with it and no more


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What happens when you quickly reduce the

pressure on a liquid that is saturated?

What happens when you quickly reduce the

pressure on a liquid that is saturated?

3434Absorption and Elimina tionAbsorption and Elimina tion

gas will dissolve in or out. This equilibrium is re-ferred to as saturation.

3. If the gas pressure in contact increases (such as when a diver descends), then the liquid will now be capable of holding even more gas than before. Gas exchange will continue as before until the new level of equilibrium is achieved.

D. What is supersaturation? 1. If the pressure in contact with the liquid is reduced

(as when a diver ascends), gas tension within the liq-uid will be greater than the pressure in contact with the liquid.

2. The liquid is then referred to as supersaturated. It will gradually be less supersaturated as the gas dissolves out of the liquid and equilibrium returns.

E. What happens when you quickly reduce the pressure on a liquid that is saturated with dis-solved gas at a higher pressure? 1. A liquid can have a moderate degree of supersatu-

ration and still hold gas in solution. If a pressure reduction takes place gradually, then the gas will dissolve out of the liquid without forming bubbles.

2. If the pressure reduction is too great causing an excessive supersaturation, the gas within the liquid cannot remain in solution and bubbles form.

3. This phenomenon explains the basic mechanism of decompression sickness and why the condition can-not occur until the diver leaves depth, or reduces the pressure in contact with the blood.

4. Dive tables/computers help the diver control the supersaturation to avoid bubble formation. [Explain that candidates will learn more about this in Topic 6, the Physiology of Diving.]


DM 6 - DM 6 -

OverviewOverview■ Circulatory and Respiratory Systems�■ Circulatory and Respiratory Systems�

22

◆ Diving Problems with These Systems�◆ Diving Problems with These Systems�

■ Physiological Responses�■ Physiological Responses�◆ Nitrogen�◆ Nitrogen�

◆ Thermal Changes�◆ Thermal Changes�

◆ Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces�◆ Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces�

■ Problems in Body Air Spaces■ Problems in Body Air Spaces

Topic 6 - The Physiology of Diving

Recommended Materials and Methods for Covering this TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about diving physi-ology is to have candidates read the Physiology of Diving section of The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and complete the physiology section in the Diving Knowledge Workbook. Have them consult the related objectives in the Appendix of the PADI Divemaster Manual to be sure they can meet all the performance requirements.After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a group. Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook, then an-swer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and review the material, based on how they complete their workbooks. Use the presentation outline as a guide for a complete review.If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Workbook don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can develop knowl-edge by giving the following presentation in detail.

Presentation Overview and Learning Objectives I. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems 1. What are the primary purposes of the respiratory

and circulatory systems?

2. What are the organs, structure and functions of the circulatory and respiratory systems?

3. What is dead air space, and how do you avoid prob-lems caused by it?

4. How does the body respond when breath-hold div-ing, and how can you extend breath-hold time?

II. Diving Problems with Circulatory and Respiratory Systems 5. What is carotid-sinus reflex, and how do you avoid

it?

6. What is hypercapnia, and how do you avoid it?

7. What are hypocapnia and shallow water blackout, and how do you avoid them?

8. What are the physiological effects of carbon mon-oxide while diving, and how do you avoid them?

9. What are the two types of oxygen toxicity, and how do you avoid them?


III. Physiological Responses to Nitrogen 10. What are the physiological mechanisms by which

the body absorbs and releases nitrogen (or other inert gases) while diving?

11. What are silent bubbles, and how do they relate to decompression?

12. What causes decompression sickness (DCS), and what are the two types?

13. What is meant by decompression illness (DCI) ver-sus decompression sickness?

14. What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?

15. What are the recommendations and physiological rationales for DCS first aid and treatment?

16. What causes nitrogen narcosis, at approximately what depth is it likely, and what are common signs and symptoms of it?

IV. Physiological Responses to Thermal Changes 17. How does the body respond to excess heat?

18. What causes heat exhaustion and heat stroke, and how do they differ physiologically?

19. How does the body respond to insufficient heat?

20. What causes hypothermia, and what happens physiologically when it occurs?

V. Physiological Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

21. What are the basic functions, organs and structure of the ears and sinuses?

22. How do the ears and sinuses respond to changing pressure?

23. How do the lungs respond to changing pressure?

VI. Problems in Body Air Spaces 24. What are barotrauma and squeeze?

25. What are the causes and physiologies of eardrum rupture, middle ear squeeze, reverse squeeze, ear plug problems, round window rupture and sinus squeeze?

26. What is vertigo, and what may cause it while diving?

27. What is the cause and physiology of lung squeeze?

28. What are the causes and physiologies of the lung overexpansion injuries: air embolism, pneumotho-rax, mediastinal emphysema and subcutaneous emphysema?


29. What are the recommendations and physiological rationales for lung overexpansion injury first aid and treatment?

30. What are the cause and physiology of mask and dry suit squeezes?

Outline I. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

A. What are the primary purposes of the respira-tory and circulatory systems?1. The primary, most urgent purpose of these systems

is to supply body tissues oxygen and to remove and eliminate waste carbon dioxide.

2. The process of using oxygen is oxidative metabolism.3. Oxidative metabolism turns chemical energy into

usable energy to support life.B. What are the organs, structure and functions of

the circulatory and respiratory systems?1. Circulatory System

a. Blood: red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the plasma (liquid portion of blood) carry oxygen to the tis-sues via hemoglobin, a protein that easily bonds and unbonds with oxygen. Plasma carries carbon dioxide away from tissues.

b. Cardiovascular system - heart, arteries, capillaries and veins1. The heart is a four chamber organic pump that

circulates blood.2. Arteries carry blood away from heart.3. Veins carry blood toward heart.4. Capillaries are microscopic vessels between

arteries and veins; gas exchange occurs in the capillaries.

2. Respiratory system structure and functionsa. What triggers the breathing cycle?

1. Reflex respiratory centers in the brain monitor carbon dioxide levels in body.

2. When carbon dioxide rises, they signal the dia-phragm, a large muscle below the lungs, to flex downward, causing lower internal pressure.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Circulation and Respiration�

�

Circulation and Respiration�

�

33

What are the purposes, structure and functions of

the respiratory and circulatory syst ems?

What are the purposes, structure and functions of

the respiratory and circulatory syst ems?

DM 6 - DM 6 -

PurposesPurposes

44

■ Supply tissues with oxygen �and remove and eliminate �carbon dioxide�

■ Supply tissues with oxygen �and remove and eliminate �carbon dioxide�

Circulation and Respir ationCirculation and Respir ation

■ What is oxidative metabolism? �■ What is oxidative metabolism? �— the process of turning chemical energy into usable energy— the process of turning chemical energy into usable energy

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Structure and F unction�— Circulatory

Structure and F unction�— Circulatory

55Circulation and Respir ationCirculation and Respir ation

Plasma�Red Bloo d Cells�

Hemoglo bin

Plasma�Red Bloo d Cells�

Hemoglo bin

Oxygen carried

to tissues

Oxygen carried

to tissues

Carbon dioxidecarried

away from

tissues

Carbon dioxidecarried

away from

tissues

DM 6 - DM 6 - 66Circulation and Respir ationCirculation and Respir ation

Cardiovascular Syst emCardiovascular Syst em■ Heart – a four chamber pump �

that circulates blood�■ Heart – a four chamber pump �

that circulates blood�■ Arteries carry blood away �

from the heart�■ Arteries carry blood away �

from the heart�■ Veins carry blood toward heart�■ Veins carry blood toward heart�

■ Capillaries – microscopic vessels between arteries and veins where gas exchange occurs

■ Capillaries – microscopic vessels between arteries and veins where gas exchange occurs

DM 6 - DM 6 - Circulation and Respir ationCirculation and Respir ation

Respiratory Syst emRespiratory Syst em■ What triggers the breathing cycle?�■ What triggers the breathing cycle?�

77

◆ Reflex respiratory centers in the brain monitor the body ’s carbon dioxide level�

◆ Reflex respiratory centers in the brain monitor the body ’s carbon dioxide level�

◆ When CO2 rises, diaphragm is

signalled to f lex downw ard

◆ When CO2 rises, diaphragm is

signalled to f lex downw ard


3. Air enters through sinuses and mouth past the epiglottis into the trachea (windpipe), which branches into the bronchi leading into lungs.

4. Bronchi divide into smaller and smaller bron-chi until reaching tiny alveoli, which are air sacs surrounded by the pulmonary capillaries. It is here that the blood releases carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen.

B. Path of blood flow through circulatory and respiratory systems.1. Oxygen-rich blood from lungs enters left heart;

heart pumps the blood into the aorta, the body’s largest artery.

2. The aorta branches into smaller arteries, including the carotid arteries that supply the brain. Arteries branch to smaller arteries throughout the body un-til reaching the capillaries.

3. Blood gives up oxygen and picks up carbon diox-ide in capillaries and flows into the venous system (veins).

4. Veins branch into larger and larger veins until a single vein returns oxygen-poor blood to the right heart.

5. The heart pumps oxygen poor blood to lungs via the pulmonary arteries.

6. Pulmonary arteries branch into pulmonary capillaries that surround lung alveoli. The blood releases car-bon dioxide into alveoli to be exhaled and picks up oxygen.

7. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left heart via pul-monary veins to begin another cycle.

C. What is dead air space, and how do you avoid problems caused by it?1. The portion of tidal volume (volume breathed in and

out on each breath) that plays no part in gas ex-change - volume in bronchi, trachea, mouth/sinuses.

2. Dead air space is rebreathed - increases carbon di-oxide.

3. Equipment increases dead air space (snorkel/regula-tor) and therefore further increases carbon dioxide rebreathed.

4. In shallow breathing, dead air space is propor-tionately high in tidal volume and carbon dioxide levels rise, stimulating a higher breathing rate.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is dead air space, and how do you avoid problems caused by it?

What is dead air space, and how do you avoid problems caused by it?


■ Tidal volume – does not pla y �a part in gas exchange�

■ Tidal volume – does not pla y �a part in gas exchange�

■ Shallow br eathing – CO 2 level increases, breathing rate increases�

■ Shallow br eathing – CO 2 level increases, breathing rate increases �

■ Avoid problem by deep, �normal br eathing

■ Avoid problem by deep, �normal br eathing


a. If breathing remains shallow, breathing rate will continue to increase.

b. Rapid breathing requires more effort to overcome air resistance and this raises carbon dioxide levels further.

c. May lead to hypercapnia (discussed shortly).5. In deep, normal breathing, dead air space is propor-

tionately lower in tidal volume and carbon dioxide levels fall.a. Breathing rate remains normal.b. Avoid dead air space problems by breathing slowly

with deep, normal breaths.D. How does the body respond when breath-hold

diving, and how can you extend breath-hold time?1. During apnea (breath holding) the circulatory system

uses oxygen stored in the lungs, muscles and blood to supply tissues.a. In cool water, bradycardia (slowing of the heart)

reduces circulation speed, though doesn’t appear to reduce oxygen consumption in humans (it does in marine mammals).

2. Accumulating carbon dioxide creates urges to breathe and eventually it is too great to ignore, forcing the diver to surface and breathe.

3. You can increase breath hold time by first hyperven-tilating (breathing deeply and rapidly) three or four times. Doing so reduces circulatory carbon dioxide so it takes longer to accumulate enough to stimulate breathing. Excessive hyperventilation may lead to shallow water blackout, as discussed shortly.

II. Diving Problems with Circulatory and Respiratory SystemsA. What is carotid-sinus reflex, and how do you

avoid it?1. Carotid sinus receptors monitor pressure of arterial

blood reaching brain through carotid arteries.2. Low blood pressure triggers a higher heart rate, and

high blood pressure triggers a lower heart rate.3. Receptors interpret pressure from an excessively tight

hood or wet suit constricting neck as high blood pres-sure.

4. The heart rate slows, reducing blood flow to the brain, but pressure remains, causing yet slower heart rate.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What happens during a breath hold dive?What happens during a breath hold dive?


■ During apnea , the body uses oxygen stored in the lungs, muscles and blood�

■ During apnea , the body uses oxygen stored in the lungs, muscles and blood�

■ Accumulating CO2 creates the

urge to breathe�■ Accumulating CO

2 creates the

urge to breathe�■ Hyperventilation can increase

breath hold time■ Hyperventilation can increase

breath hold time

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Diving Problems��

Diving Problems ��


What is carotid �sinus reflex?�

�

What is carotid �sinus reflex?�

�Do not wear an excessively

tight hood, wet suit or �dry suit neck seal

Do not wear an excessively tight hood, wet suit or �

dry suit neck seal


5. The diver feels uncomfortable and light-headed, but may lose consciousness if constriction continues un-relieved.

6. Avoid by not wearing excessively tight hoods, wet suits or dry suit neck seals.

B. What is hypercapnia, and how do you avoid it?1. Hypercapnia is excessive carbon dioxide.2. It’s caused by dead air space, skip breathing (hold-

ing the breath periodically), shallow rapid breath-ing, overexertion or a combination of these. In very rare cases, air supply may be high in carbon diox-ide.

3. Causes headache and increased breathing. In severe cases, confusion and loss of consciousness.

4. If involving overexertion, increased work of breath-ing can increase carbon dioxide, leading to even greater breathing demand - cycle stops when diver stops all activity and rests.

5. Avoid by breathing deeply and normally, not skip breathing, and by avoiding overexertion.

C. What are hypocapnia and shallow water black-out, and how do you avoid them?1. Hypocapnia is insufficient carbon dioxide.2. Too little carbon dioxide may interrupt normal

breathing cycle because carbon dioxide stimulates breathing.

3. May be caused by hyperventilation due to stress or fright while scuba diving - causes light-headedness.

4. Primarily a concern with breath-hold diving and excessive hyperventilation (more than three or four breaths)- causes shallow water blackout.a. Diver excessively depletes carbon dioxide by hy-

perventilating excessively.b. At depth, diver’s body consumes oxygen faster

than carbon dioxide accumulates to stimulate breathing.

c. Depleted oxygen causes no problem at depth be-cause high partial pressure allows hemoglobin to bond with remaining supply.

d. Diver ascends, the partial pressure drops and he-moglobin can no longer bond with oxygen; diver blacks out without warning due to hypoxia - insuf-ficient oxygen.

DM 6 - DM 6 - Circulation and Respir ationCirculation and Respir ation

Carbon DioxideCarbon Dioxide■ What is hypercapnia ?�■ What is hypercapnia ?�

1313

◆ Excessive CO2�

◆ Caused by skip breathing, rapid �shallow breathing, overexertion, etc.�

◆ May cause to headache, confusion, �loss of consciousness�

◆ Excessive CO2

�

◆ Caused by skip breathing, rapid �shallow breathing, overexertion, etc.�

◆ May cause to headache, confusion, �loss of consciousness�

■ What is hypocapnia ?�■ What is hypocapnia ?�◆ Insufficient CO

2�

◆ Caused by hyperventilation�◆ May cause shallow water blackout

◆ Insufficient CO2

�

◆ Caused by hyperventilation�◆ May cause shallow water blackout


D. What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide while diving, and how do you avoid them?1. It’s caused by contaminated air from using wrong

lubricants or improper compressor system mainte-nance (fortunately now very rare) Smoking is an-other source of carbon monoxide.a. Carbon monoxide bonds with hemoglobin more

readily than oxygen, but doesn’t release as easily.b. Breathing air contaminated with carbon mon-

oxide at depth, hemoglobin carries less and less oxygen as carbon monoxide bonds with it.

c. However, at depth blood still carries sufficient oxygen dissolved in plasma by high partial pres-sures to meet tissue demands.

d. When diver surfaces, plasma no longer can carry enough dissolved oxygen - diver blacks out from hypoxia.

2. Symptoms and signs (when they do occur) include headache, confusion, narrow vision, bright red lips/nails (not easily observed underwater).a. Symptoms of mild cases subside after several

hours of fresh air.b. Severe cases - give the diver pure oxygen and con-

tact emergency medical care.3. Avoid by getting air only from reputable air fill sta-

tions.E. What are the two types of oxygen toxicity, and

how do you avoid them?1. It’s nearly impossible to suffer oxygen toxicity using

air within recreational diving limits (40 m/130 ft or less, no stop diving).

2. Using enriched air nitrox (EANx), you can have oxy-gen toxicity.

3. Two types of oxygen toxicitya. Central nervous system (CNS) toxicity

1. Caused by exposure to oxygen partial pres-sures greater than approximately 1.4 ata (using EANx32 below 33 metres/110 feet, or EANx36 below 29 metres/95 feet, or pure oxy-gen below 4 metres/13 feet) to 1.6 ata.

2. Symptoms and signs include visual distur-bances, ear ringing, nausea, twitching muscles, irritability and dizziness.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What are the physiolog ical effects of carbon mono xide while diving?

What are the physiolog ical effects of carbon mono xide while diving?


■ CO bonds with hemoglobin more readily than oxygen�

■ CO bonds with hemoglobin more readily than oxygen�

■ May cause hypoxia = black out�■ May cause hypoxia = black out�

■ Use only air from reputable �fill stations

■ Use only air from reputable �fill stations

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What are the two types of oxygen toxicity?What are the two types of oxygen toxicity?


■ Central nervous system (CNS) �◆ Exposure to PPO g reater �

than 1.4 a ta�

■ Central nervous system (CNS) �◆ Exposure to PPO g reater �

than 1.4 a ta�

■ Pulmonary toxicity �◆ Continuous exposure to

elevated PPO

■ Pulmonary toxicity �◆ Continuous exposure to

elevated PPO


3. Most serious symptom/sign is a convulsion - usually without warning. Convulsions are not harmful themselves, but may cause diver to lose mouthpiece and drown.

4. Avoid by not exceeding a partial pressure of 1.4 ata. [Remind candidates that enriched air diving requires special training, much of which covers CNS concerns in more detail.]

b. Pulmonary toxicity1. Caused by continuous exposure to elevated

oxygen partial pressure.2. Most likely in recreational diving only follow-

ing multiple dives using enriched air.3. Symptoms and signs include burning in the

chest and irritated cough.4. Usually resolves itself by ceasing diving for sev-

eral days.5. Not considered immediately life threatening or

hazardous.6. Avoid by following oxygen exposure limits of

NOAA and DSAT Oxygen Exposure Table. [Tell candidates that enriched air training covers pulmonary toxicity and using tables to avoid it in more detail.]

III. Physiological Responses to NitrogenA. What are the physiological mechanisms by

which the body absorbs and releases nitrogen (or other inert gases) while diving?1. Gases dissolve into liquids proportionately to the

pressure. This is the basis for decompression.2. The human body is primarily water, so when ex-

posed to pressure (as in diving), more nitrogen from the air we breathe goes into solution in body tissues.a. Oxygen is consumed metabolically, but nitrogen

gas is physiologically inert and is therefore a con-cern.

b. Other inert gases, such as helium, will dissolve into body tissues when breathing special mixes in nonrecreational diving.

c. Nitrogen pressure is higher in alveolar air than in the blood, so nitrogen dissolves into blood, then from the blood to the tissues.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Nitrogen Absorption and Elimination�

�

Nitrogen Absorption and Elimination �

�

1616

What are the physiolog ical mechanisms by which �the body absorbs and

releases nitrogen?

What are the physiolog ical mechanisms by which �the body absorbs and

releases nitrogen?

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Physiolog ical ResponsesPhysiolog ical Responses

1717NitrogenNitrogen

■ Gases dissolve into liquids proportionately to the pressure�

■ Gases dissolve into liquids proportionately to the pressure�

■ While diving, nitrogen goes into solution in body tissues�

■ While diving, nitrogen goes into solution in body tissues�

■ Different tissues absorb and release nitrogen at different rates

■ Different tissues absorb and release nitrogen at different rates

continued...continued...


d. Dissolved gas still exerts pressure. The pressure of gas dissolved in the body is called tissue pressure.

3. Different tissues absorb (and release) nitrogen at dif-ferent rates. Given enough time at depth, the body saturates by reaching equilibrium, meaning it has absorbed all the nitrogen possible at that pressure.a. Calculating different tissue absorption and re-

lease is the foundation of decompression models.4. Most dives are too short to reach saturation. The

amount of nitrogen absorbed relates directly to the depth (pressure) and time of the dive.

5. Upon ascent after a dive, nitrogen pressure in tissues is higher than surrounding pressure. This is called supersaturation.

6. With higher tissue pressures, nitrogen pressure in blood exceeds pressure in alveolar air; nitrogen dis-solves from blood and is exhaled. This lowers blood tissue pressure, so nitrogen dissolves from body tis-sues into blood.

7. If difference between surrounding pressure and tis-sue pressure (the pressure gradient) is within limits, the nitrogen dissolves harmlessly out of the body.a. Most nitrogen remains within solution and dis-

solves out slowly.

8. What are silent bubbles, and how do they re-late to decompression?a. According to theory, some nitrogen dissolves into

microscopic gas pockets in the body and form tiny bubbles that are trapped by the pulmonary capillaries in the lungs; these then diffuse harm-lessly into alveolar air.

b. Doppler ultrasound flow meters detect silent bubbles after some dives, especially those close to table/computer limits - these are larger bubbles than the tiny bubbles theorized to form after most dives, but are still harmless.

B. What causes decompression sickness (DCS)?1. If tissue pressure exceeds surrounding pressure ex-

cessively, nitrogen comes out of solution faster than the body can eliminate it harmlessly - bubbles form in the tissues.a. Small bubbles accumulate to form larger bubbles.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What causes �decompression sickness? �

��

What causes �decompression sickness? �

��


Symptoms de pend on amount and loca tion of

bubble formation

Symptoms de pend on amount and loca tion of

bubble formation

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Physiological Responses...Physiological Responses...■ Most dives are too short �

to reach saturation�■ Most dives are too short �

to reach saturation�


■ Upon ascent, higher nitrogen pressure in tissues results in nitrogen dissolving out of the body�

■ Upon ascent, higher nitrogen pressure in tissues results in nitrogen dissolving out of the body�

■ If pressure gradient is within limits, elimination is harmless

■ If pressure gradient is within limits, elimination is harmless

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What are silent bubbles ?What are silent bubbles ?■ Some excess nitrogen dissolves

into microscopic gas pockets forming tiny bubbles�

■ Some excess nitrogen dissolves into microscopic gas pockets forming tiny bubbles�


■ Tiny bubbles may �lead to larger, but �still harmless silent bubbles �

■ Tiny bubbles may �lead to larger, but �still harmless silent bubbles �

■ Silent bubbles are detectable by Doppler ultrasound flow meters

■ Silent bubbles are detectable by Doppler ultrasound flow meters


b. Larger bubbles cause decompression sickness (DCS), a.k.a. “the bends.”

c. DCS types and symptoms depend on amount of bubble formation and where the bubbles end up in the body.

What is meant by decompression illness (DCI) ver-sus decompression sickness?Decompression illness (DCI) is a blanket term for DCS and lung overexpansion injuries used in describing first aid and treatment, which is identical for both conditions. However, it’s improper to interchange “DCI” with “DCS” when talk-ing about the specific condition caused by dissolved nitro-gen coming out of solution.

C. What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?1. Fat tissue: fat releases nitrogen slowly. A diver with

a disproportionate amount of body fat may have more nitrogen in solution after a dive.

2. Age: as we age, our circulatory systems become less efficient, reducing speed of gas exchange.

3. Dehydration: reduces blood in circulation, slowing nitrogen elimination.

4. Injuries/illness: may alter or restrict circulation lead-ing to localized areas where nitrogen isn’t eliminat-ed quickly.

5. Alcohol before or after diving: alters circulation patterns, dilates capillaries and promotes dehydra-tion, all of which can alter nitrogen elimination and bubble formation.

6. Carbon dioxide excess: skip breathing may raise carbon dioxide levels altering circulation and gas exchange.

7. Cold water: diver starts warm with normal circula-tion, but circulation to extremities reduces as diver cools, slowing nitrogen elimination from those ar-eas.

8. Heavy exercise: during dive accelerates circulation so more nitrogen than normal dissolves into body. After a dive, exercise accelerates circulation altering nitrogen elimination.

9. Altitude/flying: dive tables/computers are based on surfacing at sea level, thus exposure to lower pres-sure increases the tissue pressure gradient and may

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Decompression Illness (DCI) vs. �

Decompression Sickness (DC S)

Decompression Illness (DCI) vs. �

Decompression Sickness (DC S)

2121

■ DCI — refers to both decompr ession sickness and lung o verexpansion injuries (emergency first aid is the same for both) �

■ DCS — refers specif ically to conditions caused b y nitrogen coming out of solution in the body

■ DCI — refers to both decompr ession sickness and lung o verexpansion injuries (emergency first aid is the same for both) �

■ DCS — refers specif ically to conditions caused b y nitrogen coming out of solution in the body

NitrogenNitrogen

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What factors predispose a diver to DCS?What factors predispose a diver to DCS?


■ Body fat�■ Body fat�

■ Age�■ Age�

■ Dehydration�■ Dehydration�

■ Injuries/Illness�■ Injuries/Illness�

■ Alcohol■ Alcohol

■ Excess CO2�■ Excess CO

2�

■ Cold water�■ Cold water�

■ Heavy exercise�■ Heavy exercise�

■ Altitude/Flying■ Altitude/Flying


cause large bubbles to form - returning to sea level doesn’t usually alleviate the bubbles once formed.

D. What are the two types of decompression sick-ness?1. Type I - identified as “pain only” DCS.

a. Limb pain most common - may be midlimb or joints; first or second symptom noted in 60 per-cent of cases.

b. Cutaneous DCS (“skin bends”) - red rashes/patch-es usually on shoulders/upper chest.

2. Type II - identified as having life threatening or immediately injurious symptoms; involves brain, nervous system, lungs.a. numbness and/or tinglingb. paralysisc. weakness/fatigued. unconsciousness and death

E. What are the recommendations and physiologi-cal rationales for DCS first aid and treatment?1. Treat all DCS as serious, even pain only.2. Give patient oxygen (preferably 100 percent).

a. Lowers alveolar nitrogen to accelerate elimina-tion from tissues.

b. Raises blood oxygen levels to assist tissues with blood flow reduced by bubble blockage.

3. Keep a breathing patient lying level on left side, head supported (recovery position).a. Helps keep airway clear if patient vomits.b. Lying level helps ensure blood flow to brain. c. Advise patient not to sit up, even during trans-

port or if feeling better.4. Lay nonbreathing patient on back for rescue breath-

ing/CPR.5. Monitor airway, breathing, circulation, and contact

emergency medical care.6. Elevating the patient’s feet (modified Trendelenburg

position) is no longer recommended.F. DCS treatment

1. Except isolated cutaneous DCS, treatment usually requires putting patient under pressure in a recom-pression chamber.

2. Recompression reduces bubbles in body to small size

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What are the two types of DCS?What are the two types of DCS?


