PADM 6615 Volunteerism Policy Comparison

Running Head: VOLUNTEERISM: POLICY COMPARISON

Volunteerism: A Policy Comparison

Gwen Knight

Southern Utah University

Dr. Pat KeehleyPADM 6615Comparative Public Policy

2Running Head: VOLUNTEERISM: POLICY COMPARISON

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..3

Introduction………………………………………………………………………4

Service Learning and Volunteer Opportunities……………….…………………6

Best Practices…………………………………………………………………...11

Government and Organizational Policies……………………………………….13

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………16

References………………………………………………………………………17


Abstract

Volunteerism in the United States provides social benefits. Student volunteers often

participate in service learning, a concept that allows for learning enhancement and community

engagement. A comparative analysis of volunteer policies in the United States with those of

Denmark, Estonia, and England focuses on student volunteers and service learning, best

practices and governmental and organizational policies. Information was gathered through

personal interviews, organization websites and other academic sources. An analysis reveals that

policy for the most part is similar, with the greatest variation involving service learning. All of

these policies contribute to uniformity and promote volunteerism as a global practice.


INTRODUCTION

Volunteers are recognized as a valuable resource in the United States. Between

September 2013 and September 2014, 62.8 million Americans volunteered as least once for an

organization (”Economic News Release,” 2015), donating approximately 7.7 billion hours and

contributing $173 billion in monetary value through their service (“Volunteering and Civic Life

in America,” 2014). Volunteerism is especially beneficial in times of spending cuts and not

only provides a valuable service to the agency where the time is donated, but also has been

shown to improve the psychological health of the volunteer (Kahn, 1985).

Many students volunteer as a result of undergraduate service learning requirements. In

addition to fulfilling the higher education institution’s responsibility to enhance student

development, learning, and engagement, the institution’s ability to demonstrate commitment to

public concerns in the community is enhanced. Felton and Clayton (2011) identify one of the

core characteristics of service learning as advancing community purposes as well as academic

and civic learning goals.

I am personally aware of the benefits of volunteerism to the community as I recruit, train,

and supervise volunteers (including students participating in service learning courses) who assist

children