■ Type 1 – “Pain Only”�◆ Limb and joint pain �◆ Cutaneous - sk in rash�

■ Type 1 – “Pain Only”�◆ Limb and joint pain �◆ Cutaneous - sk in rash�

■ Type 2 – Neurological�◆ Numbness and/or ting ling�◆ Paralysis�◆ Weakness/f atigue�◆ Unconsciousness

■ Type 2 – Neurological�◆ Numbness and/or ting ling�◆ Paralysis�◆ Weakness/f atigue �◆ Unconsciousness

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is the treatment for DCS?What is the treatment for DCS?


■ Recompression in a chamber�◆ Long slow decompr ession with

oxygen and dr ug therapy�

■ Recompression in a chamber�◆ Long slow decompr ession with

oxygen and dr ug therapy�

■ The sooner recompression begins, the more likely patient will recover without permanent injury

■ The sooner recompression begins, the more likely patient will recover without permanent injury


and forces them back into solution - often alleviates symptoms immediately.

3. Treatment involves a long slow decompression with oxygen and drug therapy.a. Duration and need for drugs/oxygen makes at-

tempting recompression in water inadvisable in vast majority of circumstances.

4. The sooner recompression begins, the more likely the patient will recover without permanent injury - don’t delay obtaining medical care. Patients some-times don’t want to believe they’re suffering from DCI and object to seeing a doctor - as appropriate, strongly urge patients to allow medical examination by emergency medical care.

G. What causes nitrogen narcosis, at approximate-ly what depth is it likely, and what are common signs and symptoms of it?1. Almost any gas can cause an anesthetic (narcotic)

effect under pressure. Exact mechanism unknown, but appears related to nerve impulse blockage due to gas dissolved in nerve cells.a. Effect of a gas depends upon gas solubility in

nerve cells.b. Narcosis varies with individual physiology and is

not entirely predictable.c. Nitrogen/oxygen have about same solubility - are

somewhat narcotic at the deeper range of recre-ational diving. Using air or enriched air, narcosis is expected to be noticeable at about 30 me-tres/100 feet.

d. Helium is not narcotic under even very high pres-sures - this is why it is used by technical and com-mercial divers making very deep dives.

2. Ascent relieves narcotic symptoms - usually no after effects.

3. Not directly hazardous - hazard comes from im-paired judgment that may delay reactions or lead to poor decisions.

IV. Physiological Responses to Thermal ChangesA. How does the body respond to excess heat?

1. Heat is mainly a problem before or after dive wear-ing full wet suits or dry suits in hot weather.

2. Body responds to excess heat, progressively by:DM 6 - DM 6 - 2727

Physiological Responses to Thermal and

Pressure Changes

Physiological Responses to Thermal and

Pressure Changes


a. Dilating skin capillaries to promote cooling.b. Perspiring to cool skin through evaporation.c. Accelerating pulse to circulate blood faster for

cooling.d. Continuing until diver cools (seeks shade, stops

exercising, etc.) or exhausts physiological ability to cool

B. What causes heat exhaustion and heat stroke, and how do they differ physiologically?1. Exposure suits interfere with body’s ability to cool

self - perspiration is ineffective in a wet or dry suit. This is compounded if diver exercises in hot climate, such as long walk across a hot beach.

2. Heat exhaustion - condition in which body works at full capacity to cool.a. weak, rapid breathingb. weak rapid pulsec. cool clammy skind. profuse sweatinge. dehydrationf. nausea

3. Diver with heat exhaustion should remove exposure suit, seek shade, drink nonalcoholic fluid and rest until cool.

4. Heatstroke - condition in which cooling has failed - an emergency medical condition.a. pulse strong and rapidb. no perspirationc. skin flushed, hot to the touchd. brain damage, system damage or death possible

5. Diver with heat stroke - remove exposure suit and put diver in cool environment; contact emergency medical aid.

C. How does the body respond to insufficient heat?1. Water conducts heat 20 times faster than air - diver

in 4oC/40oF water will be dangerously cold in half an hour.

2. Temperatures that are warm in air can lead to ex-cessive heat loss in water.

3. Under many circumstances, an exposure suit greatly slows heat loss, but does not stop it.

4. Body responds to heat loss progressively by:a. Vasoconstriction - reduced blood flow to extremities

DM 6 - DM 6 -

How does the body respond to excess heat?How does the body respond to excess heat?

2828

■ Skin capillaries dilate�

■ Perspiration�

■ Accelerated pulse

■ Skin capillaries dilate�

■ Perspiration�

■ Accelerated pulse

Heat Exhaustion �Heat Stroke Heat Exhaustion �Heat Stroke

No Relief =No Relief =

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Heat Exhaustion

Heat Exhaustion

2929

Heat Stroke Heat Stroke

weak rapid breathing�

weak rapid pulse�

cool clammy sk in�

profuse per spiration�

nausea

weak rapid breathing �

weak rapid pulse �

cool clammy sk in�

profuse per spiration�

nausea

strong rapid pulse�

no perspiration�

hot f lushed sk in�

convulsions

strong rapid pulse �

no perspiration�

hot f lushed sk in�

convulsions


(except head) to reduce heat loss - causes finger/toe numbness.

b. Shivering to generate heat through muscle activ-ity - signals a losing battle against the cold.

D. What causes hypothermia, and what happens physiologically when it occurs?1. Occurs when diver ignores uncontrollable shivering,

numbness and continues to cool.2. Body temperature regulation mechanisms fail, body

core temperature drops.a. Shivering stopsb. Vasoconstriction stops - diver may feel warm as

blood rushes to skin - a dangerous condition be-cause diver doesn’t feel cold, but heat loss in now unchecked.

c. As core temperature drops, mental processes slow - diver becomes drowsy, uncoordinated, forgetful.

d. Unchecked, hypothermia leads to unconscious-ness, coma and death.

e. Advanced hypothermia is a medical emergency requiring emergency care.

V. Physiological Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air SpacesA. What are the basic functions, organs and struc-

ture of the ears and sinuses?1. Ears — divided into outer, middle, and inner ear

a. Outer ear consists of external ear, ear canal - open to air/water pressure - channels sound to ear drum.

b. Middle ear separated from outer ear by ear drum - sealed against air/water; - ear drum vibrates and passes sound to ossicles, small bones that conduct sound to inner ear.

c. Inner ear consists of vestibular canals (control balance) and cochlea - turns vibrations from os-sicles into nerve impulses sent by auditory nerve to brain.1. Ossicles connect to cochlea at oval window,

which flexes in and out with vibrations.2. Round window on cochlea flexes out when oval

window flexes in to compensate.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

HypothermiaHypothermia

3131

numbness�

blueness�

loss of coordination�

confusion�

unconsciousness

numbness�

blueness�

loss of coordination�

confusion�

unconsciousness

37°C 98.6°F37°C 98.6°F


B. How do the ears and sinuses respond to chang-ing pressure?1. Middle ear connected by eustachian tube to throat to

maintain equilibrium with outside pressure.a. Descending, increasing pressure pushes in on ear

drum - diver feels as discomfort.b. By equalizing, diver forces air up eustachian tube

to equalize pressure in middle ear, alleviating the discomfort.

c. Expanding air normally exits eustachian tube easily - seldom need to do anything during ascent.

2. Sinusesa. Sinuses are spaces in head connected to the nose

that filter and moisturize air before it reaches lungs.

b. Healthy sinuses have free air flow and normally equalize naturally during middle ear equaliza-tion.

C. How do the lungs respond to changing pres-sure?1. When scuba diving, normal breathing keeps lungs

equalized to surrounding pressure.2. When breath-hold diving, increasing pressure com-

presses lungs and reduces their volume - not nor-mally a problem because they’re intended to change volume.

D. Mask1. Not a natural air space, but affects the body.2. Exhale into mask through nose to keep mask equal-

ized.3. This is why divers cannot use goggles for diving - no

way to equalize the air space.

VI. Problems in Body Air SpacesA. What are barotrauma and squeeze?

1. Barotrauma means “pressure injury,” and results when a body air space isn’t equalized and pressure continues or increases.

2. An unequalized air space is also called a squeeze .B. What are the causes and physiologies of ear-

drum rupture, middle ear squeeze, reverse squeeze, ear plug problems, round window rup-ture and sinus squeeze?

DM 6 - DM 6 -

How do the sinuses and lungs respond to changing pressure?

How do the sinuses and lungs respond to changing pressure?

3333

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Body Air Space Problems�

�

Body Air Space Problems�

�

3434

What are barotrauma �and squeeze?

What are barotrauma �and squeeze?


1. Middle ear squeeze - caused by failure to equalize or inability to equalize due to congestion (diving with a cold).a. Eardrum flexes inward from pressure.b. Hydrostatic pressure forces blood and fluid into

middle ear until equilibrium is restored.c. Ears feel “full” and hearing is reduced (fluid damp-

ens vibrations).d. Should be checked by an otolaryngologist (ears,

nose and throat doctor).e. Prevented by equalizing, and stopping descent if

unable to equalize.2. Eardrum rupture - also caused by failure to equalize,

but pressure increases faster than fluids can fill mid-dle ear. Eardrum tears due to pressure.a. Diver feels momentary sharp pain, then relief.b. Usually heals without complication, but requires

medical attention to prevent infection and perma-nent damage because water contaminates ear with organic matter and dirt.

c. Prevented by equalizing, and stopping descent if unable to equalize.

3. What is vertigo, and what may cause it while diving? a. When the ear drum ruptures, cold water on ves-

tibular canals may cause momentary vertigo - loss of sense of direction and dizziness.

4. Reverse squeeze - ears equalize on descent, but con-gestion at depth prevents air from escaping during ascent. Eardrum flexes outward.a. Feels like a squeeze, but happens during ascent.b. May help to pinch nose and inhale against it.c. Slow ascent and give air time to work itself out.d. Usually caused by diving with a cold using decon-

gestants; decongestant wears off during dive caus-ing blockage.

e. Prevent by not diving with a cold.5. Ear plug problems - ear plugs or a tight wet suit hood

create an airspace between plug and eardrum that cannot be equalized. During descent, eardrum flexes toward earplug - unequalized space.a. Feels like middle ear squeeze.b. Eardrum can rupture outward if descent continues.


c. In rare cases, ear plug can be forced into ear ca-nal.

d. Prevent by not diving with ear plugs; if unable to equalize while wearing a hood, pull hood off ear momentarily and try again in case hood is seal-ing ear canal.

6. Round window rupture - caused by delayed equal-ization accompanied by forceful Valsalva equaliza-tion (exhaling against pinched nostrils). a. Pressure on eardrum presses in on ossicles, which

press in on oval window on cochlea; round win-dow flexes outward in response.

b. Valsalva raises pressure in thorax, which causes increase in pressure in cochlea (connected by fluid as part of nervous system); this plus trans-mitted pressure bursts round window outward.

c. This is a serious injury requiring medical treat-ment to avoid or reduce permanent hearing dam-age.

d. Symptoms include reduced hearing, vertigo, bal-ance problems, ear ringing, a feeling the ears are blocked.

e. Prevented by:1. Equalizing early and often.2. Not equalizing forcefully - if having difficulty,

ascend a bit and try again.3. Using the Frenzel maneuver - using throat

muscles to push air against pinched nose instead of using diaphragm to exhale against pinched nose.

C. Sinuses1. Sinus squeeze usually caused by diving with a cold.2. Unequalized sinuses fill with blood and fluid during

dive - may feel like sharp pain against eyes.3. Upon ascent, expanding air pushes blood and fluid

into nasal cavity - diver surfaces with blood in mask.

4. Usually not serious and heals on its own. Medical attention usually only required if pain is severe or extended.

D. What is the cause and physiology of lung squeeze?1. Lung squeeze - caused by breath-hold descent to a

depth that reduces lung volume below residual vol-


ume - the lowest volume after exhaling all possible air.a. Not a problem if you descend with full lungs un-

less you go very deep.b. Can occur shallow if you descend with partially

full or empty lungs.c. Lung squeeze causes fluid to accumulate in the

lungs, however, this requires some time to be-come significant.

d. Can be life threatening and require medical at-tention, but not likely in recreational diving.

E. What are the causes and physiologies of the lung overexpansion injuries: air embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema and subcutaneous emphysema?1. Lung overexpansion injuries are usually caused by

holding breath during ascent. They may also be caused by lung congestion when diving with a chest cold, or by local blockage due to loss of surfactant (due to smoking) which keeps bronchioles from adhering shut. In all cases, expanding air overex-pands lungs causing lung rupture.

2. Air embolism - also called arterial gas embolism (AGE). Alveoli and pulmonary capillaries rupture, air enters bloodstream and flows into arteries.a. Serious and immediately lifethreatening - bub-

bles can lodge anywhere, but most common is to flow through the carotid arteries and cause cere-bral air embolism.

b. Signs and symptoms similar to stroke - dizziness, confusion, shock, paralysis, personality change, unconsciousness and death.

c. Symptoms can vary depending upon where the bubbles go.

3. Pneumothorax - air from rupture goes between lung and chest wall, causing lung to collapse.a. Also serious. Symptoms include chest pain and

patient may cough up blood.4. Mediastinal emphysema - air from rupture accumu-

lates in center of chest over heart.a. Serious, because air presses on heart and vessels,

interfering with circulation.b. Patient may feel faint or short of breath.


5. Subcutaneous emphysema - air from rupture accumu-lates in soft tissues at base of neck. The victim feels fullness in neck and voice may change. The skin may crackle to the touch.

6. More than one of these injuries can occur simultane-ously.

7. Avoid lung overexpansion injuries by breathing nor-mally, not diving with chest congestion and by not smoking. If unable to quit smoking, avoiding smok-ing before diving may reduce risk.

F. What are the recommendations and physiologi-cal rationales for lung overexpansion injury first aid and treatment?1. First aid same as for DCS, hence the common term

“decompression illness” for both.2. Giving oxygen helps supply tissues deprived of blood

flow by bubbles.3. Treatment of air embolism requires recompression to

reduce bubble size (as in DCS).4. Pneumothorax requires removing air and reinflat-

ing collapsed lung.5. Air from mediastinal and subcutaneous emphyse-

mas dissipates over time; oxygen breathing may help.

G. What are the cause and physiology of mask and dry suit squeezes?1. Mask squeeze - caused by failure to equalize mask.

a Tissues swell, forced into unequalized mask by pressure, capillaries in skin and eyes rupture.

b. Looks very dramatic and severe, but generally clears without complications.

2. Dry suit squeeze - caused by failure to add air to dry suit on descent.a. May raise welts and cause severe pinches.b. Can constrict breathing and cause shortness of

breath.3. Avoid by equalizing mask and dry suit during de-

scents.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is the first aid and treatment for lung overexpansion injuries?

What is the first aid and treatment for lung overexpansion injuries?

3838

■ First aid is identical to DCS – oxygen, lie level on left side, head supported, primary care, etc. �

■ First aid is identical to DCS – oxygen, lie level on left side, head supported, primary care, etc. �

■ Treatment may involve recompression and surgery �for pneumothorax

■ Treatment may involve recompression and surgery �for pneumothorax

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is mask squeeze and dry suit squeeze?What is mask squeeze and dry suit squeeze?

3939

■ Failure to equalize mask�◆ Swelling facial tissues and �

capillary ruptures in eyes�

■ Failure to equalize mask�◆ Swelling facial tissues and �

capillary ruptures in eyes�

■ Failure to add air to dry �suit on descent�◆ Welts and pinc hes�◆ Constricted br eathing

■ Failure to add air to dry �suit on descent�◆ Welts and pinc hes�◆ Constricted br eathing


Topic 7 - Dive Equipment

Recommended Materials and Methods for Covering this TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about dive equipment is to have candidates read the Equipment section of The Encyclopedia of Rec-reational Diving and complete the equipment section in the Diving Knowledge Workbook (or The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving Multimedia). Have them consult the related objectives in the Appendix of the PADI Divemaster Manual to be sure they can meet all the performance requirements.

After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a group. Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook, then answer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and review the material based on how they complete their workbooks. Use the presentation outline as a guide for a complete review.

If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Work-book don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can develop knowledge by giving the following presentation in detail. Have examples of the equipment you’re discussing as training aids during your presentations.

PresentationOverview and Learning Objectives I. Scuba cylinders 1. How do you identify and what are the meanings of

the following scuba cylinder marks: alloy designa-tion, hydrostatic test date, working pressure and over-pressurization designation?

2. What are the differences between steel and alumi-num cylinder pressures, thickness and capacity?

3. What are the steps and procedures of a hydrostatic test?

4. How does extreme heat affect a scuba cylinder, and what should you do if a scuba cylinder is exposed to extreme heat?

5. Why should a tank be visually inspected annually?

II. Valves 6. What are the different types of tank valves?

7. What device prevents an over-pressurized cylinder from exploding, and how does it work?

III. Regulators 8. What is meant by open circuit scuba, semiclosed cir-

cuit scuba and closed circuit scuba?

DM 7 - DM 7 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ Scuba Cylinder s�■ Scuba Cylinder s�

■ Valves�■ Valves�

■ Regulators�■ Regulators�

■ Instruments�■ Instruments �

■ Enriched Air Equipment Considerations

■ Enriched Air Equipment Considerations


9. How does an open circuit regulator work?

10. What is meant by fail-safe with respect to regula-tors, and how does it work?

11. What are meant by upstream and downstream valves, and balanced and unbalanced regulators?

12. What is the purpose of a regulator environmental seal?

IV. Instruments 13. What are the proper procedures for using dive com-

puters in a buddy team?

14. What are the different operating principles for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?

15. What are the options for carrying gauges?

V. Enriched Air Equipment Considerations 16. What special equipment requirements and consid-

erations do you have when diving with enriched air?

Outline I. Scuba cylinders

A. How do you identify and what are the mean-ings of the following scuba cylinder marks: alloy designation, hydrostatic test date, working pressure and over-pressurization designation?1. Scuba cylinders have various markings stamped at

the neck. These vary somewhat internationally, but typically include: [Have example cylinders present to show candidates the following marks.]a. The government agency responsible for super-

vision/approval of compressed gas containers. (e.g., in North America - DOT/CTC)

b. The alloy designation. Steel will normally have a designation 3AA. Aluminum will normally be designated by 3AL.

c. The working pressure. The specific working pres-sure is indicated by a numerical designation. Tanks that have a “+” designation after the cur-rent hydrostatic test date can be filled to 10 per-cent beyond their rated working pressure.

d. The hydrostatic test date indicates both the date of hydrostatic pressure tests and the testing facil-ity. A plus sign after the test date is the over-pres-


surization designation, which means the cylinder may be filled 10 percent beyond the stamped work-ing pressure.

e. Tanks also have a stamped serial number and manufacturer’s designation.

B. What are the differences between steel and alu-minum cylinder pressures, thickness and capac-ity?1. Virtually all scuba cylinders are made from steel alloy

or aluminum alloy.2. Steel alloys are stronger than aluminum for the same

thickness, so steel scuba tanks have thinner walls and larger internal volumes for a given external size. This means that for a given size, they hold more air at a given pressure than aluminum, or the same air at a lower pressure.

3. Because aluminum is weaker than steel it requires a thicker wall and lower internal volume for a given external size. Typically, aluminum tanks have higher working pressures so they hold comparable or slightly more air than steel cylinders. Aluminum’s advantage is that it is less subject to structural weakening due to corrosion.

C. What are the steps and procedures of a hydro-static test? How does extreme heat affect a scuba cylinder, and what should you do if a scuba cylin-der is exposed to extreme heat?1. Many countries require periodic hydrostatic pressure

testing to determine the structural integrity of cylinders. a. In the U.S., the test is required every five years.b. In the U.K., it is required every four years.

2. Although tests procedures vary from country to coun-try, in general:a. The tester immerses the cylinder in water and mea-

sures its volume. b. The tester next fills the cylinder with water and

pressurizes it to more than working pressure and measures the cylinder’s expansion.

c. After releasing the pressure, the tester measures its new unpressurized volume against its original vol-ume.

d. If the tank contracts to within acceptable limits (as set by the government), the tank passes. [Provide local protocols if different.]

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the steps of a hydrostatic (pressure) t est?What are the steps of a hydrostatic (pressure) t est?

55CylindersCylinders

■ Tank volume measured �■ Tank volume measured �

■ Tank pressuriz ed beyond normal working pressure �

■ Tank pressuriz ed beyond normal working pressure �

■ Pressure released and tank v olume measured a gain�

■ Pressure released and tank v olume measured a gain�

■ If change is within specified limits, tank passes test

■ If change is within specified limits, tank passes test

NOTE: Specific pr otocols ma y vary from countr y to countr y

NOTE: Specific pr otocols ma y vary from countr y to countr y


D. Certain circumstances can weaken tanks before a hy-dro test is required. Have tanks hydrostatically tested after exposure to any of the following conditions:1. Tumbling (or sandblasting) to remove corrosion 2. Damage due to impact3. Exposure to heat in excess of 82° C /180° F may af-

fect the metals integrity. Never repaint a cylinder using a heat painting process such as that used on automobiles.

4. Left unused for two years or more (especially if with zero pressure)

E. Why should a tank be visually inspected annually?1. Visual inspection - an inspector examines the inte-

rior and exterior of a cylinder annually. This is done to check for damage or wear that may cause the cylinder to fail between hydrostatic tests.

2. The inspection is not required by law in most coun-tries, but is an industry standard.

3. Removal of the valve during the test also enables lu-brication, reducing problems from electrolysis due to the dissimilar metals of the valve and tank. O-rings may be replaced as needed, and the valve examined for overhaul if necessary.

II. ValvesA. What are the different types of tank valves?

1. The simplest tank valve is simply an on-off valve. This is referred to as a K valve, which is by far the most commonly used today.

2. A valve with a mechanical reserve is a J valve. It contains a spring-loaded mechanism that, if acti-vated (by placing it in the “up” position) restricts the air flow when the pressure drops to between 20-40 bar (2000-4000kPa)/300-500 psi. a. This alerts the diver to low air. The diver pulls the

lever into the “down” position, which releases the restricted air flow. The J valve is a warning device; it doesn’t provide any additional air volume.

b. With the advent of the submersible pressure gauge, J valves began to disappear. In fact, when using a J valve, many divers often disable it by keeping it in the “down” position.

c. Note that when filling tanks equipped with J

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Why should a tank be visually inspect ed?�

�

Why should a tank be visually inspect ed?�

�


To check for damage or wear that may cause

cylinder to fail

To check for damage or wear that may cause

cylinder to fail

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Hydrostatic tests are necessary:Hydrostatic tests are necessary:■ At regular inter vals specified �

by the government�■ At regular inter vals specified �

by the government �


■ If tank is tumb led to remo ve corrosion�■ If tank is tumb led to remo ve corrosion�

■ When a tank is dama ged due to impact �■ When a tank is dama ged due to impact �

■ After a tank is e xposed to heat in �excess of 82°C/180°F �

■ After a tank is e xposed to heat in �excess of 82°C/180°F �

■ If the tank is left un used for �two or more y ears

■ If the tank is left un used for �two or more y ears


valves that they cannot be filled if the valve is in an “up” position.

3. Long popular in Europe, DIN (Deutsche Industrie-Norm) connectors are becoming more common. With the DIN system, the regulator screws into the cylinder valve, providing two primary advantages over the yoke screw design:a. A better seal between the tank and regulator

valves due to the fact that the o-ring is actu-ally trapped between the two valves. (The tank valve is “female” and the regulator connector is “male.”)

b. Because the tank valve and regulator are secured by threads, the connection is much stronger than the yoke screw assembly. This makes DIN valves particularly popular among cave and wreck div-ers, who may accidentally strike the valve/regula-tor on overhead obstructions.

c. This system, because of the superior o-ring po-sitioning and strength, enables the use of much higher air pressures.

B. What device prevents an over-pressurized cylin-der from exploding, and how does it work?1. A burst disk is required by law in many countries

and installed into every valve to reduce the possibil-ity that an overpressurized cylinder will explode.

2. It is a thin copper disk that ruptures and allows air to vent from the cylinder when the internal pressure reaches approximately 125 percent to 166 percent of the working pressure.

3. Because they weaken over time, you want to have these disks replaced regularly by a qualified equip-ment technician. Installing the wrong burst disk could result in the tank rupturing before the disk.

III. RegulatorsA. What is meant by open circuit scuba, semi-

closed circuit scuba and closed circuit scuba?1. There are three types of scuba - self contained un-

derwater breathing apparatus.a. Open circuit scuba - scuba typically used by recre-

ational divers. The diver inhales air from cylinder via a demand valve regulator and exhales it into the water, thus the circuit is open because none of the air is recycled.

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Valves are equipped with burst disks �

— a thin copper disk that ruptures if the tank

pressure greatly exceeds �its working pressure

Valves are equipped with burst disks �

— a thin copper disk that ruptures if the tank

pressure greatly exceeds �its working pressure



b. Semiclosed circuit scuba - the diver inhales from a breathing bag that receives a steady flow of gas (usually enriched air). The diver exhales back into a breathing bag and the gas has carbon dioxide removed chemically - excess gas from the steady flow trickles out through a valve. The circuit is semi-open because part of the gas is recycled and part of it is released.

c. Closed circuit scuba - the diver inhales from a breathing bag and diver exhales back into a breathing bag. The gas has carbon dioxide re-moved chemically and electronic sensors control flow of oxygen and other gases as required The circuit is closed because all gas is recycled and none released (except to vent expanding gas on ascent).

2. Though open circuit doesn’t recycle breathing gases, it is the main stay of recreational diving for several reasons.a. It much simpler in design, which makes it reliable

and less costly. Closed and semiclosed are more prone to malfunctions.

b. It is much easier to learn to use.c. It requires only a cylinder of air. Closed and semi-

closed units require chemicals and access to pure gases or enriched air.

d. It is much simpler to maintain and service.B. How does an open circuit regulator work?

1. The first stage reduces the high pressure delivered by the tank to an intermediate pressure (usually about 10-13 bar (1000-3000 kPa)/140-190 psi above the ambient water pressure).a. When the diver inhales, the air pressure in the

first stage drops below the desired ambient pres-sure. This allows water pressure to flex a dia-phragm or move a piston, opening a valve that releases air from the tank.

b. Air flows as long as the diver inhales, keeping the first stage from reaching intermediate pressure.

c. When the diver stops inhaling, the pressure rises in the first stage so that upon reaching intermedi-ate pressure, the valve to the tank closes and air no longer flows.

2. The second stage reduces the intermediate air pres-sure to ambient pressure for breathing.


a. When the diver inhales, water pressure pushes in a diaphragm in the second stage and opens the second stage downstream valve releasing air flow from the first stage.

b. As long as the diver inhales, air continues to flow.c. When the diver stops inhaling, the diaphragm re-

turns to its relaxed position and the valve closes.d. Exhaled air exits the second stage through one-

way exhalation valves.e. On some second stage models, the diaphragm

opens a small pilot valve, which creates a pres-sure imbalance that opens the main valve.1. Advantage - less breathing effort2. Disadvantage - more complex design difficult

to service and adjust.C. What are meant by upstream and downstream

valves?1. Modern open circuit regulator valves have down-

stream design, meaning they open with the air flow (the pressure is trying to open the valve) rather than upstream, in which the valves open against the air flow (the pressure is trying to close the valve).

2. A malfunctioning downstream valve will permit continuous air flow (freeflow) rather than cut off air flow.

3. What is meant by fail-safe with respect to regulators, and how does it work?a. Freeflowing during a malfunction gives regulators

a fail-safe design - it would fail in a safe manner in that it continues to provide air. Obviously the tank will exhaust quickly so the diver must as-cend immediately.

D. What is the purpose of a regulator environmen-tal seal?1. Normal air flow causes regulator temperature to

drop (expanding gases have a lower temperature).2. In extremely cold water (such as cold water deep

diving, ice diving, etc.) the temperature drop can cause water to freeze regulator first stage valves into the open, freeflowing position.

3. To avoid freeflow in extremely cold water, some regulator first stages have environmental sealing. This seals silicone grease or oil, which don’t freeze, around the first stage. The silicone or oil transmits

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Define these terms with respect to scuba regulators:Define these terms with respect to scuba regulators:■ Upstream - Downstream�■ Upstream - Downstream�

1313RegulatorsRegulators

■ Fail-safe�■ Fail-safe�

■ Environmental seal�■ Environmental seal�

■ Balanced - Unbalanced■ Balanced - Unbalanced


the pressure from the water to the diaphragm or piston so the regulator operates normally.

E. What are balanced and unbalanced regulators?1. A regulator designed so that tank air pressure resists

or assists the opening of valves in the first stage is called an unbalanced regulator.a. Less costly designb. Breathing characteristics change with cylinder

pressurec. No longer commonly found

2. A regulator designed so that tank air pressure nei-ther assists or resists the opening of valves is called a balanced regulator.a. Breathing characteristics unchanged with varying

cylinder pressure.b. Virtually all modern regulators are balanced

regulators.

IV. InstrumentsA. What are the proper procedures for using dive

computers in a buddy team?1. Dive computers calculate remaining no decompres-

sion time by comparing the depth/time input to the limits of a programmed decompression model.

2. Practical considerations for using dive computers:a. Because buddy pairs are unlikely to dive exactly

the same profile, each diver should have an indi-vidual computer.

b. The buddy team should ascend based on the shortest times shown by any diver in the team.

c. If a computer fails, and the divers have recorded their dive time, depths and surface intervals, it may be possible to continue diving using tables. Otherwise the diver must remain out of the water for at least 12 hours, or as specified by the com-puter manufacturer.

d. The same guidelines that apply to dive table use, such as making deep dives before shallow dives, starting deep and working shallow, etc. apply to dive computers.

B. What are the different operating principles for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?1. Depth gauges - there are several types, some in com-

mon use and some not as common

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the procedures for using dive comput ers?What are the procedures for using dive comput ers?

1414

■ Each buddy should �have a computer�

■ Each buddy should �have a computer�

InstrumentsInstruments

■ Buddies should follow �the most conservative dive time�

■ Buddies should follow �the most conservative dive time�

■ All dive table guidelines (deeper dive/depth first) and manufacturer recommendations apply

■ All dive table guidelines (deeper dive/depth first) and manufacturer recommendations apply


a. Capillary depth gauges are a simple piece of clear tubing, sealed at one end and open at the other, with depth increments indicated according to where the water column rests based on Boyle’s Law. They are inexpensive and reliable, though hard to read accurately much deeper than 10 me-tres/30 feet.

b. Open bourdon tube gauges contain a spiral shaped tube. Water enters the tube end and increasing pressure causes tube to straighten somewhat. The straightening moves the depth gauge needle. Be-cause the tube is open, clogging can be a problem with these devices.

c. Oil-filled gauges also use bourdon tube design, but using a sealed tube in an oil-filled gauge housing. Pressure transmitted through the oil causes the tube to coil more tightly. This moves the depth gauge needle. The depth gauge is not open to the water and therefore not clog prone.

d. Diaphragm gauges function by connecting a flex-ible diaphragm to a series of levers and gears that move the display needle.

e. Digital gauges are electronic gauges that read depth via a transducer, which varies the electricity it transmits depending on the pressure exerted on it. These provide a digital display. These offer the highest degree of accuracy, and are used in dive computers to determine depth.

C. Submersible pressure gauges (SPG)1. The SPG works based on the same principle as the

bourdon tube gauge - high pressure air from the cylinder enters a C shaped or spiral tube and causes it to straighten somewhat, causing the SPG needle to read the pressure.

2. Electronic SPGs use a pressure transducer similar to those in dive computers/electronic depth gauges.

3. SPGs may be integrated with dive computers. The most recent innovation is a transducer on the regu-lator that transmits the air pressure to a wrist-worn computer, eliminating the SPG hose.

D. Compasses1. North needle of compass always points to magnetic

north because the needle is a magnet, aligned by the field of earth’s geomagnetism.

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the different types of depth gauges?What are the different types of depth gauges?■ Capillary — open tube �

best used at shallo w depths�■ Capillary — open tube �

best used at shallo w depths �

1515InstrumentsInstruments

■ Open bour don tube — tube straightens, moving the depth needle �

■ Open bour don tube — tube straightens, moving the depth needle �

■ Oil-filled — sealed bour don tube�■ Oil-filled — sealed bour don tube �

■ Diaphragm — diaphra gm flexes, levers and gears move needle�

■ Diaphragm — diaphra gm flexes, levers and gears move needle �

■ Digital — transducer senses depth■ Digital — transducer senses depth

DM 7 - DM 7 -

How do submersible pressure gauges work?How do submersible pressure gauges work?■ Mechanical (similar to bourdon tube)

— high pressure entering the tube moves the pressure gaug e needle�

■ Mechanical (similar to bourdon tube) — high pressure entering the tube moves the pressure gaug e needle �


■ Electronic — pressure transducer �■ Electronic — pressure transducer �

■ Hoseless — pressure transducer transmits reading to wrist computer

■ Hoseless — pressure transducer transmits reading to wrist computer

How do compasses work?How do compasses work?


2. With most dive compasses, the diver reads direction directly against the needle, but new electronic com-passes read the heading digitally.

3. Divers use liquid filled compasses so the gauge with-stands pressure, and to dampen needle movement for easier reading.

E. What are the options for carrying gauges?1. Wrist mount - Diver straps gauges to the wrist.

a. Useful for compact instruments.b. Most accurate placement for compass use other

than hand holding it.c. More streamlined than console on chest, especial-

ly in overhead environments.d. May be more prone to entanglement in some in-

stances (e.g., kelp diving.)2. Console - Combines several instruments into a pack-

age on the SPG or may integrate several instruments into one, such as a pressure integrated dive comput-er.a. Speeds up dive preparation - no strapping on

gauges.b. Keeps arms clear for easy donning/doffing.c. Console requires securing so it doesn’t drag and

damage itself or environment.3. Retractable mount - Gauge mount clips to BCD with

spring wound retraction cord. The diver pulls out to read then retracts out of the way.a. Popular for hoseless computers with divers who

don’t like wrist mount.b. Makes it convenient to hand-hold compass for

greatest accuracy.

V. Enriched Air Equipment ConsiderationsA. What special equipment requirements and con-

siderations do you have when diving with en-riched air?1. Because enriched air has more oxygen than air has

oxygen, there is a greater potential for fire or explo-sion related to improperly cleaned equipment.

2. Diving with enriched air presents oxygen toxicity hazards not common to diving with air within recre-ational diving limits Divers must know they’re using enriched air, and what blend of enriched air they’re using.

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the options for carrying gauges?What are the options for carrying gauges?

■ Wrist mount�

■ Console�

◆ Retractable mount

■ Wrist mount �

■ Console�

◆ Retractable mount



B. These concerns have led to the following industry guide-lines involving equipment used with enriched air.1. Most manufacturers require their equipment to be

cleaned to oxygen service specifications if it will be exposed to more than 23 percent oxygen.

2. Some in the dive industry say that up to 40 percent oxygen requires no special cleaning or materials.a. This so-called “40 percent rule” is under debate

and has yet to be settled. [Note to instructor: Inform candidates of the industry’s most current position on this issue, if different.]

b. Follow manufacturer guidelines with respect to using equipment with enriched air.

3. Any piece of equipment that will be exposed to more than 40 percent oxygen requires special cleaning, lubrication and materials to meet oxygen service specifications. If such equipment is used with air from a standard source, it may need to be recleaned.

4. Enriched air cylinders require special marking:a. A 15cm/6in (approx.) band at the tank shoulder.

The top and bottom of band should be a yellow 2.5cm/1in band with the center 10cm/4in green with the words “Enriched Air,” “Enriched Air Ni-trox,” “Nitrox” or similar. Yellow cylinders need only the green/label portion.

b. A visual inspection sticker stating the cylinder has been cleaned to oxygen service specifica-tions, or not if enriched air will not be blended in the cylinder (partial pressure blending in the cylinder requires putting pure oxygen in the cylinder, even if final blend will have less than 40 percent oxygen).

c. A contents sticker or tag identifying the current blend, the fill date, the blend’s maximum depth, and the analyzer/diver name.

d. Local laws may alter or add to these requirements.C. Enriched air cylinders in the dive environment

1. Enriched air divers personally analyze the contents of their cylinders before using them.

2. On some dive boats, the normal practice is to grab any full cylinder available for the next dive - this isn’t appropriate with enriched air, which practice calls for divers to use the tanks they personally ana-lyzed.

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Enriched Air (EANx) Equipment ConsiderationsEnriched Air (EANx) Equipment Considerations■ Equipment needs to be cleaned to

oxygen service specifications�

◆ Required b y most man ufacturer s when using more than 23% O

2�

◆ Definitely required with �more than 40% O

2

■ Equipment needs to be cleaned to oxygen service specifications�

◆ Required b y most man ufacturer s when using more than 23% O

2�

◆ Definitely required with �more than 40% O

2

1818continued...continued...

DM 7 - DM 7 -

EANx Equipment...EANx Equipment...■ Cylinders require special marking�■ Cylinders require special marking�

1919

◆ Identifying band �◆ Identifying band �

◆ Visual inspection decal �– oxygen cleaned�

◆ Visual inspection decal �– oxygen cleaned�

◆ Content anal ysis decal�◆ Content anal ysis decal �

■ Divers must personally �analyze their cylinder content

■ Divers must personally �analyze their cylinder content


Topic 8 - Decompression Theory and the RDP

Recommended Materials and Methods for Covering this TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about decompression theory and the Recreational Dive Planner is to have candidates read:

1. The Physiology section of The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving, (or The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving Multimedia).

2. The “Decompression Theory and the RDP” chapter of the PADI Divemaster Manual.

3. The Recreational Dive Planner section in the Diving Knowledge Workbook.

Additional sources:

• The Recreational Diver’s Guide to Decompression Theory, Dive Tables and Dive Computers will help candidates understand decompression models and the differences between how dive computers apply decompression models.

• The “Decompression Management” section of The Best of the Under-sea Journal features articles about decompression theory and the history and development of the RDP.

After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a group. Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook, then an-swer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and review the material based on how they complete their workbooks. Use the presentation outline as a guide for a complete review.

By the end of the course, candidates should have mastered calculating dive profiles using both the RDP table and The Wheel. Have them consult the related objectives in the Appendix of the PADI Divemaster Manual to be sure they can meet all the performance requirements.

This presentation outline includes only a RDP skills review to assess mas-tery. Candidates who need to refresh their skills may receive remediation under your direction. They can also independently use the Open Water Diver CD-ROM or RDP Instructions for Use booklets.

If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Work-book don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can develop knowledge by giving the following presentation in detail.


Presentation

Overview and Learning Objectives I. The Haldanean Decompression Model 1. Who is credited with developing the basic decom-

pression model we use today in most computers and dive tables?

2. Describe the structure and operation of a Halda-nean model.

3. What are meant by compartment, halftime and M-value?

4. Why do you need to know your approximate alti-tude when diving?

5. What is the relationship between the Haldanean model and the human body, and how far can you rely on a model?

II. U.S. Navy Tables and Repetitive Diving 6. Why was the U.S. Navy (USN) table at one time the

“standard” for recreational diving?

III. The Recreational Dive Planner 7. What is the basis for the USN table’s repetitive div-

ing surface interval credit, and why does the Recre-ational Dive Planner use a different basis?

8. For whom was the RDP developed, and how does its testing contrast with the testing of the USN table?

9. What effect does the RDP’s repetitive diving surface interval credit have compared to the USN tables?

10. Why are there two forms of the RDP?

11. Why can’t pressure groups from the RDP be used on the USN tables or any other tables?

IV. Dive Computers 12. How do modern dive computers apply decompres-

sion models to provide more no decompression dive time?

13. How do computers compare with each other and the RDP with respect to surface interval credit and M-values?

V. Special Rules, Recommendations and Situations Using the RDP and Computers

14. What are the general rules and recommendations

DM 8 - DM 8 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Haldanean �Decompression Model �

■ The Haldanean �Decompression Model �

■ US Navy Tables and Repetitive Diving �■ US Navy Tables and Repetitive Diving �

■ The Recreational Dive Planner �■ The Recreational Dive Planner �

■ Dive Computer s�■ Dive Computer s�

■ Special Rules, Recommendations �and Situations �

■ Special Rules, Recommendations �and Situations �

■ RDP Table and Wheel Re view■ RDP Table and Wheel Re view


for diving with the Recreational Dive Planner, including for flying after diving, emergency decom-pression and omitted decompression?

15. What are the recommendations for diving with dive computers?

VI. RDP Table and Wheel Use Review 16. Demonstrate how to find a no decompression limit

for a first and repetitive dive using both the RDP table and The Wheel.

17. Demonstrate how to plan a multilevel dive using The Wheel.

18. Using both the RDP table and The Wheel, demon-strate how to calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives.

Outline I. The Haldanean Decompression Model

A. Who is credited with developing the basic decompression model we use today in most computers and dive tables?1. Virtually all dive tables and dive computers calcu-

late no decompression limits and decompression stops (when needed) based on a Haldanean decom-pression model.

2. Haldanean models are named after John Scott Hal-dane, credited with developing the first such math-ematical decompression model and based on it, the first dive tables.a. British Royal Navy assigned Haldane to address

and solve decompression sickness in Navy divers.b. Haldane knew of Paul Bert’s work, which showed

that dissolved nitrogen causes DCS, but no one had developed a system for predicting DCS.

c. Haldane experimented and produced his model and tables in 1906, his work was published in 1908 in the Journal of Hygiene. Modern Haldanean models differ little conceptually from the original model.

B. Describe the structure and operation of a Hal-danean model.1. Haldane based his model on experiments and the

following concepts:

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Haldanean Decompression Model

Haldanean Decompression Model

33

■ Model consists of multiple theoretical tissues�

■ Model consists of multiple theoretical tissues�

■ What is a tissue compartment?�■ What is a tissue compartment?�

◆ What is halftime?�◆ What is halftime?�

◆ What in M-value?◆ What in M-value?


a. Upon descent to a given depth, nitrogen pressure in breathing air is higher than in the body, so nitrogen dissolves into body tissues.

b. Given enough time, the body will saturate and absorb no more nitrogen at that depth.

c. Upon ascent, nitrogen in the body (tissue pres-sure) is higher than surrounding pressure, caus-ing tissues to release nitrogen.

d. The difference between the dissolved nitrogen pressure and the surrounding pressure (whether ascending or descending) is called the pressure gradient.

e. On ascent, tissues can tolerate some gradient of high tissue pressure without DCS.

f. If gradient exceeds acceptable limits, bubbles form causing DCS.

g. DCS can be avoided by keeping the gradient within acceptable limits.

C. What is meant by compartment, halftime and M-value?1. Haldane discovered that different parts of the body

absorb and release dissolved nitrogen at different rates. To account for the differences, Haldane con-structed a model consisting of multiple theoretical tissues:a. The tissues did not directly correspond to any par-

ticular body tissue.b. Because they’re not actually corresponding to

body tissues, it is more proper to call them com-partments, or tissue compartments.

c. Haldane’s original model had five compartments. Modern versions may have 14 or more compart-ments.

2. Each compartment has a halftime for the rate at which it absorbs and releases nitrogen.a. Halftime is the time, in minutes, for a particular

compartment to go halfway from its beginning tissue pressure to saturation at a new depth, in exponential progression.

b. After six halftimes the compartment is considered saturated (actually 98.4 percent saturated - close enough for practical purposes). For simplicity tis-sue pressure is often expressed in msw/fsw gauge.


c. Halftimes are assigned in minutes - Haldane’s ranged from 5 to 75 minutes. Modern models range from 3 to more than 600 minutes - short halftime compartments are sometimes called fast tissues or fast compartments and those with longer halftimes are called slow tissue/compartments.

Example - A 5 minute halftime compartment will have how much tissue pressure 5 minutes after taken from the surface to 18 metres/60 feet in seawater?

Answer: 9 msw/30 fsw of pressure (in one halftime, compartment goes half distance from begin-ning to new pressure).

Example - A 20 minute halftime compartment will have how much tissue pressure after 40 minutes at 24 msw/80 fsw?

Answer: 18 msw/60 fsw of pressure 40 minutes = 2 halftimes for 20 minute halftime. After first halftime, pressure goes halfway = 12 msw/40 fsw.After second halftime, pressure goes halfway from 12 msw/40 fsw to 24 msw/80 fsw = 18 msw/60 fsw.

Example - How long would it take a 60 minute compart-ment to saturate to a given depth?

Answer: 360 minutes (60 x 6 halftimes)

3. Besides differing in halftimes, each compartment has a different M-value.a. M-value is the maximum tissue pressure allowed

in the compartment when surfacing to prevent exceeding acceptable gradient. [Note: there’s ac-tually different M-values for each compartment at each depth, but in no stop diving we only use the one that applies to the surface.

b. The faster the compartment (shorter halftime), the higher the M-value (the more nitrogen it is allowed to have when surfacing); the slower the compartment, the lower the M-value.

c. The M-value is determined by test dives showing what does and does not result in DCS or Doppler-detectable bubbles.


4. Why do you need to know your approximate altitude when diving?a. The M-value is calculated for surfacing at sea

level; at an altitude higher than approximately 300 metres/1000 feet, the gradient may be too high unless you use altitude diving procedures. You need to know your approximate altitude when diving so you can adjust for the gradient us-ing high altitude diving protocols.

5. The model works by determining how much each compartment absorbs for a given depth and time; when any compartment reaches its M-value, the dive ends (or it becomes a decompression dive).a. On deeper dives, fast compartments usually reach

M-value first - this is why deeper dives have short no decompression limits.

b. On shallower dives, the depth may be less than the M-value of some faster compartments. There-fore a slower compartment controls the dive and model allows more no decompression time.

c. Compartment that reaches its M-value first is called the controlling compartment.

D. What is the relationship between the Halda-nean model and the human body, and how far can you rely on a model?1. Haldanean models are mathematical extrapola-

tions.2. There is no direct relationship between model and

the body. The relationship is implied based on actual dive data (tests and field experience).

3. Like all models, Haldanean models have limits of reliability.

4. You can only rely on a model as far as it has been shown to work in tests and by field experience.

5. Models are imperfect - this is why divers learn from the beginning that there is always some risk of DCS, even within computer/table limits - the actual inci-dence is less than 1 percent, but there is always some risk.

II. U.S. Navy Tables and Repetitive DivingA. Haldane’s tables were well accepted, but the U.S. Navy

revised the model and tables periodically to meet changing needs and to keep up with new information.

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US Navy TablesUS Navy Tables

44

■ Developed primaril y for militar y decompression diving �

■ Developed primaril y for militar y decompression diving �

■ The “standard” for recreational diving until mid1980s �

■ The “standard” for recreational diving until mid1980s �

■ Surface inter val credit based on worst case – slowest compar tment halftime of 120 min utes

■ Surface inter val credit based on worst case – slowest compar tment halftime of 120 min utes


B. The 1950s revision (current U.S. Navy tables) had two important differences from original Haldane model and tables:1. Six compartments were used with a longest halftime

of 120 minutes based on Navy data that there were even slower body areas to consider.

2. Credit for surface interval for repetitive diving added - previously, all dives in 24 hours were added togeth-er and treated as a single dive.

C. Why was the U.S. Navy (USN) table at one time the “standard” for recreational diving?1. The U.S. Navy tables were developed primarily for

military decompression diving, but they became vir-tually the standard in recreational diving until the mid-1980s for several reasons:a. Before computers, developing a table was a te-

dious process that had to be computed by hand. Few outside the Navy had the resources or ability to produce tables.

b. Many early sport divers began as military divers, bringing the USN tables with them.

c. The USN tables were widely available and public domain, allowing publishers to reproduce and rearrange them.

d. Though they weren’t ideal for recreational divers, they could be relied on when following accepted conservative diving practices.

D. Repetitive Diving1. The rise of Navy scuba diving created a need for

repetitive diving that allowed longer repetitive dives based on credit for time at the surface.

2. On the Haldanean model, in pure math all com-partments would lose nitrogen at their normal half-time (e.g., a 5 minute compartment would be free of nitrogen after 30 minutes or 6 halftimes at surface; a 10 minute compartment would be free after 60 minutes or 6 halftimes at surface, etc.)

3. However, you can’t make a usable table this way because any compartment could control a repetitive dive, depending on the first dive, the surface inter-val and the second dive.

4. To solve this, U.S. Navy designed its surface interval credit based on the worst case - a dive may be pre-ceded by a decompression dive, so the slowest com-partment (120 minutes halftime) controls.


5. In effect, all compartments turn into 120 minute compartments at the surface and all repetitive dive credit is based on this worst-case approach. This is why it takes 12 hours (720 minutes - 6 halftimes) to be “clean” with the USN tables.

6. USN tested its tables and repetitive dive procedures using Navy divers and released them for fleet use.a. Subjects were male, reasonably fit, primarily in

20s and 30s.b. Test criteria were bends/no bends.

III. The Recreational Dive PlannerA. What is the basis for the USN table’s repetitive

diving surface interval credit, and why does the Recreational Dive Planner use a different ba-sis?1. In the mid-1980s, Dr. Raymond E. Rogers, a PADI

Divemaster, recognized that the USN tables, while having a good track record, might not be ideal for recreational divinga. The 120 minute surface interval credit, while

appropriate for repetitive decompression diving, seemed excessively conservative for recreational divers, who make only no decompression dives.

b. The USN tables were made for Navy divers, but this test group didn’t fully reflect the demograph-ics of recreational divers, who include females and ages above and below the Navy’s.

c. Doppler ultrasound flow meters had come into being and they showed that silent bubbles of-ten formed at USN table limits, suggesting lower M-values (which would reduce single dive no decompression limits) might be more appropriate for nonmilitary diving.

B. For whom was the RDP developed, and how does its testing contrast with the testing of the USN table?1. Working with DSAT (Diving Science & Technology

- a corporate affiliate of PADI) Rogers developed the RDP. It was tested in 1987 and 1988 at the Institute of Applied Physiology and Medicine (IAPM) with Dr. Michael R. Powell the principal investigator.

2. Testing during 1987 and 1988:a. Established the 60 minute surface interval credit

concept.

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Working with DSAT (Diving Science and Technology), �

Dr. Rogers developed the RDP��

Working with DSAT (Diving Science and Technology), �

Dr. Rogers developed the RDP��

66

Testing occurred at the Institute of Applied Technology (IAPM) with Dr. Michael Powell as the

principle investigator

Testing occurred at the Institute of Applied Technology (IAPM) with Dr. Michael Powell as the

principle investigator

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Recreational Dive Planner (RDP)

Recreational Dive Planner (RDP)

55

■ Proposed in the early 1980s �by Dr. Raymond Rogers�

■ Proposed in the early 1980s �by Dr. Raymond Rogers�◆ Believed 120 min ute surface inter val

credit was too long �◆ Believed 120 min ute surface inter val

credit was too long �

◆ USN tab le were tested on militar y personnel, not recreational diver s�

◆ USN tab le were tested on militar y personnel, not recreational diver s�

◆ Doppler Flo w meter sho wed silent bubbles at USN tab le limits

◆ Doppler Flo w meter sho wed silent bubbles at USN tab le limits


b. Was first extensive testing of multilevel diving.c. Included broader demographic test subjects - more

like recreational diver population.d. Was based on limiting Doppler detectable bub-

bles, not just bends/no bends.e. Multiday testing successfully tested RDP making 4

dives daily for 6 days (though diving more conser-vatively is recommended)

C. What effect does the RDP’s repetitive diving sur-face interval credit have compared to the USN tables?1. Dr. Rogers found that the 120 minutes halftime for

surface interval was too conservative for no stop div-ing, a 60 minute halftime was more appropriate.a. This means that it offers about twice as much

credit for surface interval time than the USN tables.

2. The RDP model has 14 compartments ranging from 5 to 480 minute halftimes.

3. Surface interval credit is based on 60 minutes wash-out. The WX, YZ rules make sure slower compart-ments remain within accepted limits.

D. Dr. Rogers lowered the M-values to match recent Dop-pler data. The RDP offers more repetitive dive time, but its maximum allowed nitrogen loading is lower.1. Limits sometimes called “Spencer” limits after physi-

ologist who first proposed them.E. Why are there two forms of the RDP?

1. Table version introduced for those more comfortable with a table format.

2. The Wheel offers multilevel diving, more precision and is easier to use.

F. Why can’t pressure groups from the RDP be used on the USN tables or any other tables?1. The RDP has more pressure groups than Navy

tables. Pressure Group letters designate theoretical nitrogen levels based on the model and since USN and other tables use different models, letters are not interchangeable between RDP, USN tables or any other tables.

2. You can interchange letters between different ver-sions of the RDP.

.

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RDP CharacteristicsRDP Characteristics

77

■ Model uses 14 compartments�■ Model uses 14 compartments�

■ Maximum allowed nitrogen loading (M-values) lower than USN tables�◆ Shorter initial no decompression limits�

■ Maximum allowed nitrogen loading (M-values) lower than USN tables�◆ Shorter initial no decompression limits�

■ Surface interval credit based �on 60 minute washout�◆ Longer allowed repetitive dive times

■ Surface interval credit based �on 60 minute washout�◆ Longer allowed repetitive dive times

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Two VersionsTwo Versions

88

Multilevel divingMultilevel diving

Pressure group designations are NOT interchangeable with other dive tablesPressure group designations are NOT interchangeable with other dive tables


IV. Dive ComputersA. How do modern dive computers apply decom-

pression models to provide more no decompres-sion dive time?1. Dive computers offer the maximum bottom time es-

sentially by writing a custom dive table for the exact dive - eliminates unnecessary rounding and there-fore more dive time.

B. How do computers compare with each other and the RDP with respect to surface interval credit and M-values?1. Spencer limits, EE washout

a. Approximately same M-values as RDPb. All compartments release theoretical nitrogen at

the surface at their underwater halftime rate (EE stands for “exponential - exponential” ), as com-pared to the RDP, which releases theoretical nitro-gen at the 60 minute rate for all compartments of 60 minutes or faster.

c. This washout means these computers can permit dives beyond what has been tested to work - e.g., 3 dives to 40 metres/130 feet in a row for 10 min-utes each with only 30 minutes between them.

d. This washout is not a problem if divers avoid multiple deep dives with short surface intervals (generally not recommended whether using a computer or not).

2. Spencer limits, 60 minute washouta. Based on data for RDPb. At surface, all compartments 60 minutes and

faster wash out at 60 minute rate; all slower com-partments wash out at their underwater halftime rate (like the RDP).

c. Dives very similar to what RDP model allows.3. Buhlmann limits, EE washout

a. Further reduced M-values (based on work of Dr. Buhlmann).

b. All compartments wash out at their underwater halftime rate.

c. With reduced M-values, repetitive dives similar to what RDP data supports, though repetitive deep dives with short surface intervals may still permit dives beyond what has been tested to work.

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Dive ComputersDive Computers

99

■ Computers essentially write custom dive tables for exact dives�

◆ Eliminates r ounding�

◆ Longer dive times

■ Computers essentially write custom dive tables for exact dives�

◆ Eliminates r ounding �

◆ Longer dive times

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How do dive comput ers compare to the R DP?How do dive comput ers compare to the R DP?

1010

■ Three groups�

◆ Spencer limits, EE washout�

■ Three groups�

◆ Spencer limits, EE washout �

◆ Spencer limits, 60 minute washout�◆ Spencer limits, 60 minute washout �

◆ Buhlmann limits, EE washout◆ Buhlmann limits, EE washout


C. Spencer, 60 minute washout and Buhlmann, EE wash-out seem to be the most popular types of computers.

V. Special Rules, Recommendations and Situations Us-ing the RDP and Computers

Note and Reminder: Because people differ in their susceptibility to DCS, no decompression table or computer can guarantee that DCS will never occur, even though a dive is within the limits of the table. Never “push” any computer or table to or beyond its limits.

A. What are the general rules and recommenda-tions for diving with the Recreational Dive Planner, including for flying after diving, emer-gency decompression and omitted decompres-sion?1. When planning a dive in cold water or under condi-

tions that may be strenuous, plan the dive assuming the depth is 4 metres/10 feet deeper than it actual.

2. Plan repetitive dives so each successive dive is to the same or a shallower depth. Don’t follow a dive with a deeper dive. Plan your deepest dive first.

3. Limit maximum depths in consideration of training and experience. (Scuba Divers: 12 metres/40 feet; Open Water Divers: 18 metres/60 feet; divers with greater training and experience: 30 metres/100 feet; no dive in excess of 40 metres/130 feet.)

4. Multiple Repetitive Dives - use when planning three or more dives in a day.a. If the ending pressure group after any dive is W

or X, the minimum surface interval between all subsequent dives is 1 hour.

b. If the ending pressure group after any dive is Y or Z, the minimum surface interval between all subsequent dives is 3 hours.

5. Limit repetitive dives to 30 metres/100 feet or shal-lower.

6. The 42-metre/140-foot designation on the Recre-ational Dive Planner is for emergency purposes only; do not dive deeper than 40 m/130 ft.

7. If you discover you have accidentally descended below 40 metres/130 feet, immediately ascend (at a rate not to exceed 18 metres/60 feet per minute)

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Special Rules, Recommendations

and Situations

Special Rules, Recommendations

and Situations

1111

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RulesRules■ Cold/stren uous dives – plan as if

4m/10ft deeper than actual �■ Cold/stren uous dives – plan as if

4m/10ft deeper than actual �

1212

■ Each successive dive is to �the same or shallo wer depth�

■ Each successive dive is to �the same or shallo wer depth �

■ Limit depth to training and e xperience�■ Limit depth to training and e xperience �■ Multiple repetitive dives �

◆ W or X – 1 hour surface interval �on all subsequent dives�

◆ Y or Z – 3 hour surface interval �on all subsequent dives

■ Multiple repetitive dives �◆ W or X – 1 hour surface interval �

on all subsequent dives�◆ Y or Z – 3 hour surface interval �

on all subsequent divescontinued...continued...

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Rules...Rules...

■ Repetitive dive limit – 30m/100ft�■ Repetitive dive limit – 30m/100ft �

1313

■ Maximum limit – 40m/130ft�■ Maximum limit – 40m/130ft �

◆ Accidentall y deeper? �◆ Accidentall y deeper? �

✚ Make an emer gency decompression stop for 8 minutes at 5m/15ft �

✚ Make an emer gency decompression stop for 8 minutes at 5m/15ft �

✚ Do not dive a gain for at �least 6 hours

✚ Do not dive a gain for at �least 6 hours


to 5 metres/15 feet, and make an emergency decom-pression stop for 8 minutes. If the no decompression limit for 40 metres/130 feet is NOT exceeded by more than 5 minutes. Do not dive again for 6 hours.

B. Safety stops1. You are encouraged to make a safety stop for 3

minutes at 5 metres/15 feet after every dive. (The time spent at a safety stop need not be added to the bottom time of the dive.)

2. Always make a safety stop:a. After any dive to 30 metres/100 feet (or greater).b. Any time you will surface within 3 pressure

groups of your NDL.c. When a dive is made to any limit of the RDP.

3. PADI S.A.F.E. (Slowly Ascend From Every dive) Cam-paigna. This project resulted from PADI’s leadership role

in encouraging slower ascent rates among sport divers. [Refer to sidebar article “Be a S.A.F.E. Div-er” in section Four of the PADI Open Water Diver Manual.]

C. Emergency decompression1. An emergency decompression stop for 8 minutes at

5 metres/15 feet must be made if a no decompression limit is accidentally exceeded by 5 minutes or less. • Upon surfacing, the diver must remain out of the

water at least 6 hours prior to making another dive.

2. If a no decompression limit is exceeded by more than 5 minutes, a 5 metre/15 foot decompression stop of no less than 15 minutes is required (air sup-ply permitting).• Upon surfacing, the diver must remain out of the

water at least 24 hours prior to making another dive.

3. Decompression is considered an emergency proce-dure. The RDP should never be used for decompres-sion diving purposes or when breathing a gas other than air or enriched air with special procedures.

4. Inwater recompression - treating DCI by putting the diver back underwater shouldn’t be attempted. Recompression requires long durations, oxygen, and often drug therapy. Normally the required resources

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Safety StopsSafety Stops

■ Recommended after every dive�■ Recommended after every dive�

1414

■ Required after:�◆ Any dive to or deeper �

than 30m/100ft�

■ Required after:�◆ Any dive to or deeper �

than 30m/100ft �

◆ Any dive made within 3 �pressure gr oups of NDL�

◆ Any dive made within 3 �pressure gr oups of NDL �

◆ Any dive reac hes any limit �on the RDP

◆ Any dive reac hes any limit �on the RDP

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Emergency DecompressionEmergency Decompression■ 8 minutes at 5m/15ft �

when limit is exceeded by �5 minutes or less�

■ 8 minutes at 5m/15ft �when limit is exceeded by �5 minutes or less�

1515

■ 15 minutes at 5m/15ft (or as long as air supply permits) when limit is exceeded by more than 5 minutes

■ 15 minutes at 5m/15ft (or as long as air supply permits) when limit is exceeded by more than 5 minutes


aren’t available at a dive site, and incomplete recom-pression will usually make the diver even worse.

D. Omitted decompression1. If an emergency decompression stop is mistakenly omit-

ted, do not reenter the water for at least 24 hours.2. Rest, be alert for any signs or symptoms of DCS.3. Breathe pure oxygen.4. Seek medical assistance if signs or symptoms occur.

E. Altitude considerations1. Because depth at altitude must be converted into a theo-

retical equivalent depth at sea level, special procedures must be implemented when using the RDP at altitudes over 300 metres/1000 feet.

2. Special training is advised when diving at high altitudes.F. Flying and ascending to altitude after diving recommenda-

tions. (These recommendations apply to altitudes between 600-2400 metres/2000-8000 feet.)1. For a single dive within the no decompression limit, a

minimum preflight surface interval of 12 hours is sug-gested

2. For repetitive dives and/or multiday dives, a minimum preflight surface interval of 18 hours is suggested.

3. For dives requiring decompression stops, a minimum preflight surface interval greater than 18 hours is sug-gested.

G. What are the recommendations for diving with dive computers?1. Divers should not attempt to share a diver computer. Use

the same computer throughout the diving day - it must keep up with all dives and surface intervals.

2. Keep these points in mind:a. Computers and tables have same theoretical basis

- nothing makes one better or safer.b. Therefore, same guidelines apply (e.g., don’t make

deep dives after shallow dives, etc.)3. Follow all manufacturer recommendations.4. End the dive based on the most conservative computer in

the buddy team.5. If a computer fails:

a. Ascend immediately according to the manufacturer’s instruction. If there is no recommendation, immedi-ately ascend slowly and make a safety stop at 5 metres/15 feet. If there’s any question as

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Omitted DecompressionOmitted Decompression

■ Do not reenter the water�■ Do not reenter the water�

1616

■ Do not dive for at least 24 hours�■ Do not dive for at least 24 hours�

■ Monitor for signs or� symptoms of DCS�

■ Monitor for signs or� symptoms of DCS�

■ Breathe oxygen and seek �medical assistance if signs/symptoms occur

■ Breathe oxygen and seek �medical assistance if signs/symptoms occur

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Altitude Considerations ��

Altitude Considerations ��

1717

Special procedures must �be implemented when �

using the RDP at altitudes greater than 300m/1000ft

Special procedures must �be implemented when �

using the RDP at altitudes greater than 300m/1000ft

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Flying After DivingFlying After Diving

1818

■ Wait a minim um surface inter val of �

12 hours prior to ascent to altitude �in a commer cial jet airliner (altitude �up to 2400m/8000ft) �

■ Wait a minim um surface inter val of �12 hours prior to ascent to altitude �in a commer cial jet airliner (altitude �up to 2400m/8000ft) �

■ Divers who plan to make dail y, multiple dives for several days or make dives that require decompression stops should take a special precaution �— an extended surface inter val �beyond 12 hour s before flight

■ Divers who plan to make dail y, multiple dives for several days or make dives that require decompression stops should take a special precaution �— an extended surface inter val �beyond 12 hour s before flight

DM 8 - DM 8 -

What should you do if your computer fails?What should you do if your computer fails?

1919

■ Slowly ascend to 5m/15ft and make a safety stop — e xtended if necessar y�

■ Slowly ascend to 5m/15ft and make a safety stop — e xtended if necessar y�

■ If your dive pr ofile is within no stop limits, you may be able to resume diving using the RDP �

■ If your dive pr ofile is within no stop limits, you may be able to resume diving using the RDP �

■ If not, stay out of the water accor ding �to manufacturer recommendations �— usuall y 12 to 24 hour s

■ If not, stay out of the water accor ding �to manufacturer recommendations �— usuall y 12 to 24 hour s


to whether you may have accidentally exceeded the no decompression limits, make the stop as long as possible with the air you have.

b. If you have been tracking your profiles with tables and are within no stop limits, you may be able to resume diving using tables.

c. Otherwise, remain out of the water according to manufacturer recommendations before resuming diving with tables or another computer. This is usually 12 to 24 hours.

VI. RDP Table and Wheel Use Review

Note to instructor: Candidates should be familiar with the RDP, but you may want to review its use to assure leadership-level mastery. Candidates should be able to perform the following listed procedures. Work through examples to assess learning, to review and remediate as necessary.

A. Find NDL. B. Find Pressure Group after a dive. C. Find new Pressure Group after surface interval. D. Find adjusted NDL and RNT (Table).E. Find TBT (Table) and new Pressure Group after a re-

petitive dive. F. Find all of the above for dive profile with three or more

repetitive dives.G. Find next level depth for a multilevel dive. (The Wheel)H. Find NDLs for each level on multilevel dive. (The

Wheel)I. Apply the WX-YZ rules. J. Find the minimum surface interval required for a re-

petitive dive of given bottom time and depth.

DM 8 - DM 8 -

RDP �Wheel Review

RDP �Wheel Review

2020

DM 8 - DM 8 -

RDP� Table Review

RDP� Table Review

2121

• Demonstrate how to find a no decompres-sion limit for a first and repetitive dive using both the RDP table and The Wheel.

• Demonstrate how to plan a multilevel dive using The Wheel.

• Using both RDP table and The Wheel, dem-onstrate how to calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives.


Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs

Recommended Materials and Methods for Covering this TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about programs PADI Divemasters can conduct independently is to have candidates read sections of the PADI Instructor Manual that apply to those programs. Then conduct this presentation, referencing those sections as you highlight standards and other information needed when conducting the program. Also cover chang-es announced in the Training Bulletin that may apply and have candidates write these changes into their PADI Instructor Manual.

Remind candidates that they will be practicing one of these programs during Required Training Exercise 3 - Divemaster Conducted Program, so they need to know how to find this material (not necessarily memorize).

The presentation outline suggests points that you can apply to all PADI Divemaster conducted programs. Repeat the outline for each program. At this writing, Discover Snorkeling, Skin Diver, Discover Local Diving, Scuba Review, Discover Scuba Diving and PADI Scuba Diver are the programs you’ll cover under this topic.

Presentation Overview and Learning Objectives I. Finding the program in the PADI Instructor Manual. 1. Demonstrate how to find standards and related

information in the PADI Instructor Manual.

II. Standards and Ratios 2. In the PADI Instructor Manual, differentiate be-

tween requirements (standards) that you must adhere to when conducting a PADI program, and supporting material/recommendations.

3. Find the performance requirements and explain why it’s important to state these for participants.

4. Find the maximum ratio of participants to PADI Divemaster.

5. List materials required and recommended when conducting the program.

III. Administrative Requirements 6. Complete administrative requirements (Liability

Release and Express Assumption of Risk, PIC, etc.)

7. State the annual renewal requirements for PADI Divemasters.

DM 9 - DM 9 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ Finding Programs in the �PADI Instructor Man ual�

■ Finding Programs in the �PADI Instructor Man ual�

■ Standards and Ratios�■ Standards and Ratios �

■ Administrative Requirements �■ Administrative Requirements �

■ Marketing■ Marketing


8. State the professional liability insurance require-ments for PADI Divemasters conducting the pro-gram.

IV. Marketing 9. State who the program is intended for (audience)

and explain the program’s approach and philosophy.

10. List and explain suggested marketing and promotional tips for the program.

Outline[Go through outline for each program.] I. Finding the program in the PADI Instructor Manual.

A. Demonstrate how to find standards and related information in the PADI Instructor Manual.

B. Identify relevant sections in General Standards and Procedures.

II. Standards and RatiosA. Differentiate between requirements (standards)

that you must adhere to when conducting a PADI program, and supporting material/rec-ommendations.1. Boldface text2. Nonbold recommendations

B. Find the performance requirements and ex-plain why it’s important to state these for participants.1. Participants must meet these before continuing in

the program.2. Stating objectives for participants helps them learn

by showing them clearly what they’re trying to do.a. Not necessary to read objectives verbatim

(though may be acceptable).b. [Give examples by reading objectives as found in

the Instructor Manual, then stating them as you would for program participants.]

C. Find the maximum ratio of participants to PADI Divemaster.

D. List materials required and recommended when conducting the program.

DM 9 - DM 9 -

What programs can P ADI Divemasters conduct?What programs can P ADI Divemasters conduct?

33

■ Skin Diver course�■ Skin Diver course�■ Discover Snorkeling�■ Discover Snorkeling�■ Discover Local Diving�■ Discover Local Diving�■ Scuba Review�■ Scuba Review�■ Discover Scuba Diving �

— subsequent dives �■ Discover Scuba Diving �

— subsequent dives �■ PADI Scuba Diver �

— super vise recreational dives■ PADI Scuba Diver �

— super vise recreational dives


III. Administrative Requirements [Have samples of all forms that candidates can prac-

tice filling out and reviewing for completeness.]A. Complete administrative requirements

(Liability Release and Express Assumption of Risk, PIC, etc.)

B. Form completion practice [Cover filling out PIC Envelopes for the PADI Skin Diver course in detail.] C. State the annual renewal requirements for

PADI Divemasters.1. PADI Members renew their memberships annually

with their PADI Office. They sign an annual renewal and license agreement and pay annual membership dues.

D. State the professional liability insurance requirements for PADI Divemasters conducting the program.1. When programs are conducted independently by a

PADI Divemaster, Professional Underwater Liability Insurance is required in many territories. [Explain local requirements, emphasizing that insurance is always recommended even if not required, and that insurance requirements may change if candidates relocate.]

IV. MarketingA. State who the program is intended for

(audience) and explain the program’s approach and philosophy.1. This information is usually found in the introduc-

tion to Instructor Guide. 2. [Review material in PADI Instructor Manual for each

program. Be sure candidates understand the intend-ed participants and the conduct philosophy behind each program. For example, candidates need to recognize that Discover Snorkeling differs from the PADI Skin Diver course, etc.]

B. List and explain suggested marketing and promotional tips for the program.1. Developing marketing/promotion methods [Review

material in the PADI Instructor Manual for each pro-gram.]a. Consult The Undersea Journal, The Business of Div-

ing, and other business-oriented material from

DM 9 - DM 9 -

You must renew your PADI Membership and

carry professional liability insurance

(where applicable) to conduct these programs

You must renew your PADI Membership and

carry professional liability insurance

(where applicable) to conduct these programs

44

DM 9 - DM 9 - 55



Instructor Manual

Instructor Manual

Let’s review the appropriate sections in your PADI �Instructor �Manual

Let’s review the appropriate sections in your PADI �Instructor �Manual


PADI for general marketing information, and for information specific to each program.

b. Coordinate with your dive operation. Dive opera-tions often has specific marketing objectives and strategies that you can draw from in promoting the programs you can conduct.

c. Think about for whom each program is intended and pursue groups of such individuals.

2. Examples:a. Skin Diver course - for serious free divers, people

wanting more vigorous exercise. Also useful for children too young for scuba certification when parents take Open Water Diver course. Promote in health clubs, summer camps, teen organiza-tions.

b. Discover Snorkeling - suitable for travel and tour groups, popular with all age groups, good as a relaxing way to enjoy the water and as a swim-ming activity for exercise Promote in health clubs and with outdoors-oriented organizations.

c. Scuba Review - bring inactive diving friends or new divers into diving. Promote in resort destina-tions where inactive divers discover opportunities to dive. Also at travel agencies, tour groups, etc.

DM 9 - DM 9 -

PADI Skin Diver CoursePADI Skin Diver Course

66

■ Course Goals�■ Course Goals�

■ Standards�■ Standards�

■ Course Overview�■ Course Overview�

■ Open Water Dive �(optional)�

■ Open Water Dive �(optional)�

■ Filling out the PIC envelope�■ Filling out the PIC envelope�

■ How can you market this program?■ How can you market this program?

DM 9 - DM 9 -

Scuba ReviewScuba Review

99

■ Why?�■ Why?�

■ Divemaster’s role�■ Divemaster’s role�

■ Standards�■ Standards�

■ Knowledge Review�■ Knowledge Review�

■ Confined Water Skill Review�■ Confined Water Skill Review�

■ Recognition�■ Recognition�

■ How can you market this program?■ How can you market this program?

DM 9 - DM 9 -

Discover Scuba DivingDiscover Scuba Diving

1010

■ Standards�◆ What can cer tified �

assistants do?

■ Standards�◆ What can cer tified �

assistants do?

PADI Scuba DiverPADI Scuba Diver■ Diver qualifications�■ Diver qualifications�■ Depth recommendation�■ Depth recommendation�■ How can you market your �

services to these divers?■ How can you market your �

services to these divers?


Topic 10 - Risk ManagementRecommended Materials and Methods for Covering this TopicThis section introduces candidates to principles of risk management as it relates to the immediate duties they’ll have as PADI Divemasters. It is recom-mended that you have candidates read The Law and the Diving Professional, if available in a language they understand. The risk management and quality assurance articles in The Best of the Undersea Journal are also good references. Refer candidates to the Quality Management and risk management discus-sions in the General Standards and Procedures Guide of the PADI Instructor Manual.

The presentation outline covers the basic risk management principles found most commonly in legal systems. As appropriate, cover details specific to risk management that apply to the local area, or the area where candi-dates will be functioning as PADI Divemasters.

Presentation Overview and Learning Objectives I. Definition of Risk Management 1. What is meant by risk management?

II. Legal Risk Management 2. What are meant by duty of care and negligence in

most legal systems?

3. Why is it recommended that you carry professional liability insurance, even when you plan to function exclusively as an assistant working under a PADI Instructor?

4. What is the most important step you can take to manage legal risk?

5. Why does adhering to standards help you reduce legal risk?

6. What role does good judgment play in reducing legal risk?

7. What is the role of proper paperwork and adminis-tration in reducing legal risk?

8. In the event of a dive accident, besides giving prior-ity to taking all steps you can to handle the emer-gency, what should you do from a legal risk man-agement point of view?

DM 10 - DM 10 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ Definition of Risk Mana gement�■ Definition of Risk Mana gement�

■ Legal Risk Mana gement�■ Legal Risk Mana gement�

■ Quality Mana gement — Recognition and Assurance �

■ Quality Mana gement — Recognition and Assurance �

■ Personal Health and Saf ety■ Personal Health and Saf ety


III. Quality Management - Recognition and Assurance 9. How does the Quality Management process help

you reduce legal risk?

10. What are the steps in the Quality Management pro-cess?

IV. Personal Health and Safety 11. What are five suggestions to help you manage risks

to your health and safety as a divemaster?

Outline

I. What is meant by risk management?A. Risk management is the process of reducing risks you

face while acting within your capacity as a PADI Dive-master. The goal of risk management is to increase the safety for divers and you by avoiding accidents for all involved, and by reducing legal risk for you as a dive leader.

B. Risk management can be divided into two broad areas that you need to address:1. Legal risk - dealing with sources of liability2. Your personal health and safety

II. Legal Risk ManagementA. Functioning as a leadership-level diver who supervises

others entails some legal risk.B. What are meant by duty of care and negligence

in most legal systems?1. Under most legal systems, you have a duty of care

- to act as a reasonably prudent divemaster would act under the same or similar circumstances - to those you supervise. a. Since diving is a risk-taking activity, a divemas-

ter doesn’t and can’t ever guarantee diver safety. There is always some residual risk of serious harm or death, despite the divemaster’s best efforts, and divers must accept this risk if they intend to dive.

2. The act of failing to meet a duty of care is negligence under most legal systems.

3. In the event of an accident, if a lawsuit is filed, the suit usually alleges that as a divemaster you had a duty of care and were negligent.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

What is meant by �risk management?�

�

What is meant by �risk management?�

�

33

Increasing safety and avoiding accidents �

to reduce risk

Increasing safety and avoiding accidents �

to reduce risk

DM 10 - DM 10 -

What is duty of care?What is duty of care?

44

■ The expectation to act as a reasonably prudent divemaster would act under the same or similar circumstances��

■ The expectation to act as a reasonably prudent divemaster would act under the same or similar circumstances��

What is negligence?What is negligence?■ Failure to meet a duty of care■ Failure to meet a duty of care


4. Under most legal systems, if you are found in court to have been negligent, and your negligence is the direct cause of an accident that causes injury, prop-erty destruction or death, then you are liable and will owe damages (compensation).

B. Why is it recommended that you carry profes-sional liability insurance, even when you plan to function exclusively as an assistant working under a PADI Instructor?1. Under most legal systems, you can be sued even if

you did nothing wrong - defending yourself can be costly and liability insurance provides coverage for your defense.

2. If you are found liable, insurance provides coverage for damages.

3. If you are assisting an instructor, though the instruc-tor has most of the responsibility, coverage is recom-mended because:a. You can still be named in the suit.b. You can be found responsible for your own ac-

tions or what part you may have played in an accident, even with an instructor present.

c. Instructor’s insurance does not cover assistants.d. You can be added to a suit already in progress.

4. Within the U.S. and territories and many other regions, professional liability insurance is required when engaging in PADI Divemaster conducted pro-grams independently. [Explain local requirements.]

5. Note that professional liability insurance does not normally provide liability coverage for your person-ally owned scuba equipment you might provide a diver or student diver (such as when something mal-functions or is forgotten).a. Instead, provide equipment from a dive center/

resort’s normal rental/class scuba equipment, which will be covered under the operation’s store insurance.

b. If necessary, you can obtain special coverage as part of your professional liability insurance to provide liability coverage for personal equipment you might provide a certified diver or student diver.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

Why is professional liability insurance impor tant?Why is professional liability insurance impor tant?

55

■ You can be sued, even if you �did nothing wr ong�

■ You can be sued, even if you �did nothing wr ong�

■ Insurance ma y cover defense costs and dama ges, if necessar y�

■ Insurance ma y cover defense costs and dama ges, if necessar y�

■ Instructor’s insurance does �not cover assistants

■ Instructor’s insurance does �not cover assistants

NOTE: Professional liability insur ance does not normally cov er personally owned equipment

NOTE: Professional liability insur ance does not normally cov er personally owned equipment


C. What is the most important step you can take to manage legal risk?1. The primary way to manage legal risk is to prevent

accidents in the first place by adhering to conserva-tive diving, supervisory and assisting practices.a. This is professional judgment and basic human

compassion and caring - not just a legal tool.b. You’re not likely to face a suit for an accident

that doesn’t happen.2. Why does adhering to standards help you

reduce legal risk?a. Standards stipulate your duty of care - by sticking

to standards, you go a long way to proving you met your duty.

b. PADI defends the appropriateness of standards so you don’t have to.

3. What role does good judgment play in reduc-ing legal risk?.a. Good judgment and being conservative reduces

your legal risk.b. Even when following standards, you need to use

good judgment in their application - example: reducing ratios when conditions aren’t ideal.

c. Ties in to primary risk management - reduces possibility of an accident in the first place.

4. What is the role of proper paperwork and administration in reducing legal risk?

[Ask candidates how paperwork might relate to risk management. Have them discuss this briefly before presenting the following points as elaborations on conclusions they reach, or to cover ideas they missed.] a. Paperwork is very important - suits have been dis-

missed based on proper paperwork alone!b. Paperwork and administration help you docu-

ment that you followed standards.c. The Liability Release and Express Assumption of

Risk form shifts legal responsibility to program participants - they assume risk where allowed by law [explain local laws].1. Informs participants of risks.2. Forms a contract between you and participants

that they accept risks, including the risk that you may do something that could be held neg-ligent by a court.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

What is the most important step you can

take to manage legal risk?��

What is the most important step you can

take to manage legal risk?��

66

Adhere to conservative diving, supervisory and

assisting practices

Adhere to conservative diving, supervisory and

assisting practices

DM 10 - DM 10 -

Reducing Legal RiskReducing Legal Risk

77

■ Follow standards�■ Follow standards�

■ Use good judgment�■ Use good judgment�■ Have documentation�

— proper paperw ork�■ Have documentation�

— proper paperw ork�◆ Liability release �◆ Liability release �

◆ Medical form�◆ Medical form�

◆ Other student or �participant documents

◆ Other student or �participant documents


3. This is one of the most important documents; have it completed and keep it on file.

d. Medical form1. Helps prevent accidents by screening those

medically ineligible to dive. a. Those who answer “yes” to any condition

must receive physician approval before participating.

b. In some countries, all participants must see a physician prior to enrolling in scuba activities.

2. Accidents resulting from a medical condi-tion listed on form helps shift responsibility to participant (for incorrectly filling out form) or physician who signed form.

e. Review paperwork closely to be sure all blanks are filled, that it is signed, dated and legible.

f. Keep all paperwork at least seven years, or longer if local statute of limitations is longer.

D. In the event of a dive accident, besides giving priority to taking all steps you can to handle the emergency, what should you do from a legal risk management point of view?1. Your first priority is handling the emergency, con-

tacting authorities and emergency medical care, showing compassion and doing everything possible for the well being of victim.

2. Do inform the victim’s family about the accident and show compassion and care.

3. Do cooperate with authorities and give them the facts of the incident.

4. Do not assign, admit or speculate on causes or blame.a. Distracts from managing the accident and help-

ing the victim.b. Facts are seldom complete, so speculations are

usually inaccurate.c. Statements made about causes may appear in the

press and in court (if a suit is filed) even if subse-quent investigation proves these inaccurate.

5. Do collect the victim’s equipment to turn over to authorities.a. Have someone (a diver) not connected with the

DM 10 - DM 10 -

In the event of an accident, what should you do?In the event of an accident, what should you do?

88

■ Handle emergency and tend to victim�■ Handle emergency and tend to victim�■ Provide the victim’s family and

authorities with facts�■ Provide the victim’s family and

authorities with facts�■ Do not assign, admit to or speculate

on causes or blame�■ Do not assign, admit to or speculate

on causes or blame�■ Collect the victim’s equipment �

for authorities�■ Collect the victim’s equipment �

for authorities�■ File an incident report with PADI■ File an incident report with PADI


accident confirm in writing whether it appears to be working normally and how much air is in the cylinder.

b. Record person’s contact information - equipment may sit unrinsed for months and not work prop-erly when checked later.

6. File an incident report with your PADI Office.

III. Quality Management - Recognition and AssuranceA. How does the Quality Management process help

you reduce legal risk?1. All PADI Offices conduct random surveys of PADI

student divers and program participants, and fol-low up on reports from the field to ensure that PADI programs are conducted to PADI Standards. This process also confirms that PADI professionals under-stand those standards. This proactive process helps you reduce legal risk.

2. It creates documentation that you follow standards to support your paperwork and statements.

3. It gives standards that defend your credibility by showing that PADI enforces them.

4. If you are found to be accidentally not following standards:a. Provides opportunity to correct problem before a

related accident occurs.b. Documents the correction so that, in the event of

an accident later, no one can successfully allege you violated standards based on witness reports of earlier standards violations.

B. What are the steps in the Quality Management process?1. Procedures are primarily corrective. Most standards

problems result from misunderstandings.2. [Review the Quality Assurance procedure steps in

the General Standards and Procedures section of the PADI Instructor Manual.]

IV. Personal Health and SafetyA. Functioning as a divemaster can raise several potential

health and safety concerns.1. Supervising duties may require long periods of being

active and alert, despite being tired.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

How does PADI’s quality management process work?How does PADI’s quality management process work?

99

■ Students and pr ogram par ticipants are randoml y surveyed�

■ Students and pr ogram par ticipants are randoml y surveyed�

■ Reports received fr om customer s and PADI Member s�

■ Reports received fr om customer s and PADI Member s�

■ Proactive process ensures that PADI programs are conducted per PADI Standar ds

■ Proactive process ensures that PADI programs are conducted per PADI Standar ds

DM 10 - DM 10 -

Members who provide excellent instruction and customer

service are recognized��

Members who provide excellent instruction and customer

service are recognized��

1010

When necessary, corrective action is taken to ensure PADI

Members understand and follow PADI Standards

When necessary, corrective action is taken to ensure PADI

Members understand and follow PADI Standards


2. You may need to make multiple dives in a relatively short period.

3. Your duties may call for physical labor, stamina and continuous exertion.

B. Maintaining your health and safety is a matter of fol-lowing common health guidelines and conservative diving practices.

C. What are five suggestions to help you manage risks to your health and safety as a divemaster?1. Stay physically fit by exercising regularly, getting

adequate rest and eating properly.2. When making multiple repetitive dives, plan your

dives so that you make the deepest dive of the day first and work progressively shallower, staying well within the no decompression limits. Make a safety stop at the end of all dives. Take a day off from div-ing every few days.

3. Stay hydrated. Tropical heat depletes body fluids, as do caffeine and alcohol consumption.

4. When ill or injured, moderate your activities ac-cordingly. Pressing on may delay healing and may compromise your abilities.

5. Pay attention to your mental health - dive for fun, not just for work, so you avoid burnout, and engage in other pastimes.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

Personal Health and SafetyPersonal Health and Safety

1111

■ Stay physically fit�■ Stay physically fit�■ Make the deepest dive of the �

day first and sta y well within �no decompression limits �

■ Make the deepest dive of the �day first and sta y well within �no decompression limits �

■ Remain h ydrated�■ Remain h ydrated �■ When ill or injured, moderate �

your activities�■ When ill or injured, moderate �

your activities �■ Pay attention to y our mental health �

— HAVE FUN■ Pay attention to y our mental health �

— HAVE FUN


Topic 11 - The Business of Diving

Recommended Materials and Methods for Covering this TopicThis section introduces candidates to their function in the business aspects of a dive operation. It is recommended that you have candidates read The Business of Diving book, and business related articles in The Best of the Under-sea Journal and the IDC Candidate Workbook, if available in a language they can read. It’s also recommended that you encourage candidates to begin developing business skills by viewing PADI business-related programs such as Positive Approach Selling and Advanced Strategies for Recruiting and Retaining Enthusiastic Divers.

Focus your elaboration on specific examples of how this information pertains to the dive business in your local area.

Presentation Overview and Learning Objective I. The Dive Consumer 1. What are the “three Es” of diving, and where does

the dive consumer find them?

2. What functions may a PADI Divemaster have in helping dive consumers with the three Es?

II. Equipment Counseling 3. What is the role of leadership-level divers with re-

spect to equipment counseling?

4. What are four attributes of a positive sales process?

Outline

I. The Dive Consumer [Ask candidates what they need to be a diver. Write

their answers on the board in three columns accord-ing to equipment, education or entertainment (expe-riences), but don’t label columns. After getting sev-eral items in each column, ask candidates to name each column. Transition into discussion of three Es.]A. What are the “three Es” of diving, and where

does the dive consumer find them?1. The “three Es” are characteristics needed by all dive

DM 11 - DM 11 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Dive Consumer�■ The Dive Consumer�

■ Equipment Counseling■ Equipment Counseling


consumers, without which there would be no dive industry. a. Education - To dive safely initially, and to prog-

ress to more challenging types of dive activities, divers need dive training.

b. Equipment - Without it diving is impossible. Dive consumers need access to equipment to buy or rent.

c. Entertainment (experience) - Education and equipment have no value if divers can’t do some-thing with them. Entertainment is the reason people become divers.1. Travel, local diving, clubs, and other events all

qualify as entertainment - reasons to dive and to be involved with diving.

2. The need for entertainment is the reason to get new student divers diving in confined water as quickly as possible. Beginning divers often per-ceive the conventional long-classroom-sessions as an obstacle or delay, and this stops some people from learning to dive.

2. A fourth E sometimes mentioned is environment. Divers need a healthy dive environment, and we all need a healthy environment to live. As the dive community grows, we take on increasing responsi-bility to act together as advocates for aquatic envi-ronments.

B. The dive center and dive resort, where the three Es come together under one roof, is the focus of the dive industry.

C. What functions may a PADI Divemaster have in helping dive consumers with the three Es?1. As a leadership-level diver, it is your role to help div-

ers meet their education, equipment and entertain-ment needs.a. May be direct involvement, such as leading a trip

or assisting with student divers in training.b. May be indirect assistance, such as providing rec-

ommendations or advice to divers who ask about travel, equipment, etc.

2. Certified divers will seek your supervision for guided diving partly because you help assure that all three Es are met.

DM 11 - DM 11 -

How can you help customers fulfill

their needs?

How can you help customers fulfill

their needs?

55

■ Direct involvement �■ Direct involvement �

■ Indirect assistance ■ Indirect assistance


a. You handle the entertainment by knowing where the best dive sites are and by making the experi-ence fun.

b. You help divers assess whether they have the edu-cation needed to make a particular dive.

c. You help divers assess whether they’re properly equipped for a dive, and may have spare equip-ment from the dive operation rental stock if there’s an equipment related problem.

II. Equipment Counseling [Ask candidates what they think about salespeople.

Next ask candidates to think of a salesperson who they felt was genuinely helpful and tell you what made the person effective. Take the resulting descrip-tion and make the point that divemaster duties are likely to involve equipment sales or counseling, so they need to recognize the effective aspects of the sales process.]A. What is the role of leadership-level divers with

respect to equipment counseling?1. Divers, especially student divers, come to leadership-

level divers for advice about equipment.2. It is entirely appropriate for you to give advice on

equipment purchases.a. Diving is a technical activity and learning about

equipment is part of the education each diver goes through.

b. Divers appreciate the recommendations of those they respect - think about when you were at their level in diving.

3. The dive operation you work with relies on equip-ment sales as part of how they stay in business.a. If you don’t help, divers may go elsewhere.b. Or they may get advice from a less qualified

source.c. Or they may not continue with diving - everyone

loses.B. What are four attributes of a positive sales pro-

cess?1. Your goal is to give the best recommendations so the

diver will be happy with the equipment to promote a long term relationship.

DM 11 - DM 11 -

Positive Sales ApproachPositive Sales Approach

77

■ Give recommendations that are good for building long term customer relationships�

■ Give recommendations that are good for building long term customer relationships�

■ Listen carefully to customer needs�■ Listen carefully to customer needs�

■ Do not make assumptions�■ Do not make assumptions�

■ Provide the advice you �would like to receive

■ Provide the advice you �would like to receive

DM 11 - DM 11 -

What about sales and salespeople?�

�

What about sales and salespeople?�

�

66

Become an �equipment counselor

Become an �equipment counselor


a. You don’t need to “push” anything when your goal is a long term relationship.

b. Long term relationships bring in the most busi-ness in the end - best for the dive operation, best for the customer.

2. You listen to the divers who come to you for advice and help them based on what they tell you.a. They will usually tell you what they want and

need, but you may have to ask about their inter-ests, planned uses, etc.

b. Try not to assume - it’s surprising how often what they tell you differs from what you thought they’d say.

3. You don’t make assumptions about price:a. Recommend the equipment that best addresses

their needs and wants without worrying about price. b. People often want more than they need. Give them

the facts and let them decide - buying higher per-formance equipment may cost more, but it is of-ten cheaper in the long run, even if the individual doesn’t need that performance level immediately.

4. You give all the advice you’d like to get.a. Don’t forget the little things that make the big dif-

ference (e.g., a bottle of defog with a mask pur-chase, etc.).

b. Suggest ways (courses, trips, etc.) divers can enjoy their new investment.


Topic 12 - Your Diving CareerRecommended Materials and Methods

for Covering this TopicThis topic is intended to aim candidates toward a satisfying and successful career in the dive industry, whether they’re pursuing leadership training as a vocation or as an avocation. During this topic, your main emphasis will be on progressing to the Assistant Instructor and Instructor levels, and on addi-tional skills and training that can give individuals a competitive advantage in the industry.

Presentation Overview and Learning Objective I. PADI Training to Further Your Dive Career 1. What are six reasons why you should consider con-

tinuing your training through the PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor level?

2. How does it benefit you to complete the PADI As-sistant Instructor course prior to enrolling in the PADI OWSI Program?

3. How does diver-level specialty training help your career as a PADI Divemaster?

II. Other Training That Can Aid Your Career 4. What are six skills, outside of diver training, that

can make you more valuable in the dive industry?

III. The Role of Emerging Technologies 5. How will emerging technologies affect your career,

and what should you do in response?

Outline I. PADI Training to Further Your Dive Career

A. What are six reasons why you should consider continuing your training through the PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor level?1. Because they’re fully qualified to teach classes, in-

structors have more versatility as employees.2. The majority of dive boat professionals supervis-

ing certified divers are instructors, which gives them more versatility as employees because they can train divers.

DM 12 - DM 12 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ PADI Training to Fur ther Your Dive Career �

■ PADI Training to Fur ther Your Dive Career �

■ Other Training That Can Aid Your Career�

■ Other Training That Can Aid Your Career �

■ The Role of Emer ging Technologies

■ The Role of Emer ging Technologies

DM 12 - DM 12 -

Why continue your education?Why continue your education?

33

■ Gaining new skills �and qualifying to �conduct additional �courses makes �you more versatile�

■ Versatility is what �employers look for

■ Gaining new skills �and qualifying to �conduct additional �courses makes �you more versatile�

■ Versatility is what �employers look for


3. Most individuals who move into other areas of the dive industry (e.g., manufacturer representatives) begin as instructors - this experience lets them un-derstand their customer’s needs.

4. Even if you’re primarily interested in leadership as an avocation, not a full time vocation, certification as an instructor creates more opportunities.

5. Increasingly, institutions of higher learning recog-nize the quality of PADI Instructor training. This recognition may apply to opportunities and careers beyond diving.

6. There are more opportunities for PADI Instructors than for any other professional in the industry. The demand for PADI Instructors exceeds the demand for instructors of all other organizations combined.

B. How does it benefit you to complete the PADI Assistant Instructor course prior to enrolling in the PADI OWSI Program?

1. Much of the AI course comes from the IDC, so the AI course reduces your instructor training program load.

2. The AI course applies directly to what you learn in the OWSI Program, gives you more time and prac-tice that will help you be successful in the Instructor Examination (IE) and as a certified instructor.

3. You need 100 logged dives to become a PADI Instruc-tor. If you’re short that number, the AI course gives you more opportunities to dive and gain experience.

4. The AI course gives you teaching and income op-portunities by qualifying you to conduct additional PADI courses and programs, including some nondiv-ing PADI Specialities.

5. As an AI, you can enroll in PADI Specialty Instructor courses. When you successfully complete the IE and have ten dives in the specialty, you’ll be qualified to teach the specialties in which you took these courses.

C. How does diver-level specialty training help your career as a PADI Divemaster?

1. Providing more dive opportunities.

2. Helping you gain specialty experience that applies when you qualify to teach the specialty at the Assis-tant Instructor and/or instructor levels.


3. Giving you experience you can apply when assisting specialty diver training.

II. Other Training That Can Aid Your CareerA. Like any industry, the dive industry needs a variety of

skills. Becoming a PADI Divemaster, Assistant Instruc-tor and Instructor provides the base for a successful career, but additional skills and training can help your chances of finding rewarding full time or part time positions.

B. What are six skills, outside of diver training, that can make you more valuable in the dive industry?1. Boat handling/captain’s license - useful at resorts

and boat-intensive operations.2. Retail sales training - useful in virtually any dive

operation.3. Sales management training - valuable for growth

within a retail dive operation.4. Manufacturer equipment repair technician - certifi-

cation to repair specific equipment expands a dive operation’s services.

5. Compressor and/or diesel engine mechanics - virtu-ally all dive operations have compressors, many have diesel engines (in boat); these skills are espe-cially valuable at remote destinations.

6. Writing/word processing/layout/photography - pro-ducing store newsletters/brochures.

III. The Role of Emerging TechnologiesA. How will emerging technologies affect your ca-

reer, and what should you do in response?1. Technology changes rapidly in diving just as in

other industries, and the pace continues to acceler-ate.

2. Much of what you know today will be obsolete in only a few years.a. Medical advancements are likely to rescue and

first aid recommendations.b. Closed and semiclosed circuit scuba may become

more common in recreational diving.c. Electronics may revolutionize navigation.d. Physiology may learn more about DCI, leading to

new approaches to dive computer modeling, and DCI treatment.

DM 12 - DM 12 -

Why take specialty diver courses?Why take specialty diver courses?

55

■ Learn new skills �and gain ad ditional �diving oppor tunities�

■ Learn new skills �and gain ad ditional �diving oppor tunities �

■ Gain experience �to apply when �assisting with specialty training

■ Gain experience �to apply when �assisting with specialty training

DM 12 - DM 12 -

What other training will aid your diving career?What other training will aid your diving career?

66

■ Boat handling/captain’s license�■ Boat handling/captain’s license�

■ Retail sales training�■ Retail sales training�

■ Sales management training�■ Sales management training�

■ Equipment repair technician�■ Equipment repair technician�

■ Compressor/diesel mechanic�■ Compressor/diesel mechanic�

■ Writing and photography■ Writing and photography

DM 12 - DM 12 -

What should you know about emerging technologies?What should you know about emerging technologies?

77

■ Change is inevitable and �usually rapid — KEEP PACE�

■ Change is inevitable and �usually rapid — KEEP PACE�

■ Stay current�■ Stay current �◆ Read dive periodicals and watching

diving-related programs�◆ Read dive periodicals and watching

diving-related programs�◆ Attend dive trade shows�◆ Attend dive trade shows�◆ Continually learn about computers�◆ Continually learn about computers�◆ Put new technologies to use�◆ Put new technologies to use�◆ Be open to change◆ Be open to change


e. Instruction continues to become more convenient and more efficient by using new technologies such as multimedia computer-based training, online training via the internet, etc. These will expand.

B. A professional-level diver must remain current and up to speed with technology.1. Failure to do so obsoletes you - you may have diffi-

culty competing with new professionals entering the dive industry.

2. In some areas, failure to follow the most current standards-of-care may have potential liability.

C. Ways to stay up to date.1. Read a wide variety of dive periodicals and watch

dive videos and television programming.2. Attend dive trade shows.3. Keep up with changes in computer technology - they

affect virtually all industries, including diving. 4. Put new technologies into use. The best way to be

familiar with them is through hands-on application.5. Never accept nor reject something just because it’s

new. Be open to change (you can’t stop it anyway), but use your experience to evaluate the merits of emerging technologies. Some will bring significant improvements to diving; others will be short-lived fads with little practicality.




FourWaterskills and Stamina Module

The Waterskills and Stamina Module has three roles. First, it confirms that candi-

dates retain previously learned skills, allowing time for practice and redevelopment

as necessary. Second, it confirms that candidates have the watermanship appropri-

ate for someone working in a leadership capacity, developing these in candidates

if necessary. Third, this module develops skills so they are more suited to teaching,

which is important both for a PADI Divemaster assisting with student divers in

training, and for progressing to the PADI Assistant Instructor and Open Water Scuba

Instructor levels.

Conduct and StandardsYou conduct all portions of the Waterskills and Stamina exercises in confined water, except the Diver Rescue Assessment and Development, which may be conducted in confined water or open water.

Stamina Assessment and DevelopmentThere are four exercises that evalu-ate stamina and waterskills, each rated by points. There is no passing score for any single exercise, but a combined score of 12 or more is required prior to certification. In addition, candidates must com-

plete all exercises prior to certi-fication.

Candidates who fall short of a combined score of 12 may be given time to practice and develop their abilities while continuing in other areas of the course.

4-2 Four: Waterskills and Stamina

Stamina Exercise 1: 400 Metre/Yard SwimThe candidate must swim 400 metres/yards without stopping using no swimming aids and using any stroke or combination of strokes de-sired. If a candidate stops, the exercise is incomplete and must be repeated.

400 yards 400 metres Time Points Timeunder 6 min 5 under 6 min, 30 sec6 to 8 min 4 6 min, 30 sec to 8 min, 40 sec8 to 10 min 3 8 min, 40 sec to 11 min10 to 12 min 2 11 to 13 minmore than 12 min 1 more than 13 minstopped incomplete stopped

Stamina Exercise 2: 15 Minute TreadUsing no aids and wearing only a swimsuit, the candidate will stay afloat by treading water, drown proofing, bobbing or floating for 15 minutes, with hands (not arms) out of the water during the last 2 min-utes. A candidate with a physical challenge that makes it difficult/im-possible to hold hands out of the water is exempted from that portion of the exercise with no effect on the score.

Criteria PointsPerformed satisfactorily 5Stayed afloat, but hands not out of water entire 2 minutes 3Used side/bottom for momentary support no more than twice 1Used side/bottom for support more than twice incomplete

Stamina Exercise 3: 800 Metre/Yard Snorkel SwimUsing a mask, fins, snorkel and swimsuit only (no BCD or flotation aids) and swimming with the face in the water, the candidate must swim nonstop for 800 metres/yards. The candidate may not use arms to swim, unless the candidate has a physical challenge that limits leg use and arm-swimming is the individual’s normal swimming method while diving. If a candidate stops, the exercise is incomplete and must be re-peated.

800 yards 800 metres Time Points Timeunder 13 min 5 under 14 min13 to 15 min 4 14 to 16 min, 30 sec15 to 17 min 3 16 min, 30 sec to 18 min, 30 sec17 to 19 min 2 18 min, 30 sec to 21 minmore than 19 min 1 more than 21 minstopped incomplete stopped


Stamina Exercise 4: 100 Metres/Yard Inert Diver TowWearing full scuba equipment, the candidate must push or tow an in-ert diver in full scuba at the surface 100 metres/yards nonstop without assistance. Note that this is a swimming power evaluation (speed-against-drag) not a rescue evaluation. If a candidate stops, the exercise is incomplete and must be repeated.

100 yards 100 metres Time Points Timeunder 2 min 5 under 2 min, 10 sec2 to 3 min 4 2 min, 10 sec to 3 min, 15 sec3 to 4 min 3 3 min, 15 sec to 4 min, 20 sec4 to 5 min 2 4 min, 20 sec to 5 min, 30 sec more than 5 min 1 more than 5 min, 30 secstopped incomplete stopped

Diver Rescue Assessment and DevelopmentThe Diver Rescue Assessment and Development has three goals. First, it evaluates effectiveness to assure that candidates can perform a rescue if necessary in an emergency. Second, it improves the quality of rescue skills to be more role model for assisting with the PADI Rescue Diver course. Third, it forms the foundation of demonstra-tion quality rescues required during the IDC/IE.

This exercise is the simulated res-cue of an unresponsive, nonbreathing diver. It applies a pass-fail evaluation criteria. You may conduct this exercise in a pool, confined water or open wa-ter in the following manner:

1. The “victim” is in full scuba equip-ment and submerged around 25 metres/yards from the “rescuer” (candidate you’re evaluating). The rescuer starts from the pool deck, shore or boat as appropriate.

2. At your signal, the rescuer enters the water, locates and surfaces the victim, properly checks for and

initiates breathing, tows the victim while removing own and victim’s weights, mask and scuba unit, and removes the victim from the water. (Equipment handlers allowed.)

3. To pass as an effective rescue, you must be able to answer “yes” to all the following:

• Upon surfacing, did the rescuer establish victim’s buoyancy?

• Did the rescuer look, listen and feel for breathing?

• Did rescuer open the airway and give two slow rescue breaths?

• Did the rescuer call for help?

• Did the rescuer use an effec-tive inwater rescue breath-ing technique?

• Did the rescuer protect the victim’s airway with no or very few interruptions?

• Did the rescuer maintain regular ventilations with no or very few interruptions?


• Did the rescuer resume any ventilation interrup-tions with two slow rescue breaths?

• Did the rescuer perform the rescue without any as-sistance (except the exit where individual physical characteristics and/or the environment may require assistance)?

Note that there is no time limit for the rescue.

Confined Waterskill Assessment and DevelopmentThe Confined Waterskill Assessment and Development has two purposes – to verify that the candidate can perform the 20 basic dive skills from the PADI Skill Evaluation, and to train the candidate to perform these skills to demonstration quality.

Part One: Developing Demonstration Quality SkillsThe first part of this session teaches candidates how to perform a demon-stration quality skill.

Procedure: begin by describing for candidates the characteristics of a demonstration quality skill. Tell them that they will earn to perform mask removal and replacement in a dem-onstration quality manner. Emphasize that their goal is not learning how to do the skill, which they should already know, but how to execute it in a way that allows student divers to learn the steps and critical attributes.

In shallow water kneel down with the group and perform a demonstra-tion quality mask removal and re-placement. Allow candidates to prac-tice independently while you watch.

You can bring individual candidates to the surface for suggestions during this short practice interval.

After watching their practice, have each candidate perform the skill for you. Their execution should be to the 4 level or better. If some candidates need more polish, emphasize those areas that need work and have candidates practice again. Be sure a candidate can demonstrate the skill to the 4 level or better before moving on to Part Two of this session.

By the end of Part One, the candidate should be able to execute the skill of removing, replacing and clearing a mask in a manner that earns a score of 4 or higher.

Skill Evaluation Scores Score Characteristics

1 Candidate unable to per-form exercise.

2 Exercise performed with significant difficulty or error.

3 Exercise performed correctly, though too quickly to adequately exhibit or illustrate details of the skill

4 Exercise performed cor-rectly, and slowly enough to adequately exhibit or illustrate details of skill.

5 Exercise performed cor-rectly, slowly and with exaggerated movement – appeared easy.

Note: These scores are the same as those used for Skill Evaluation through all levels of PADI leadership training.


Part Two: Performing the 20 Basic Scuba Skills From the PADI Skill EvaluationAfter demonstrating a 4 or 5 for mask removal and replacement, candidates are ready to apply demonstration principles to the 20 basic scuba skills listed below.

A skill demonstrated at the 3 level is adequate for someone to learn from, so it isn’t necessary to require a level of 4 or 5 on all skills. However, the goal of this exercise is to teach candi-dates how they can make their skills even more effective as teaching tools by striving for the 4 and 5 levels.

Note: While a few 3s are acceptable, candi-dates must earn 4s and 5s on several skills to be successful. All 3s earns only 54 points.

Procedure: Have candidates perform the 20 skills listed on the Skill Evalua-tion Slate or Divemaster Skill Develop-ment Score Sheet. Grade them accord-ing to the scoring criteria. As necessary, perform the skills for candidates in a demonstration quality manner until they earn at least 68 total points, with no individual score below 3.

The mask removal and re-placement skill must be repeated during this portion of the exercise.

20 Basic Scuba Skills for Skill Evaluation 1. Equipment assembly, adjustment, preparation,

donning and disassembly

2. Predive safety check (BWRAF)

3. Deep water entry

4. Buoyancy check at surface

5. Snorkel-regulator/regulator snorkel exchange

6. Five point descent

7. Regulator recovery and clearing

8. Mask removal, replacement and clearing

9. Air depletion exercise and alternate air source use stationary

10. Freeflow regulator breathing

11. Fin pivot (neutral buoyancy)

12. Five point ascent

13. Remove and replace weight system on the surface

14. Controlled Emergency Swimming Ascent (CESA)

15. Hovering motionless

16. Underwater swim without a mask

17. Remove and replace weight system underwater

18. Remove and replace scuba unit underwater

19. Remove and replace scuba unit on the surface

20. Buddy breathing stationary and swimming (donor and receiver)

By the end of Part Two, the candidate must demonstrate the 20 basic dive skills, with all skills earning a 3 or higher, and the total score for all 20 skills at least 68 points.





FivePractical ApplicationModule

The Practical Application Module allows divemaster candidates to put into prac-

tice the knowledge and skills they will use as functioning PADI Divemasters. This

module contains two segments. The first part includes Required Training Exer-

cises that all candidates must complete. These exercises develop the candidate’s

organizational and problem solving skills. The second part has two options — an

Internship or Practical Training Exercises. Through actual or simulated activities,

candidates develop and apply divemaster skills under instructor supervision. The

Internship options allows candidates to work with real students or divers. During

Practical Training Exercises, candidates gain experience while simulating assisting

and supervisory roles.

Conduct and StandardsFor certification, divemaster candi-dates must successfully complete the Required Training Exercises 1-3 and either the entire Internship or all the Practical Training Exercises.

It’s recommended that candidates participate in Required Training Exercis-es before moving on to the Internship or Practical Training Exercises. The problem solving abilities and confidence gained will add to the candidates’ experiences during practical application.

If time allows, it’s also recommended that candidates participate in both Internship activities and Practical Train-ing Exercises, however, they only need to complete one option. This provides experience in working with actual div-ers and allows targeted learning while

simulating scenarios under instructor supervision.

A teaching status PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor or higher must con-duct the training for all components of the Practical Application Module.

Minimum Diver Numbers for Training ExercisesPractical Training Exercises 1-4 make use of simulated supervisory conditions. This requires individuals to role play divers being supervised. For the purposes of training, the minimum number of role players required in each of these exercises is 4. These role players may be other candidates, in-structional staff mem-bers, or certified divers.


ProfessionalismBy the end of the practical application module, divemaster candidates must score at least a 3 in each of the following professionalism categories:

1. Level of active, positive participation in the training sessions.

2. Ability to deal with student divers in a positive and nonthreatening manner.

3. Willingness to follow directions.

4. General good attitude/demeanor toward student divers and staff.

5. Assessment of the candidate’s general understanding of a divemaster’s role.

6. Appearance

Score Criteria 5 Excellent

4 Above average

3 Average

2 Below average

1 Unacceptable

You must work with and remediate candidates who score a 1 or 2 in any of these categories until a 3 or higher is achieved. This evaluation tool will help you mentor and guide divemaster candidates in this important part of being a PADI Professional. By measuring these attributes in divemaster candidates and providing counseling and critique sessions during the program, you define what it means to be a dive professional.

Required Training Exercises

Required Training Exercise 1Mapping ProjectIn this exercise candidates survey a dive site and draw a map from it. Besides the obvious function of giving candidates experience in creating maps for use by divers and as a briefing aid, the exercise has another important educational role. Candi-dates learn to combine several skills – dive planning, underwater navigation, search patterns, and data recording – to achieve the goal. In effect, mapping is a problem-solving exercise that relies on effective dive organiza-tion and management.

ProceduresYou may assign different dive sites to can-didate buddy teams as projects to complete independently, or you may have the en-tire class collaborate in a single map in a scheduled session you lead. In making the assignment(s):

Candidates must:1. Survey with a buddy, a dive site or

portion of a dive site assigned by the instructor, including underwater and surface features, with sufficient detail and accuracy for creating a map of the site.

2. Create a map of the dive site, showing (as applicable to the site) underwater relief, important points of interest, recommended entry/exit areas, local facilities, and potential hazards.


1. Try to select a site that the candidates aren’t overly familiar with.

2. Emphasize the importance of dive planning as the primary ingredient in suc-cessful mapping.

3. Remind candidates to be as accurate as possible in their measurements and what they record. Point out that inaccuracies tend be cumulative. Attention to detail makes for a better map.

4. Have candidates save their slate notes and other resources for your review. Debrief by creating a nonjudgmental atmosphere in which candidates tell you about their performance rather than vice versa. Look at their slates and other rough work as they debrief. Ask them how the exercise went. Candidates usu-ally will tell you what they were thinking, what they did and what they would change.

5. An adequate map is one that is complete and would be useful for navigation by someone who has never been at the site before. Some teams will be better skilled at artwork and drawing than others, but keep in mind that you are not judging artistic quality.

6. Some candidates may not have ever performed a U-pattern search. If so, you may want to hold a short session for these candidates to practice one under your supervision prior to undertaking the mapping project.

Required Training Exercise 2 Equipment ExchangeThe primary goal of the equipment exchange is problem solving, but with an added level of unanticipated problems and performance under stress. Because the exercise creates an environment with unforeseeable difficulties, candidates have to apply their experience and knowledge creatively, to meet the demands of the moment. This is an important aspect of leading divers and solving problems on the spot.

This exercise is a problem solving evaluation and development tool only. It has no other application. It creates a controlled problems situation in which to

develop and evaluate leadership-level problem solving under stress skills. Therefore, this exercise isn’t appropriate for training at lower diver levels.

Procedures1. Conduct this exercise in a pool or other confined water site. 2. Divide the candidates into buddy teams with each buddy wearing full scuba

equipment. Equipment should include an exposure suit commonly used in the local area (dive skins, wet suits, dry suits, etc.). Don’t tell candidates who their team mates will be in advance. Staff members may act as buddies if necessary and should cooperate fully and not intentionally add difficulty. The candidate should do all the planning and lead the exer-cise.

3. Prior to assessment, give each buddy team a maxi-mum of 5 minutes to discuss and plan the exercise. Re-member, part of the evaluation is problem-solving ability of unforeseen problems under stress. Allowing excessive preparation reduces the stress and the effectiveness of the exercise.

Candidates must: Demonstrate the abil-

ity to solve unanticipated problems underwater by exchanging all scuba equip-ment (except exposure suits and weights) with a buddy while buddy breathing. Candidates must earn a 3 or higher as described in the evaluation criteria.


4. Have each team swim from the shallow area of the pool/confined water to wa-ter too deep in which to stand.

5. In deeper water, have them begin buddy breathing, then exchange all equip-ment except exposure suit and weight belts.

6. When the exchange is complete, have them return to the shallow area while continuing to buddy breathing.

Notes:1. Variation from normal diving practice is acceptable during the exchange because this

exercise creates highly unusual circumstances. You should evaluate the candidate’s ability to control stress while solving problems – normal skill competence may suffer under these conditions.

2. It may be necessary and acceptable to give each member of a buddy team different scores if one member dominates the exercise, or if it is obvious that difficulties lie with one member substantially more than the other.

Equipment Exchange Evaluation CriteriaCandidates must perform to a level of 3 or higher prior to certification.

Score Criteria

5 Task performed in a well-thought-out, efficient and purposeful manner with no sign of problems. Very low anxiety level. Looks routine and fun.

4 Task performed competently with a relatively low anxiety level. Problems encountered were easily and efficiently handled.

3 Complete exchange occurred without surfacing. However, nu-merous problems were encountered that delayed the speed and efficiency of the performance. The grade is also appropriate for a buddy who was overly dependent on the other, and who, in es-sence, had everything done for him.

2 Significant problems demonstrated, and exchange completed only after one or both team members surfaced once.

1 Inability to complete the exchange, or exchange completed but required one or both members to surface more than once.

Required Training Exercise 3Divemaster Conducted Programs[Prerequisite: Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs]This exercise familiarizes candidates with programs they may conduct without in-structor supervision. This scenario builds upon what candidates learned in Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs by having them conduct part or all of a simu-lated or actual Discover Snorkeling, Scuba Review, Discover Local Diving, Discover Scuba Diving program (confined water option) or PADI Skin Diver course.

If simulating this exercise, the minimum number of role players re-quired is 4.


Procedures1. Organize an actual or simulated PADI Discover Snorkeling, Scuba Review, Dis-

cover Local Diving, Discover Scuba Diving (confined water option) program or PADI Skin Diver course. If you have candidates participate in an actual pro-gram, remember that PADI Divemaster candidates may not be used to meet ratio requirements.

2. Have candidates review the program standards in the PADI Instructor Manual.

3. Assign each candidate a briefing, supervision/skills, and debriefing. The program chosen will influence what you assign. For example with Discover Local Diving, the candidate might conduct the entire dive briefing, a short part of the dive, and the entire debriefing. With the PADI Skin Diver course, the candidate may brief one or more skills, demonstrate the skills and conduct student practice, then debrief the skills.

4. Demonstrate a role model briefing, conduct and debriefing for the program prior to having candidates perform theirs. Your demonstration may be part of an actual program, or a simulated one.

5. Explain to candidates that they will be assessed for all phases of their assign-ment based on:• the completeness, effectiveness and compliance with standards, • the application of what they’ve learned during Knowledge Development and

through diving experience,• their application of good judgment.

6. Have candidates brief, conduct and debrief their assignments in open or confined water as required by the program selected. It’s recommended that different can-didates have different assignments, and when feasible, that assignments involve different PADI Divemaster conducted programs.

Remember that in actual programs, a PADI Instructor must fill in any gaps or make any corrections necessary to assure that participants receive complete and accurate briefings/debriefings. Besides directly supervising program con-duct, a PADI Instructor must assess participant skills to assure mastery consis-tent with program requirements.

Assessing Candidate PerformanceEvaluate the exercise as adequate or inadequate based on completeness, ac-curacy, appropriateness and the application of good judgment. To qualify as adequate, you should be able to answer “yes’ to the following questions (some may not apply to all programs or assignments):

Briefing

• Did the candidate assess dive conditions?

• Did the candidate give planned dive limits (time/depth/distance/air supply) within those conditions?

Candidates must: Conduct a simulated or actual PADI

Discover Snorkeling, Scuba Review, Discover Local Diving, Discover Scuba Diving (confined water option) program or PADI Skin Diver course, while under the direct supervision of a PADI Instructor, in a manner that shows a complete briefing, effective and safe inwater supervision, and an effective debriefing.


• Did the candidate clearly state what participant and divemaster roles will be?

• For instructional programs (e.g., PADI Skin Diver course, Scuba Review), did the candidate give clear objectives of what participants will be able to do?

• Did the candidate provide dive site description and area orientation (hazards, points of interest, special requirements, facilities)?

• Did the candidate assess participants (properly equipped, etc.) as appropriate for the program?

• Did the candidate brief participants on entry/exit techniques and locations?

• Did the candidate include other briefing components as required by program standards?

• Did the candidate confirm that divers have buddies?

• Did the candidate confirm or make a predive safety check (as appropriate for the program)?

• Did the candidate review communications, emergency procedures and recall procedures?

Program Conduct

• Did the candidate supervise from appropriate vantage point?

• Did the candidate give effective skill demonstrations (if appropriate for pro-gram)?

• Did the candidate handle problems effectively?

• Did the candidate keep activities organized and in control?

Debriefing

• Did the candidate identify problems and solutions to them?

• Did the candidate sign dive logs?

General

• Was the program generally positive and fun?

• Did the candidate follow PADI Standards throughout?

• Did the candidate make appropriate adjustments to ratios, limits, etc. within standards to accommodate conditions, individual characteristics or other fac-tors?

Remediate candidates, as necessary, and have them repeat the exercise until they can to conduct the program adequately in all respects.


Practical ApplicationInternship (Option 1)The Internship portion of the Practical Application Module meets both instructional and experience goals for the PADI Divemaster course by having candidates super-vise and assist divers during training situations.

The philosophy of the internship is for candidates to learn by applying prin-ciples and skills to actual supervision and teaching situations. Your role as an instructor/mentor is to guide this experiential learning so that candidates gradually gain confidence and broaden responsibilities in a wide array of activities. Therefore, candidate duties may range from assisting with equipment handling and logistics to assisting a student diver with a problem (under instructor supervision).

For all internship activities a PADI Instructor must fill in any gaps or make any corrections necessary to ensure that divers receive complete and accurate training. Besides directly supervising program conduct, a PADI Instructor must assess diver skills to assure mastery consistent with program requirements.

As stated earlier, you have the choice of having candidates complete the entire Internship or all the Practical Training Exercises. Giving candidates the opportu-nity to complete all of one and parts of the other is recommended when feasible for added candidate confidence and experience.

Internship RequirementsDivemaster candidates must participate in at least:

1. One PADI Open Water Diver course confined water session.

2. Four additional confined water training sessions from any PADI course or program. This may include sessions from the Open Water Diver course, Discover Scuba Diving program, Peak Performance Buoyancy course and other specialty courses and PADI programs.

3. One PADI Open Water Diver course open water training dive.

4. One PADI Adventures in Diving, Rescue Diver or PADI Specialty Diver course open water training session.

5. Three additional open water training dives from any PADI course or program.

6. One supervisory situation with certified divers not in a formal course.

Required Training Exercise sessions with actual student divers/certified divers to meet other PADI Divemaster course requirements may not be counted toward the internship requirement.


Internship ObjectivesDuring the internship, candidates must:

1. Organize the predive setup of equipment by Open Water Diver stu-dents for confined water and open water training.

2. Coordinate student diver flow during confined water and open water training dives.

3. Supervise Open Water Diver student divers not receiving the immedi-ate attention of the instructor during confined and open water train-ing.

4. Account for buddy teams entering and leaving the water by check-ing them in and out of the water.

5. Assist an Open Water Diver student overcome a learning difficulty in confined water, or a continuing education student diver in open water.

6. Respond to, or prevent, diver problems as they occur in each section of the internship.

7. Demonstrate four or more skills for student divers in confined water.

8. Assist in the preparation of an open water training site.

9. Conduct an environmental assessment at an open water training site and report to the instructor ap-propriate recommendations about the suitability of the site for training entry-level and continuing education student divers.

10. Lead student divers on an underwater tour (ratio 2:1) for pleasure. (A PADI Instructor must directly supervise this tour, though the candidate conducts the tour as if the instructor were indirectly supervising.)

11. Conduct environmental and diver assessments for supervising divers not in training and include recommendations based on the assess-ment in a predive briefing, and take other appropriate steps based on the assessments.

12. Conduct an appropriate predive briefing for a dive site.

13. Escort continuing education student divers on an indirectly-super-vised training dives and report observed performances to the instruc-tor and assist with problems, if any.

Assessing Candidate PerformanceMastery of Internship objectives is based on scoring a 3 or higher on each of the performance requirements. It is suggested that you use Practical Training Exercises as a way to remediate and train candidates who score lower than 3 prior to resum-ing the internship.

Note: PADI Divemaster candidates may not be used to meet ratio requirements, and they may not indirectly supervise uncertified divers.


Score Performance 5 Candidate independently accomplished the objective with-

out noticeable errors, and showed creativity while anticipat-ing instructor and diver needs in the process.

4 Candidate accomplished the objective with no noticeable er-rors and without significant help from instructor or staff.

3 Candidate accomplished the objective adequately, with a few insignificant errors. Instructor correction and interven-tion limited to brief reminders or suggestions.

2 Candidate showed rudimentary understanding of tasks required to meet objective, but made significant errors or omissions. Instructor correction and intervention was re-quired for a competent result.

1 Candidates made many or substantial errors and omissions in attempting task, or tasks not completed.


Practical Training Exercises (Option 2)

The Practical Training Exercises offer an alternative to an Internship when logistics and actual supervisory situations make an Internship unfeasible. Practical Train-ing Exercises afford comparable training and experience because you can simulate the situations candidates would encounter. Although the exercises don’t provide the same hands-on experience as an Internship, you can present candidates with a wide variety of specific challenges they may expect in their roles as PADI Divemasters.

In setting up the scenario for each Practical Training Exercise, you may have other candidates, certified divers or instructional staff members play the roles of participating divers. In briefing participants, ask them to try to play their parts as realistically as possible. The more realistic the role playing, the more candidates learn and benefit from the exercises.

Each exercise includes responding to diver problems. Candidates should not know the problems ,who will have them or when, in advance. The intent is to assign routine problems faced by PADI Divemasters, such as buddy separation, low air, broken fin strap, etc.

All dives conducted as part of these exercises should include normal diving pro-cedures – evaluating conditions, predive safety checks, etc. You may assign candi-dates to perform these steps for practice and review.

Assessing Candidate PerformanceMastery of all Practical Training Exercise objectives is based on scoring of a 3 or higher on each of the performance requirements. Remediate and counsel candi-dates who score lower than 3 and repeat exercises as necessary.

Score Performance 5 Candidate independently accomplished the objective with-

out noticeable errors, and showed creativity while anticipat-ing instructor and diver needs in the process.

4 Candidate accomplished the objective with no noticeable errors and without significant help from instructor or staff.

3 Candidate accomplished the objective adequately, with a few insignificant errors. Instructor correction and interven-tion limited to brief reminders or suggestions.

2 Candidate showed rudimentary understanding of tasks required to meet objective, but made significant errors or omissions. Instructor correction and intervention was re-quired for a competent result.

1 Candidates made many or substantial errors and omissions in attempting task, or tasks not completed.


Practical Training Exercise 1 Certified Divers in Open WaterThis exercise simulates the role a divemaster plays in supervising general diving activities and includes leading a dive tour.

Procedures1. Use a typical dive site appropriate for noninstructional diving. Assign partici-

pants who are role playing “divers” various experience and training levels, and problems. If several divemaster candidates are participating, you will rotate roles and repeat the exercise for each candidate.

2. Have the candidate assess the dive site and divers, and choose a vantage point and inwa-ter supervision techniques.

3. Have the candidate assume the lead and brief the group, confirm buddy teams, direct predive safety checks and take other appropri-ate steps.

4. In the water, the candidate should escorts divers, handling assigned problems as they occur.

5. After the dive, have the candidate finish the scenario with a short debriefing. Then you debrief the group about the exercise, and privately debrief the candi-date about the candidate’s performance.

Practical Training Exercise 2Open Water Diver Students in Confined Water This exercise simulates the role a divemaster plays in assisting the training of entry-level divers in confined water.

Procedures1. Conduct an Open Water Diver course - Confined Water Dive as you normally

would with actual students. If several divemaster candidates are participating, you will rotate roles and repeat the exercise for each candidate.

2. Assign participants, who are role playing “student divers,” various problems to have during each phase of the session. Explain exactly how quickly or slowly to “learn” the skill or correct a mistake when working one-on-one with the dive-master candidate.

3. Begin with class set up. Tell the candidate where you want the class to be staged and have the candidate supervise student divers.

4. In confined water, brief students on a skill, explaining that the candidate will demonstrate the skill.

Candidates must:1. Conduct environmental and

diver assessments, and take other appropriate supervisory steps based on the assessments.

2. Conduct an appropriate predive briefing for a dive site.

3. Account for buddy teams enter-ing and leaving the water.

4. Respond to, or prevent diver problems appropriately


5. Underwater, have the candidate demonstrate, then conduct skill practice with students. Have the divemaster candidate supervise the class, control student diver flow, and handle problems that occur with stu-dent divers you’re not working with.

6. Have the candidate work indepen-dently with one student diver who has difficulty mastering a skill.

7. After the student diver masters the skill, signal everyone to surface and debrief the group as if they were Open Water Diver students. Then privately debrief the candidate about the candidate’s performance.

Practical Training Exercise 3 Open Water Diver Students in Open Water This exercise simulates the role the dive-master plays in assisting the training of entry-level divers in open water.

Procedures1. Conduct an Open Water Diver course

– Open Water Dive as you normally would with actual students. If several divemaster candidates are participat-ing, you will rotate roles and repeat the exercise for each candidate.

2. Assign participants, who are role playing “student divers,” various problems to have during each phase of the session.

3. Have the candidate evaluate the con-ditions and make a recommendation regarding the suitability of condi-tions for entry-level training.

4. Have the candidate supervise stu-dent divers while they set up for the dive. Also have the candidate assist with site preparation as necessary (anchoring float, etc.)

Candidates must:1. Organize the predive setup of equipment

by Open Water Diver students for con-fined water training dives.

2. Coordinate student diver flow during confined water training dives .

3. Supervise Open Water Diver students not receiving the immediate attention of the instructor during confined water train-ing dives .

4. Assist an Open Water Diver student in overcoming a learning difficulty in con-fined water.

5. Respond to, or prevent, student diver problems as they occur.

6. Demonstrate a skill for student divers in confined water.

Candidates must:1. Conduct an environmental assessment at

an open water training site and report to the instructor appropriate recommenda-tions about the suitability of the site for training entry-level student divers.

2. Organize the predive setup of equipment by Open Water Diver student divers for open water training.

3. Assist in the preparation of an open water training site.

4. Coordinate student diver flow during open water training.

5. Supervise Open Water Diver student div-ers not receiving the immediate attention of the instructor during open water train-ing.

6. Respond to, or prevent, student diver problems as they occur.

7. Lead student divers on an underwater tour (ratio 2:1) for pleasure.


5. Begin open water training dive and have the candidate perform normal duties — escorting student divers at the surface, attending them as you conduct skills, assisting in and out of water, etc. Allow the candidate to handle assigned prob-lems as they occur.

6. Have the candidate take two student divers on underwater tour while you follow to observe and assess performance. Explain to candidates that they should con-duct the tour as though you were not directly present.

7. After the dive, debrief the group. Then privately debrief candidate about the candidate’s performance.

Practical Training Exercise 4Continuing Education Student Divers in Open Water This exercise simulates the role the divemaster plays in assisting the training of div-ers at levels above the Open Water Diver level.

Procedures1. Choose a dive from a PADI continuing education course to conduct. If it’s a Spe-

cialty Diver course dive, select a specialty with which the divemaster candidate has experience. If several divemaster candidates are participating, rotate roles and repeat the exercise for each candidate.

2. Assign participants, who are role playing “student divers,” various underwater tasks and problems associated with those tasks (e.g., an underwater photogra-phy student might leave the lens cap on while trying to shoot a photo.)

3. Have the candidate prepare for dive with the students, enter the water and escort the divers as they begin the training dive. Follow to observe and assess candidate per-formance, but explain that the candidate should conduct the dive as though you were not directly present.

4. As assigned problems occur, allow the candidate to assist the divers correct and complete their tasks.

5. After dive, ask the candidate about stu-dent diver performance. Then debrief group, and privately debrief candidate about the candidate’s performance.

Candidates must:1. Coordinate student diver flow dur-

ing open water training.

2. Escort continuing education student divers under the indirect supervi-sion of the instructor during open water training and report perfor-mance and learning difficulties to instructor.

3. Assist a continuing education stu-dent diver in overcoming a learning difficulty.

4. Respond to, or prevent, student diver problems as they occur..





Appendix

Table of Contents

PADI Membership and License Agreement A-2

Divemaster Application A-3

Divemaster Candidate Information and Evaluation Form A-4

Divemaster Skill Development Score Sheet A-6

Practical Application Record Sheet A-7

Discover Scuba Diving Internship Completion Form A-8

Divemaster Exam – Answer Key A A-9

Divemaster Exam – Answer Key B A-12

Divemaster Exam – Answer Sheet A-15

Divemaster Manual – Knowledge Review Answer Keys A-18

A-2 Appendix

PLEASE READ CAREFULLY – Sign statement on application

Renewal and continued membership is partially based upon your reading andsigning this Agreement. PADI will consider renewal of your membership subject tothe following terms and conditions:

1. I will abide by all PADI Standards and Procedures as published in the PADIInstructor Manual and Training Bulletin and other updates, within the capacityof my current classification, when conducting PADI programs, and will notdeviate from them when representing myself as a PADI Member.

2. I have made myself knowledgeable about the latest PADI Standards andProcedures by reading the Training Bulletin and related publications. I havebecome familiar with PADI educational materials and am knowledgeable ofany revisions to such materials and the introduction of new materials.

3. I am aware of the fact that scuba diving can seriously affect a person’s healthand life. I agree to omit from certification any student who does not meet allthe prerequisites and performance requirements specified for the respectivelevel of certification.

4. I understand and agree that any false reports of standards violations deemedby the Quality Management Committee to have been made for competitive,political or financial reasons shall be grounds for Quality Assurance action.

5. I am aware of the Quality Assurance Report Form that may be filed withPADI. I am further aware of the recourse available to me through the PADIQuality Assurance process to refute any complaints that may be reported. Iunderstand and agree that all rulings by the Quality Management Committeewith regard to such complaints shall be deemed binding.

6. I understand and agree that PADI may notify other certifying organizationsshould a PADI Member be required by the Quality Management Committeeto undergo instructor-level retraining. I further understand that the names ofsuspended and expelled members will be published in The Undersea Journaland on PADI’s web site.

7. I understand and agree that all members (individuals, dive centers andresorts) involved in the training of a particular student, as determined by thestudent’s certification records at PADI, are responsible for adherence to PADIStandards during the conduct of that training. The Quality AssuranceDepartment will communicate with all involved members upon receipt ofreports or any other information indicating possible violation of PADIStandards and Procedures.

8. I understand and agree that financial irresponsibility in dealings with PADI isgrounds for membership suspension.

9. I will not discredit PADI nor cause any action that will create a liability to PADI.PADI will have the sole right to determine whether any actions are detrimentalto PADI.

10. I will file a PADI Incident Report Form with PADI for any diving-related incidentof which I am aware that may have harmed or potentially harmed myself oranother individual.

11. I agree to provide PADI with true and correct student/participant contact infor-mation, including the student’s proper mailing address, when I submit any cer-tification authorization or participant registration (PIC envelope, application, orregistration card/roster) to PADI. I understand such information shall be theproperty of both PADI and the submitting member.

12. I acknowledge that diving and diving instruction are physically strenuous activ-ities and that it is my personal responsibility to maintain the necessary level offitness in order to involve myself in diving instructional and supervisory activi-ties. I also acknowledge that should my physical condition change, renderingme incapable of meeting the physical requirements of diving instruction andsupervision, I will cease my instructional and supervisory activities until I amagain capable and, if necessary, cleared by a diving medical examination per-formed by a licensed physician.

13. I understand and agree that the terms and conditions of this Agreement wereeffective and binding 1 January 1999 and for subsequent years of my mem-bership with PADI. Should PADI modify this Agreement, I will be notified inwriting of the changes prior to the next renewal.

14. I acknowledge that this Agreement does not intend to create an agency rela-tionship between me and PADI. Except as otherwise provided in thisMembership Agreement, PADI has no control over or involvement with myday-to-day operations and activities and bears no responsibility for the same.

15. I understand and agree that membership in PADI is granted at the sole discre-tion of PADI, based on its unilateral determination of several criteria including,but not limited to, whether acceptance and continuation of membership is inthe best interest of PADI. Satisfaction of minimum requirements does notguarantee membership. Membership in PADI, at any level, may be revoked atany time.

Rev. 8/00

PADI Worldwide Corp. (a California corporation, hereinafter “PADI”) has the rightand authority to use and sublicense various marks owned by International PADI,Inc. (a California corporation). These marks include, but are not limited to,Professional Association of Diving Instructors, PADI, certain logotypes -including adiver placed on a world, a mark for The Undersea Journal, as well as other marks,including Specialty and Certification marks. PADI relies upon the foregoing marksto indicate the source of origin of its services, certifications and products, so thatthe public will be protected; and its instructors, Dive Centers, Resort DiveOperators, Dive Boat Operators, students and others associated with PADI willreceive the highest-quality services and products pertaining to its business.

To provide its members with the ability to advertise, promote and indicate thesource of origin of the PADI services, certifications and products they provide,PADI Members are hereby granted a license to use the forgoing marks on promo-tional materials only, specifically printed, film or video formats, and software, fixedmedia, such as floppy disks, hard drives or CD-ROM, or any interactive digital orbroadcast media or methods, including, but not limited to, internet or World WideWeb Sites.

The license shall not extend to the provision of other printed materials, such asmanuals, books, instructions, clothing or products or any other materials whetheror not they are manufactured, sold, distributed or licensed to others by PADI.

This license extended by PADI shall only be with respect to (1.) Printed advertisingand promotional materials, (newspaper and periodical advertisements, telephone-directory advertising, handbills and signs); (2.) Film and video format promotionalmaterials such as television commercials, slide shows or promotional videos; and(3.) Software, fixed media, such as floppy disks, hard drives or CD-ROM, or anyinteractive digital or broadcast media or methods, including, but not limited to,

internet or World Wide Web Sites; none of which shall include use on any itemor product intended for resale. The word “PADI” (padi) may not be used in inter-net domain names.

The foregoing license for advertising and promotional use shall in all respectsfollow the exact format, character, general appearance, type style, backgroundand proportions of the marks originating from PADI. In no case shall the marksbe combined with other marks, symbols, language or be in a format andappearance other than that actually used by PADI. The full trademark must beused; truncated or partial use of a mark is not authorized.

This license shall be personal to the individual member and shall be nontrans-ferable, nondivisible and not capable of being sublicensed in any mannerthrough any party.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, PADI shall have the sole right to disapprove ofany promotional materials prepared and shall be the sole judge of the criteria ofwhether it meets the standard of this license agreement. To this end, any sug-gestions or requests by authorized members of the PADI staff as to the usageof the marks shall be complied with as soon as possible to avoid mistakes,deceptions, dilution or other problems that would be detrimental to the foregoingmarks.

Regardless of the foregoing license, PADI shall have the right to institute andbring any suit or any other action necessary to protect its marks as to any per-son, firm or corporation now or prospectively using the marks or any similarmarks, derivations, analogs, trade names, fanciful scripts or designs.

This license shall extend for the term of membership, which shall be terminatedforthwith upon termination of the member’s relationship with PADI.

Rev. 8/00

PADI Membership Agreement

License Agreement

Product No. 10125 (2/02) Version 1.0 © International PADI, Inc. 2002

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide A-3

Signature — Required Day/Month/Year

I verify the applicant has logged 60 dives. Initials of verifying instructor _____________ PADI No. _____________

*Agreements are found in Divemaster Crew-pak or may be obtained from your instructor.

PLEASE PRINT OR TYPE Return certification package to: Dive Center/Resort Instructor Applicant

Name____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Mailing Address ________________________________________________________________________________________________________

City ___________________________________________________________________________ State/Province __________________________

Country _______________________________________________________________________ Zip/Postal Code ________________________

Home Phone (______)______________________________________ Business Phone (______) ____________________________________

FAX (______)____________________________ Email __________________________________ Birth Date_____________ Sex: M F

Preferred Language ______________________________________ Where will you work after certification ________________________________

DIVEMASTER APPLICATIONOFFICE USE ONLY

# D- ______________________________

Cert. Date _________________________

By _______________________________

PREREQUISITE REQUIREMENTSMust be PADI Advanced Open Water Diver, PADI Rescue Diver and Emergency First Response Primary Care (EFR) and Secondary Care (FirstAid), or hold qualifying certifications from another organization. Copies of ALL non-PADI certifications must be attached to this application.

PADI AOW _____________________________ PADI Rescue ______________________________ EFR _____________________________

DIVEMASTER CERTIFICATION INFORMATIONThis Application must be signed by the applicant and the certifying instructor (a PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor or higher level). Thisapplication does not constitute membership. Membership is activated only upon review and approval of this application by PADI.

PADI Divemaster Course Completion Date ________________ Course Location ___________________________________________________ Day/Month/Year City/State/Province/Country

Certifying Instructor Name ______________________________________________________ Phone (_____)____________________________

Dive Center/Resort Name ____________________________________ Store No. ________ Phone (_____)____________________________

I have read the Membership Agreement,* and License Agreement,* and hereby consent and agree to the terms and conditions in their entirety.

Applicant’s Signature ________________________________________________________________ Date ______________________________Signature — Required Day/Month/Year

I certify that all prerequisites and certification requirements have been met as outlined in the PADI Instructor Manual.

Certifying Instructor _________________________________________________________ PADI No. _____________ Date ________________

FEES – See current PADI Price List for processing fee. All memberships expire on 31 December of thecurrent year, regardless of date certified. Application for renewal of your membership will be mailed to youat the appropriate time.

DO NOT WRITE IN THIS SPACE

Date _____________________________

Amount ___________________________

Attach 14.5cm x 5.7 cm

13⁄4" x 21⁄4"

Head and Shoulders Photo

PRINT NAME ONBACK OF PHOTO

Coin Machine Photo OKNo Dark Glasses

Mail to Your PADI Office,Attn. Divemaster Certification

Rec’d _____________________________________ Ent _________________________________ Shp’d _______________________________

G PRODUCT NO. 10144 (Rev. 12/03) Version 4.0 © International PADI, Inc. 2003

PAYMENT METHOD

Check MasterCard VISA AMEX Discover

JCB Switch/Solo Issue No. _____________________________

Card No. ___________ _____________ ____________ ____________

Expiration Date _______________ (Valid From Date - UK Only)_____________

Cardholder Name ___________________________________________________

Authorized Signature___________________________________________

Cardholder Address ____________________________________________

____________________________________________________

CHECKLISTApplication completed in fullApplicant and instructorcertification signaturesOne photo (print name on back)

Application Fee __________(See current price list for fees.)

Project AWARE Card (Optional)

(Contact your PADI Office for fee.) __________

Total Payment __________

(Not Valid in U.S.A.)

(Please Print)

(If different from applicant.)

Student Number Student Number Student Number

Country

A-4 Appendix

DIVEMASTER CANDIDATE INFORMATION AND EVALUATION FORM

Note to instructor: This form is for your records. Please do not forward it to your PADI Office.

Prerequisites and Administration Verified by PADI No.18 years or older _____________________________ ____________________

Advanced Open Water or qualifying diver certification _____________________________ ____________________

Rescue Diver or qualifying diver certification _____________________________ ____________________

Medical Statement _____________________________ ____________________

Statement of Understanding _____________________________ ____________________

Liability Release (Statement of Risks – UK) _____________________________ ____________________

20 logged dives _____________________________ ____________________

Course fees paid _____________________________ ____________________

Two photos received _____________________________ ____________________

Certification Requirements60 logged dives _____________________________ ____________________

Current CPR _____________________________ ____________________

Current First Aid _____________________________ ____________________

Knowledge Development Verified completed and reviewed PADI No.

Emergency Assistance Plan _____________________________ ____________________

Knowledge Review 1 _____________________________ ____________________









Exams Score Verified by PADI No.

Physics __________ _____________________________ ____________________

Physiology __________ _____________________________ ____________________

Equipment __________ _____________________________ ____________________

Decompression Theory and RDP __________ _____________________________ ____________________

Dive Skills and Environment __________ _____________________________ ____________________

Divemaster Conducted Programs __________ _____________________________ ____________________

Supervising Cerified Divers __________ _____________________________ ____________________

Supervising Students __________ _____________________________ ____________________

PRODUCT NO. 10147 (Rev. 9/04) Version 2.4 © International PADI, Inc. 2004

Day/Month/Year

First Initial Last

Personal InformationName_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Address ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

City __________________________________________________________________________ State/Province __________________________

Country _____________________________________________________________________ Zip/Postal Code ________________________

Phone (day) (_______) ________________________________________ Phone (evening) (_______) ____________________________________

Email ____________________________________________________ Birth Date______________

Emergency Contact Name and Telephone ________________________________________________ (_______) _______________________


Certification Requirements continuedWaterskills and Stamina Score Verified by PADI No.

400 metre/yard swim __________ _____________________________ ____________________

15 minute float/tread __________ _____________________________ ____________________

800 metre/yard snorkel swim __________ _____________________________ ____________________

100 metre/yard diver tow __________ _____________________________ ____________________

Total (min. 12) __________ _____________________________ ____________________

Rescue Assessment Verified adequate _________________ PADI No. ____________________

Demonstration Quality Skills Verified by PADI No.

Part One – Mask Remove/Replace _____________________________ ____________________(score of 4 or higher required)

Part Two – Skill Evaluation Total Score Verified by PADI No.__________ _____________________________ ____________________

Attach Skill Development Score Sheet

Practical ApplicationRequired Training ExercisesMapping Project Verified adequate _____________ PADI No. ______________ Date _________

Equipment Exchange Score ______ Verified _____________________ PADI No. ______________ Date _________

Divemaster Conducted Programs Verified adequate _____________ PADI No. ______________ Date _________

Professionalism Score Verified by PADI No. DateLevel of active, positive participation __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________during training sessionsAbility to deal with students in a positive __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________and nonthreatening manner

Willingness to follow directions __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

General attitude/demeanor towards students __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Assessment of the candidate’s general __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________understanding of the role of a Divemaster

Candidate Appearance __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Internship (Option 1) Score Verified by PADI No. Date

Confined Water – Open Water Diver Course __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Confined Water ______________________ __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Confined Water ______________________ __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Confined Water ______________________ __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Confined Water ______________________ __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Open Water – Open Water Diver Course __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Open Water – Continuing Education Course __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Open Water _________________________ __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Open Water _________________________ __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Open Water _________________________ __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Certified Divers in Open Water __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Practical Training Exercises (Option 2) Score Verified by PADI No. Date

Certified Divers in Open Water __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Confined Water – Open Water Diver Course __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Open Water – Open Water Diver Course __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Open Water – Continuing Education Course __________ _____________________________ ____________________ ____________

Note: To complete training the candidate either completes all portions of the Internship or all the Practical Training Exercises.

A-6 Appendix

DIVEMASTER SKILLDEVELOPMENT SCORE SHEET

Candidate _________________________________________________________________________ Date _______________________

Evaluate the performance of each skill by the divemaster candidate according to the criteria list below. The candidate mustcomplete mask removal, replacement and clearing to a 4 level or higher before completing the 20 skills, which includesrepeating the mask skill. File this sheet in the candidate’s record file. Please do not send it to your PADI Office.

Score Characteristics1 Candidate unable to perform exercise.2 Exercise performed with significant difficulty or error.3 Exercise performed correctly, though too quickly to adequately exhibit or illustrate details of skill.4 Exercise performed correctly and slowly enough to adequately exhibit or illustrate details of skill.5 Exercise performed correctly, slowly and with exaggerated movement – appeared easy.

Part One – Skill Demonstration DevelopmentFinal Score Evaluated by PADI No.

1. Mask removal, replacement and clearing __________ __________________ __________

Part Two – 20 Basic Scuba SkillsThe candidate must complete each skill listed to level 3 or higher. The total must be 68 or higher.

Final Score Evaluated by PADI No.

1. Equipment assembly, adjustment, preparation, donning and disassembly __________ __________________ __________

2. PADI Predive safety check (BWRAF) __________ __________________ __________

3. Deep water entry __________ __________________ __________

4. Buoyancy check at surface – attain neutral buoyancy __________ __________________ __________

5. Regulator-to-snorkel and snorkel-to-regulator exchange __________ __________________ __________

6. Proper five-point descent __________ __________________ __________

7. Regulator recovery and clearing __________ __________________ __________

8. Mask removal, replacement and clearing __________ __________________ __________

9. Air depletion exercise and alternate air source use stationary for 30 seconds __________ __________________ __________

10. Free-flow regulator breathing __________ __________________ ___________

11. Fin pivot (both low-pressure and oral inflation) __________ __________________ ___________

12. Proper five-point ascent __________ __________________ ___________

13. Remove and replace weight system on the surface __________ __________________ ___________

14. Controlled emergency swimming ascent __________ __________________ ___________

15. Hovering in midwater for 30 seconds __________ __________________ ___________

16. Underwater swim without a mask __________ __________________ ___________

17. Remove and replace weight system underwater __________ __________________ ___________

18. Remove and replace scuba unit underwater __________ __________________ ___________

19. Remove and replace scuba unit on the surface __________ __________________ ___________

20. Buddy breathing stationary and swimming (both donor and receiver) __________ __________________ ___________

Score Total ––––––––––

PRODUCT NO. 10150 (10/03) Version 2.0 © International PADI, Inc. 2003


PRACTICAL APPLICATION RECORD SHEETUse this sheet for evaluating Internship or Practical Training Exercises.

File one for each session. Please do not send these to your PADI Office.

Candidate __________________________________________________________________ Date____________________

Instructor _______________________________________________________________ PADI No. ___________________

Internship Practical Training Exercise Open Water Confined Water

Student Level (real or simulated) _______________________________ Number of Participants __________

Scoring – Score each objective below based on this scale:

Score Performance5 Candidate independently accomplished the objective without noticeable errors, and showed

creativity and anticipation of instructor and diver needs in the process.

4 Candidate accomplished the objective with no noticeable errors and without significant help frominstructor or staff.

3 Candidate accomplished the objective adequately with a few insignificant errors. Instructorcorrection and intervention limited to brief reminders or suggestions.

2 Candidate showed rudimentary understanding of tasks required to meet objective, but made signifi-cant errors or omissions. Instructor correction and intervention was required for a competent result.

1 Candidate made many or substantial errors and omissions in attempting task, or task not completed.

The following lists all objectives from the Practical Application Module. Some do not apply to all internship phases orexercises. List the score, or NA for those that don’t apply, by each objective. Successful performance requires a scoreof 3 for each objective. If the Candidate earns a score lower than a 3 on any objective the entire sessionmust be repeated.Consult the “PADI Divemaster Course Instructor Guide” in the PADI Instructor Manual for details on each objective.

Performance Score

1. Organizes predive equipment setup. ___________

2. Coordinates student diver flow. ___________

3. Supervises student divers not receiving immediate instructor attention. ___________

4. Accounts for buddy teams entering/leaving the water. ___________

5. Assists student diver overcome learning difficulty. ___________

6. Responds to or prevents diver problems. ___________

7. Demonstrates skill for student divers. ___________

8. Assists in training site preparation. ___________

9. Conducts an environmental assessment. ___________

10. Leads student divers on an underwater tour. ___________

11. Makes recommendations based on diver/environment assessment in a predive ___________briefing, and takes other appropriate steps based on the assessments.

12. Conducts an appropriate predive briefing. ___________

13. Escort continuing education student divers on an indirectly supervised ___________training dive and report observed performances.

TOTAL ___________Comments on Performance – Please use other side of form.

Instructor Signature ___________________________________________________________ Date __________________

Candidate Signature __________________________________________________________ Date __________________

PRODUCT NO. 10149 (Rev. 4/04) Version 1.1 © International PADI, Inc. 2004

A-8 Appendix

PADI DIVEMASTERDiscover Scuba Diving Internship Completion Form

PADI Divemasters in Active Status (and with insurance, where required) may conduct PADI DiscoverScuba Diving programs in a pool or confined open water environment after successfully completing aDiscover Scuba Diving Internship. The internship consists of conducting four separate PADI DiscoverScuba Diving programs in a pool or confined open water environment under the direct supervision of a PADI Instructor. After completing the internship, submit this form, signed by the instructor, to your PADI Office for processing and authorization.

PLEASE PRINT OR TYPE (Authorization will be returned to the Divemaster.)

Name_______________________________________________________________________ PADI No._______________________

Mailing Address ______________________________________________________________________________________________

City________________________________________________________________ State/Province ___________________________

Country ____________________________________________________________ Zip/Postal Code __________________________

Home Phone (______)_____________________________ Business Phone (______)_____________________________

FAX (______)____________________________________ Birth Date____________________________ Sex: M F

Email ________________________________________________________________ Preferred Language _____________________

INTERNSHIP VERIFICATION – PADI DISCOVER SCUBA DIVING PROGRAMS

Date_______________ Supervising Instructor _________________________________ PADI Number ______________




I verify that this PADI Divemaster has completed four required Discover Scuba Diving programs under the direct supervision of a PADI Instructor

Verifying Instructor _______________________________________ PADI No.________________ Date ______________Verifying Instructor Signature

PAYMENT METHOD (See current price list for processing fee and if CHECKLISTapplicable, replacement card fees.)

� Check � Switch / Solo issue no ______________ (UK only) � Application filled out completely

� Master Card � Visa � American Express � Discover Card � Signature – Verifying Instructor

Card Number ___________ __________ __________ _________ � Fee Enclosed – Total Amount _______

Expiration date ___________________________________________ � Photo – head and shoulders

Cardholder Name__________________________________________(Include only if requesting a

(please print)

Cardholder Address________________________________________

replacement certification card.)

(If different from applicant)

Authorized Signature _______________________________________

REPLACEMENT CERTIFICATION CARD (Check card type below.)If you want to receive a new card (which includes a Discover Scuba Diving designation), please attach a 1 3 /4” x 2 1 /4” photo and include additional processing fee.

□ Project AWARE Card a portion of processing fee will be donated to the Project AWARE Foundation for environmental programs.

□ Standard “Member Since” PADI card

MAIL TO YOUR PADI OFFICE. For mailing information, see your price list or visit padi.com.

PRODUCT NO. 10151 (01/03) Version 1.0 © International PADI, Inc. 2003

F O R O F F I C E U S E O N L YRec’d ________________________ Ent __________________________ Ship’d ______________________

(Use for ReplacementCertification Card Only)

Attach a13/4” X 21/4”

Head-and-Shoulders Photo

PRINT NAME ONBACK OF PHOTO

Coin machinephoto OK — do not

send old cards.

NO DARK GLASSES


DIVEMASTER CONDUCTEDPROGRAMSA B C D

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2. T � F □

3. □ □ □ �

4. □ □ □ �

5. □ □ � □

6. □ □ □ �

7. � □ □ □

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10. T □ F �

11. T � F □

12. T □ F �

13. T � F □

14. □ � □ □

15. □ � □ □

16. □ � □ □

17. □ □ □ �

18. � □ □ □

19. T □ F �

20. T □ F �

STUDENT STATEMENT: I have hadexplained to me and I understand the questions I have missed.

__________________________________Student Signature Date

SUPERVISING CERTIFIEDDIVERS

A B C D

1. □ □ □ �

2. □ □ □ �

3. □ □ � □

4. □ □ � □

5. □ � □ □

6. □ □ � □

7. � □ □ □

8. □ � □ □

9. □ □ □ �

10. □ □ � □

11. □ □ � □

12. T � F □

13. T � F �

14. � □ □ □

15. □ � □ □

16. □ □ □ �

17. □ � □ □

18. � □ □ □

19. □ □ □ �

20. � □ □ □



ASSISTING WITH STUDENT DIVERS IN TRAINING

A B C D

1. □ □ □ �

2. □ � □ □

3. anticipating

4. � □ □ □

5. T � F □

6. □ � □ □

7. □ □ � □

8. � □ □ □

9. □ □ □ �

10. T □ F �

11. T � F □

12. T □ F �

13. critical attributes(or skill attributes)

14. practice(repeat, rehearse)

15. success

16. PADI Instructor Manual

17. T � F □

18. � □ □ □

19. T □ F �

20. □ � □ □



Name _____________________________________________________________________________ Date _______________________

ANSWER KEY — PADI DIVEMASTER FINAL EXAMS — Apadi.com

Directions: Upon making your answer choice, completely fill in the space □ below the proper letter.If a mistake is made, erase your selection or place a dark X through your first answer.

Rev. 2/03 © International PADI, Inc. 2003

(version 2.2 ©2000)

A-10 Appendix

PHYSICS

A B C D

1. □ □ □ �

2. □ � □ □

3. □ □ � □

4. four (4)

5. □ □ □ �

6. 23kg/53 lbs

7. 146 litres/5cf

8. 3.5 ata

9. vol = .74 litres, density = 2.7 times surface

10. 4.61

11. 6 bar/93 psi

12. □ � □ □

13. � □ □ □

14. .63 ata

15. PO2 = .97 ata, PN2 = 1.73

16. 100%

17. � □ □ □

18. □ � □ □

19. □ � □ □

20. □ � □ □



PHYSIOLOGY

A B C D

1. � □ □ □

2. □ � □ □

3. □ □ � □

4. � □ □ □

5. □ □ □ �

6. � □ □ □

7. □ □ � □

8. □ □ □ �

9. □ � □ □

10. � □ □ □

11. □ □ □ �

12. □ � □ □

13. □ � □ □

14. □ □ � □

15. □ □ □ �

16. □ � □ □

17. □ □ □ �

18. □ □ � □

19. � □ □ □

20. □ □ □ �



EQUIPMENT

A B C D

1. □ � □ □

2. □ □ � □

3. □ □ � □

4. � □ □ □

5. □ □ □ �

6. □ □ □ �

7. � □ □ □

8. □ � □ □

9. □ □ □ �

10. □ � □ □

11. □ □ � □

12. □ □ � □

13. □ □ � □

14. □ � □ □

15. � □ □ □

16. □ � □ □

17. □ □ � □

18. � □ □ □

19. □ □ □

20. □ □ � □

�



FINAL EXAM — A


SKILLS AND ENVIRONMENT

A B C D

1. □ □ � □

2. 120

3. � □ □ □

4. □ □ □ �

5. □ □ □ �

6. □ � □ □

7. □ � □ □

8. the diver who will use it

9. two (2)

10. □ □ □ �

11. � □ □ □

12. □ � □ □

13. □ � □ □

14. � □ □ □

15. □ □ � □

16. □ � □ □

17. □ � □ □

18. □ � □ □

19. □ □ � □

20. � □ □ □



DECOMPRESSION THEORYAND THE RECREATIONAL

DIVE PLANNER

A B C D

1. □ � □ □

2. � □ □ □

3. □ □ � □

4. □ □ □ �

5. □ □ � □

6. □ □ � □

7. □ □ � □

8. □ � □ □

9. □ □ □ �

10. � □ □ □

11. � □ □ □

12. � □ □ □

13. Metric: 9 min/130 minImperial: 10 min/124 min

14. Metric 22 minImperial: 25 min

15. 1 hour

16. Metric: 23 minImperial: 22 min

17. � □ □ □

18. □ � □ □

19. □ □ □ �

20. � □ □ □



FINAL EXAM — A

A-12 Appendix


1. � □ □ □

2. T □ F �

3. □ □ □ �

4. � □ □ □

5. □ □ � □

6. □ □ □ �

7. � □ □ □

8. □ � □ □

9. □ □ � □

10. T □ F �

11. T � F □

12. T � F □

13. T □ F �

14. □ � □ □

15. □ � □ □

16. □ □ � □

17. □ � □ □

18. □ � □ □

19. T � F □

20. T � F □




A B C D

1. □ □ □ �

2. □ � □ □

3. □ □ □ �

4. □ � □ □

5. □ □ � □

6. □ □ □ �

7. □ � □ □

8. □ □ � □

9. □ □ □ �

10. � □ □ □

11. □ □ □ �

12. T � F □

13. T � F □

14. □ � □ □

15. □ � □ □

16. □ � □ □

17. □ □ � □

18. □ � □ □

19. □ □ � □

20. □ □ □ �




A B C D

1. □ � □ □

2. □ □ □ �

3. anticipating, providing

4. □ □ � □

5. T � F □

6. □ □ □ �

7. □ □ □ �

8. □ □ � □

9. � □ □ □

10. T � F □

11. T � F □

12. T � F □

13. critical attributes(or skill attributes)

14. practice

15. critical/skill attributes(subskills)

16. PADI Instructor Manual

17. T □ F �

18. □ □ � □

19. T □ F �

20. □ □ □ �



Name _____________________________________________________________________________ Date _______________________

ANSWER KEY — PADI DIVEMASTER FINAL EXAMS — Bpadi.com


Rev. 2/03 © International PADI, Inc. 2003


PHYSICS

A B C D

1. � □ □ □

2. � □ □ □

3. □ □ □ �

4. four (4)

5. � □ □ □

6. 104 litres/4 cubic feet

7. 251 kg/527 lbs

8. 3.6 ata

9. vol = 2 litres, density = 3.4 times surface

10. 2.2 litres

11. 9 bar/128 psi

12. □ □ � □

13. □ � □ □

14. .84 ata

15. PO2 = .77 ata, PN2 = 1.63

16. 7.6%

17. □ □ □ �

18. � □ □ □

19. □ □ □ �

20. □ □ � □



PHYSIOLOGY

A B C D

1. □ □ □ �

2. □ � □ □

3. � □ □ □

4. □ □ □ �

5. □ □ □ �

6. □ □ � □

7. □ □ � □

8. � □ □ □

9. □ □ � □

10. � □ □ □

11. □ □ □ �

12. □ □ � □

13. � □ □ □

14. □ □ □ �

15. □ □ � □

16. □ □ □ �

17. □ □ □ �

18. � □ □ □

19. □ □ � □

20. □ □ □ �



EQUIPMENT

A B C D

1. □ □ □ �

2. □ □ □ �

3. □ � □ □

4. □ □ � □

5. □ □ � □

6. � □ □ □

7. □ □ � □

8. � □ □ □

9. □ □ □ �

10. □ � □ □

11. � □ □ □

12. � □ □ □

13. □ □ □ �

14. □ � □ □

15. □ □ □ �

16. □ � □ □

17. □ □ □ �

18. □ � □ □

19. � □ □ □

20. � □ □ □



Type II

FINAL EXAM — B

A-14 Appendix


A B C D

1. � □ □ □

2. 40 m/130 ft

3. □ � □ □

4. □ □ � □

5. □ � □ □

6. □ □ □ �

7. □ □ � □

8. the gravitational interactionof the earth, moon and sun

9. 2, 15

10. □ □ □ �

11. □ □ □ �

12. □ � □ □

13. □ � □ □

14. □ □ � □

15. � □ □ □

16. □ □ □ �

17. □ □ □ �

18. � □ □ □

19. � □ □ □

20. □ □ □ �




DIVE PLANNER

A B C D

1. � □ □ □

2. □ □ � □

3. � □ □ □

4. □ □ □ �

5. □ � □ □

6. □ □ � □

7. □ □ □ �

8. � □ □ □

9. □ □ □ �

10. □ □ � □

11. � □ □ □

12. □ □ � □

13. Metric: 20 min/45 minImperial: 20 min/44 min

14. 34 min

15. Metric: 39 minImperial: 28 min

16. 27 min

17. □ □ □ �

18. □ � □ □

19. □ □ □ �

20. □ □ □ �



FINAL EXAM — B



1. □ □ □ □

2. T □ F □

3. □ □ □ □

4. □ □ □ □

5. □ □ □ □

6. □ □ □ □

7. □ □ □ □

8. □ □ □ □

9. □ □ □ □

10. T □ F □

11. T □ F □

12. T □ F □

13. T □ F □

14. □ □ □ □

15. □ □ □ □

16. □ □ □ □

17. □ □ □ □

18. □ □ □ □

19. T □ F □

20. T □ F □




A B C D

1. □ □ □ □

2. □ □ □ □

3. □ □ □ □

4. □ □ □ □

5. □ □ □ □

6. □ □ □ □

7. □ □ □ □

8. □ □ □ □

9. □ □ □ □

10. □ □ □ □

11. □ □ □ □

12. T □ F □

13. T □ F □

14. □ □ □ □

15. □ □ □ □

16. □ □ □ □

17. □ □ □ □

18. □ □ □ □

19. □ □ □ □

20. □ □ □ □




A B C D

1. □ □ □ □

2. □ □ □ □

3. ___________________

4. □ □ □ □

5. T □ F □

6. □ □ □ □

7. □ □ □ □

8. □ □ □ □

9. □ □ □ □

10. T □ F □

11. T □ F □

12. T □ F □

13. ___________________

14. ___________________

15. ______________________

16. ______________________

17. T □ F □

18. □ □ □ □

19. T □ F □

20. □ □ □ □



Name _____________________________________________________________________________ Date _______________________

ANSWER SHEET — PADI DIVEMASTER FINAL EXAMSpadi.com


70311 PDF 12/04 © International PADI, Inc. 2004

A-16 Appendix

PHYSICS

A B C D

1. □ □ □ □

2. □ □ □ □

3. □ □ □ □

4. ______________________

5. □ □ □ □

6. ______________________

7. ___________________

8. ___________________

9. ______________________

10. ______________________

11. ___________________

12. □ □ □ □

13. □ □ □ □

14. ______________________

15. ___________________

16. ___________________

17. □ □ □ □

18. □ □ □ □

19. □ □ □ □

20. □ □ □ □



PHYSIOLOGY

A B C D

1. □ □ □ □

2. □ □ □ □

3. □ □ □ □

4. □ □ □ □

5. □ □ □ □

6. □ □ □ □

7. □ □ □ □

8. □ □ □ □

9. □ □ □ □

10. □ □ □ □

11. □ □ □ □

12. □ □ □ □

13. □ □ □ □

14. □ □ □ □

15. □ □ □ □

16. □ □ □ □

17. □ □ □ □

18. □ □ □ □

19. □ □ □ □

20. □ □ □ □



EQUIPMENT

A B C D

1. □ □ □ □

2. □ □ □ □

3. □ □ □ □

4. □ □ □ □

5. □ □ □ □

6. □ □ □ □

7. □ □ □ □

8. □ □ □ □

9. □ □ □ □

10. □ □ □ □

11. □ □ □ □

12. □ □ □ □

13. □ □ □ □

14. □ □ □ □

15. □ □ □ □

16. □ □ □ □

17. □ □ □ □

18. □ □ □ □

19. □ □ □ □

20. □ □ □ □



FINAL EXAM



A B C D

1. □ □ □ □

2. ______________________

3. □ □ □ □

4. □ □ □ □

5. □ □ □ □

6. □ □ □ □

7. □ □ □ □

8. _______________________

9. _______________________

10. □ □ □ □

11. □ □ □ □

12. □ □ □ □

13. □ □ □ □

14. □ □ □ □

15. □ □ □ □

16. □ □ □ □

17. □ □ □ □

18. □ □ □ □

19. □ □ □ □

20. □ □ □ □




DIVE PLANNER

A B C D

1. □ □ □ □

2. □ □ □ □

3. □ □ □ □

4. □ □ □ □

5. □ □ □ □

6. □ □ □ □

7. □ □ □ □

8. □ □ □ □

9. □ □ □ □

10. □ □ □ □

11. □ □ □ □

12. □ □ □ □

13. _______________________

14. _______________________

15. _______________________

16. ___________________

17. □ □ □ □

18. □ □ □ □

19. □ □ □ □

20. □ □ □ □



FINAL EXAM

A-18 Appendix

Divemaster Manual Knowledge ReviewChapter 1

Answer Keys

1. What three broad characteristics may divers expect in a PADI Divemaster?

1. Professionalism2. Role model behavior3. Ability to assist/supervise during training and dive activities

2. List five criteria that define “professionalism” as it applies to the PADI Divemaster.

1. Expert skills and knowledge of dive theory, dive management and leading dives

2. Good judgment that reflects training and experience3. Dress and act like a professional4. Good interpersonal skills5. Exemplary rescue skills

3. Explain what is meant by a role model.

Someone other divers base their behavior on because they respect the person and what the person stands for.

4. Describe a PADI Divemaster who is a good role model.

(Description should include:)• High skill level - demonstration quality• Commitment to responsible dive practices• Equipment well maintained and up-to-date• Physically fit or good fitness for diving• Agrees with the PADI training philosophy

5. Describe the characteristics and attributes of a poor role model divemaster.

(Description should include:)• Hypocrisy and lack of conviction.• Disregard for personal fitness.• Uncaring or unempathetic of divers and their skill levels.• Contradicts or disagrees with an instructor in front of students.• Fails to perform as a "team player"


6. Explain how role model behavior can affect other divers both positively and negatively.

Good role model behavior reinforces responsible diving habits and prac-tices. Poor role model behavior may cause divers to question whether responsible dive habits and practices are really necessary.

7. Explain how role model behavior can affect your ability to function as a divemaster.

Good role model behavior makes it easier to encourage other divers to dive responsibly and accept your suggestions. Poor role model behavior may cause divers to question you, making them less likely to consider your suggestions.

8. Explain how good role model behavior benefits student divers when you assist with training.

Good role model behavior earns students' respect, making it easier for you to guide and direct them for the instructor during training.

9. List five benefits and five responsibilities of being a PADI Divemaster.

Benefits:1. Receive professional publications such as The Undersea Journal2. Can purchase materials from your PADI Office at special divemaster rate3. Access to professional liability insurance and legal defense team4. Ability to earn income as an assistant 5. Gain important experience toward becoming an instructor6. Regular update mailings7. Access to educational consultants for training questions

Responsibilities:1. Follow PADI Standards2. Keep up with changes in standards3. Renew membership annually4. Keep address current5. Represent PADI favorably

A-20 Appendix


Answer Keys1. Six characteristics of responsible diver behavior are:

1. Staying within personal limits2. Diving properly equipped3. Caring for equipment4. Managing air conservatively5. Using computer/tables conservatively6. Staying aware of the environment

2. List four ways to encourage responsible diver behavior.

1. Follow responsible diving practices yourself2. Remind divers of responsible behaviors by applying them on the dive3. Make responsible behavior easy4. Reward responsible behaviors

3. Describe the aspects of diving that do and do not fall within the divemaster’s respon-sibility, and the aspects of dive planning and diving for which each diver must retain responsibility.

Each diver maintains responsibility for planning their own dives and fol-lowing their plan. Divers must be responsible for their own actions.

A PADI Divemaster normally offers a general orientation and broad dive plan that individual divers use to plan their own dives. The divemaster encourages responsible diving, provides logistical support, prepares for reasonably foreseeable emergencies, but does not plan the dives of indi-vidual divers.

4. Describe how to assess general dive conditions, and how you can expect conditions to affect diving.

Based on weather, tides, current and visibility, you determine appropri-ate dive techniques or if conditions are acceptable for diving. This also depends on the skill level and experience of the divers.


5. The four aspects of supervision in managing dives are:

1. Preparation2. Communication3. Recognition4. Vantage point

6. List and describe the advantages and disadvantages of in-water versus out of water supervision, and the advantages and disadvantages of supervision vantage points in-water versus out of water.

Supervision In-water:• Advantages: Puts you close to the divers. Allows you to watch for prob-

lems such as exceeding maximum depth or navigation errors.• Disadvantages: Can only watch one group. Some divers don’t like to dive

in a group.Supervision Out of water: • Advantages: Easier to supervise multiple teams. Close to emergency

equipment. More flexibility for buddy teams.• Disadvantages: Unable to point out interesting features. Not immedi-

ately on hand to help solve problems.

Vantage point - In-water:• Advantages: Easier to see a problem before it happens. • Disadvantages: Can only be in front or behind leading or escorting,

Makes it hard to know when there is a problem. Vantage point - Out of water: • Advantages: Allows you to choose location with visibility of the entire

dive site. • Disadvantages: Sometimes the site with the best visibility is not the

easiest to respond from.7. List eight types of equipment that can assist in supervising certified divers.

1. Dive roster2. Binoculars3. Dive site maps4. Emergency oxygen5. First aid kit

6. Rescue float7. Marine Radio/cellular phone8. Tool Kit 9. Dive flag/float10. Spare gear

A-22 Appendix

8. The primary purpose of diver accounting procedures is:

To make sure every diver returns to the boat or shore after the dive.

9. Describe the characteristics of predive stress, and explain how you help divers deal with it.

Predive stress comes from both physical stressors like heat exhaustion, fatigue and dehydration, or psychological stressors like physical stress, peer pressure, dive concerns and personal problems unrelated to the dive.

There are three approaches to stress relief: 1) remove the stressor, 2) change the perception of the stressor to nonthreatening, or 3) change the perception of the diver's ability to cope with the stress.

10. List the ten points/steps usually included in a dive briefing.

1. Dive site name2. Site descriptions3. Your role4. Entry and exit techniques5. Dive procedures6. Emergency procedures7. Signal review8. Roster/buddy check9. Environmental interaction suggestions10. Predive safety check

11. Describe the general steps to solving a novel problem (one you've never encountered before).

• Identify the problem precisely• Inventory your resources.• Create several possible solutions• Choose the best solution. • Assess and revise.


12. Explain when dive situations call for you to apply your judgment, and how you de-velop good judgment as a divemaster.

You apply judgment when evaluating acceptable dive conditions, choosing dive techniques to recommend and picking supervision vantage points.

Judgment comes from experience and working with more experienced professionals.

13. The two likely roles of a PADI Divemaster in the event of an accident are as:

Scene manager or as assistant to someone more qualified.

14. Explain how to gain more knowledge and experience with specialized diving activi-ties.

Complete the appropriate specialty courses.

A-24 Appendix


Answer Keys1. Compare and contrast the primary role of a PADI Divemaster to that of a PADI In-

structor in an instructional setting.

The PADI Divemaster deals with the logistics, supervising student divers and other duties as well as the social and adventurous aspects of div-ing.

The instructor concentrates on teaching and attending to individual student diver needs.

2. List seven functions a divemaster may fulfill as an instructional assistant.

1. Predive equipment distribution2. Supervising students not working with instructor3. Logistics4. Conducting tour for experience portion of dives5. Providing student diver performance information to instructor6. Checking divers in and out of the water7. Helping divers on an individual basis

3. What is the primary characteristic that makes a PADI Divemaster an ideal instruction-al assistant?

Anticipating and providing what the instructor and student divers need.4. Describe the relationship between the instructor and you, a PADI Divemaster candi-

date.

Mentor/protege relationship – instructor is a coach, guide, confidant and advisor.

5. Four reasons for having your own copy of the PADI Instructor Manual are:

1. Lists all the standards and procedures2. Makes it easier to anticipate and meet instructor needs3. Includes standards for programs divemasters can offer independently4. Benefits you to start becoming familiar with it.5. Training Bulletins keep you current on changes.


6. Describe your role as a PADI Divemaster in relation to student divers in training.

The PADI Divemaster is a role model and an intermediary between stu-dent divers and the instructor supervising both training and nontraining related activities.

7. With respect to PADI programs, what is a certified assistant and what can a certified assistant do?

A certified assistant is a renewed PADI Instructor, Assistant Instructor and Divemaster who can perform specific functions as a teaching assis-tant.

Certified assistants can:• Independently guide student divers on Open Water Dives 2, 3, 4 and the

optional Skin Dive. • Accompany Open Water Diver/Scuba Diver students under the indirect

supervision of an instructor.• Conduct subsequent Discover Scuba Diving dives after participants

complete the first dive with an instructor.• Accompany students during training dives in continuing education

courses.• Generally supervise divers in training and nontraining activities.

8. Explain how positioning affects your ability to assist with student diver control, and two common examples of position for the skill practice in the Open Water diver course.

Good positioning allows you to see the entire group and the instructor and respond quickly to a problem.

• Opposite instructor, hovering behind students who are in a semicircle with the instructor in front of them.

• Students form a line with the divemaster at one end of the line and the instructor at the other.

A-26 Appendix

9. List five examples of logistical functions you can perform to assist with training dives at the surface and five underwater.

On the surface:1. Coordinate student divers2. Enforce safety or facility rules3. Handle equipment4. Assist with student diver preparation5. Escort student divers6. Handle paperworkUnderwater1. Lead/follow2. Escort3. Air checks4. Standby supervisor5. Navigation

10. Describe how you would model mask removal, replacement and clearing in a demon-stration quality manner.

Slow pace, critical attributes emphasized, sequence emphasized, with each step clearly seen, mastered and automatic.

11. List and describe the three steps to take to help a student diver master dive skills.

1. Have a student attempt the skill to look for missing or improperly per-formed critical attributes.

2. Redemonstrate the skill. 3. Assure early success.

12. Where do you find skill performance requirements student divers must master for PADI courses.

In the PADI Instructor Manual.



Answer Keys1. Explain why the PADI Divemaster course emphasizes dive theory training.

It develops problem solving abilities, gives the candidate theoretical knowledge to apply during practical sessions and prepares the candi-date for instructor level training.

2. Explain why you would want a dive reference library.

It gives you a place to look up information and a way to keep up with new and changing information.

3. List what you already have in your current dive reference library (to a maximum of 12 items). List four works or types of works you would like to add and explain why.

(Answers vary but may include:)Magazines PADI Manuals Encyclopedia of Recreational DivingDiving Knowledge WorkbookDive travel guides and maps

4. Explain how specialty diver training benefits you with respect to learning dive theory.

Specialty courses go into more theoretical detail than other learning sources and give you a change to apply the knowledge.

5. List the theory subjects you study as part of the PADI Divemaster course and explain how you demonstrate mastery of them.

Dive physics, dive physiology, equipment and decompression theory You demonstrate mastery by completing an exam in each study area

and earning a score of 75 percent or better.6. Explain how you will keep you dive theory knowledge current after you complete this

course. Be as specific as possible.

Subscribe to and read dive magazines, reread and review the Encyclope-dia of Recreational Diving and other diving related materials. Continue your diving education, attend seminars and diving -related meetings.

A-28 Appendix


Answer Keys1. Describe what a compartment is, and what are meant by halftime and M-value.

Compartments are theoretical tissue models that account for differing tissue absorption rates.

Halftime is the rate a compartment absorbs nitrogen. It's the time it takes for the compartment to go from beginning pressure to halfway to saturation.

M-value is the maximum tissue pressure allowed in the compartment.2. Explain why you need to know your approximate altitude when diving.

There is reduced atmospheric pressure at altitude. This could make the tissue pressure gradient too high, increasing the risk of DCS.

3. Describe the relationship between the Haldanean model and the human body, and explain to what extent you can rely on the model.

There is no direct relationship between the model and the body. Testing supports the model but there is always some risk of DCS.

4. In metres/feet of pressure, how much nitrogen would the 5, 10, 20 and 60 minute half-time compartments each have after 60 minutes at 18 metres/60 feet?

5-minute = 18 metres / 60 feet10-minute = 18 metres / 60 feet20-minute = 16 metres/ 52.5 feet60- minute = 9 metres / 30 feet

5. Compare the basis of the US Navy tables repetitive diving procedures with the RDP’s. Explain a) what compartment controls each, b) why each is appropriate for that table and c) the practical difference on repetitive diving between them.

a) The US Navy surface interval credit table is controlled by a 120 minute compartment. The RDP surface interval credit table is controlled by a 60 minute compartment.

b) The US Navy table was designed for decompression diving — requiring longer/slower compartments to control repetitive dives. The RDP is for no decompression diving — allowing the use of faster compartments to control repetitive dives.


c) The US Navy table accounts for the worst case scenario – a repetitive dive after a decompression dive – which is why repetitive dive times need to be more conservative. The RDP can allow shorter surface intervals and longer repetitive dives because all dives are planned as no decompres-sion dives.

6. Explain why you can’t use pressure groups from the RDP on the US Navy Tables or any other tables.

The tables are based on different models which means that pressure group designations do not indicate equivalent amounts of absorbed nitrogen.

7. Explain how modern dive computers apply decompression models to provide more no decompression time than a table.

Dive computers write custom tables to precise depths which eliminates un-necessary rounding.

8. State the three broad computer groupings and list their M-value and surface interval credit characteristics compared the RDP and each other.

Spencer Limits, EE washout — M-values similar to RDP. Shorter surface in-tervals can permit repetitive dives beyond what has been shown to work reliably.

Spencer Limits, 60 minute washout — M-values same as RDP. Surface in-tervals are similar to RDP.

Buhlmann Limits, EE Washout — lower M-values than RDP. Repetitive dives similar to RDP though some deep dives with short surface intervals may still permit repetitive dives beyond what has been shown to work reliably.

9. Explain why the general recommendations for diving with tables apply equally to dive computers, and list three recommendations specific to computer diving.

Most general recommendations apply equally because they come from what has been found to work in actual diving situations.

Computer specific recommendations: • Each diver has a computer. • Follow manufacturer recommendations. • End the dive on the most conservative computer.

A-30 Appendix


Answer Keys1. Explain where to find standards and related information on PADI Divemaster-con-

ducted programs, and how you identify standards you must adhere to from other sup-porting material.

PADI Instructor Manual: General Standards and Procedures section, Skin Diver Course Instructor Guide, and Experience Programs Guide.

Standards appear in bold face type.2. Identify where you find the maximum ratios of a PADI Divemaster to participants for

PADI Divemaster-conducted programs.

General Standards and Procedures section, and the instructor guide and the Key Standards Box for each program.

3. Explain where to find performance requirements for programs and why its usually a good idea to state the requirements for participants.

Performance requirements are in bold face type in each Instructor Guide. Stating requirements allows students to know what you expect them to

accomplish.4. Identify where you find a listing of material required and recommended for PADI Di-

vemaster-conducted programs.

Instructor Guide for each program.5. List the six general administrative requirements that apply to all PADI programs:

1. Participants must complete a Medical Statement at the beginning of each course

2. Questions of fitness are the responsibility of a physician3. Participants must complete a PADI Safe Diving Practices Statement of

Understanding4. Participants must complete a Liability Release and Assumption of Risk

Agreement5. Retain records for a minimum of seven years.6. File an incident report for any dive incident.


6. Explain the annual renewal requirement for a PADI Divemaster.

Sign an annual membership agreement and return with annual dues to your PADI Office.

7. Explain the professional liability insurance requirements for a PADI Divemaster.

Insurance is not required (in most areas) but highly recommended when acting as a certified assistant. Insurance is required (in most areas) when conducting divemaster-conducted programs.

8. Identify the intended audience and basic philosophy for each of the following PADI programs:

Skin Diver Course — Training program for those interested in diving but not necessarily in scuba. May appeal to those interested in physical condi-tioning.

Discover Local Diving — Formal diving orientation for certified divers to a new location or new diving environment.

Discover Snorkeling — Casual experience for swimming and looking underwa-ter. May appeal to people who want to experience the underwater world but aren't interested in scuba. Emphasis is on having fun.

Scuba Review — A way for certified divers who have been inactive to refresh skills.

9. List one marketing idea for each of the following programs. (You're encouraged to list original ideas not discussed in the text.)

Skin Diver Course — Market to schools, health clubs, children of scuba div-ers, youth groups, etc.

Discover Local Diving — Market to divers visiting an unfamiliar dive site, to inactive divers in conjunction with Scuba Review, etc.

Discover Snorkeling — Market to health clubs, casual gatherings at dive sites, travel agencies, people involved with other water sports, etc

Scuba Review — Market in resort areas, to divers who view their inactivity as an obstacle, etc.

A-32 Appendix


Answer Keys1. Define risk management, duty of care and negligence.

Risk management — the process of reducing risks you face while acting as a divemaster which involves increasing safety for divers and for you in your capacity as a divemaster.

Duty of Care — your responsibility to act as a reasonably prudent divemas-ter would act under same or similar circumstances to maintain safety.

Negligence — failure to meet the duty of care expected

2. Explain why it is recommended that you carry professional liability insurance, even when it’s not required and you plan to function exclusively as an assistant working under a PADI Instructor.

Because you can be sued even if you did nothing wrong. Insurance helps cover legal costs and damages. Instructors liability insurance does not cover assistants.

3. Describe the most important step you can take to manage legal risk.

Adhere to conservative diving practices and use good judgment.4. Explain how adhering to standards helps you reduce legal risk and the role of good

judgment in reducing legal risk.

Standards help you demonstrate that you followed the stipulated duty of care.

Good judgment shows that you made reasonable and prudent decisions and acted conservatively.

5. Explain the role of paperwork in reducing legal risk, and describe the steps to follow with any PADI program.

Paperwork establishes your conduct as a reasonably prudent divemaster who followed standards.

Paperwork helps you be organized, aids meeting standards, delivering good customer service and maintaining professionalism.


6. List the dos and don’ts to follow, with regard to legal risk management, in the event of a dive accident.

1. Do handle the emergency.2. Do inform the victim’s family — show compassion and caring.3. Do cooperate with authorities — give only the facts.4. Do not assign, admit or speculate on causes or blame.5. Do collect the victim’s equipment to turn over to authorities.6. Do call your PADI Office to report the incident.

7. Explain how the Quality Assurance process helps you reduce legal risk.

Creates documentation that you, as a PADI member, followed standards. The process also documents that any standards-related problems are addressed and corrected.

8. Describe the basics of the Quality Assurance process.

• Indication of problem or a complaint. • PADI seeks additional information. • PADI contacts member to get member’s side. • If a member verifies problem, PADI determines corrective action.• When statements can’t be reconciled, the PADI Quality Management

Committee reviews the information and determines the appropriate ac-tion.

9. List five suggestions to help you manage risks to your health and safety as a divemas-ter.

1. Stay physically fit2. Make the deepest dive first and stay well within limits3. Stay hydrated.4. When ill or injured, moderate your activities. 5. Pay attention to your mental health.

A-34 Appendix


Answer Keys1. List the “three Es” of diving and explain why each is necessary for someone to be a

diver.

Education — to dive safely, divers need instruction.Equipment — without equipment, there is no diving.Experience — divers need opportunities to dive. Without a reason to dive,

education and equipment have no purpose.

2. Where does the dive consumer find the three Es of diving.

At PADI Dive Centers and Resorts.

3. Explain the role of leadership level divers with respect to equipment counseling and why it is important.

Divers will come to the divemaster for advice about equipment because diving is a technical activity and divers rely on the divemaster’s experi-ence. Dive operators depend on equipment sales for business.

4. List four attributes of a positive sales process.

1. Give the best recommendation.2. Listen to the divers who come in and ask for advice.3. Don't make assumptions about price, but recommend the equipment

that best addresses the customer's need. 4. Give all the advice you would like to get.



Answer Keys1. List six reasons why you should consider continuing your training through the PADI

Open Water Scuba Instructor level.

1. Instructors are more versatile employees.2. The majority of boat divemasters are instructors.3. The instructor level is the most common path into other areas of the

dive industry.4. Instructors have more opportunities to work on a part-time basis.5. Instructor training has credibility beyond diving.6. There is more demand for PADI Instructors than any other dive profes-

sional rating. 2. Explain how it benefits you to complete the PADI Assistant Instructor course before

taking the PADI Instructor Development Course.

Being an Assistant Instructor gives you more time to assimilate and apply information as well as allows more time to log dives. Assistant Instructors may be excused from certain IDC Curriculum components, thus reducing the IDC load. Assistant Instructors may complete PADI Specialty Instructor courses prior to an IDC.

3. Explain how diver level specialty training can help your career as a PADI Divemaster.

It gives you broader and more frequent diving opportunities and helps you gain experience for Specialty Instructor ratings.

4. List six skills, outside of diver training, that can make you more valuable in the dive industry.

1. Boat handling/captain's license2. Retail sales training3. Sales management training 4. Manufacturer's equipment repair technician5. Compressor or diesel engine mechanic6. Writing, word processing, layout and photography

A-36 Appendix

5. Explain how emerging technologies can affect your career, and what you should do in response.

Technological changes can make what you know obsolete. Stay tuned to the dive media, attend trade shows, keep up with changes in computer technology and business trends in other fields that affect virtually every industry.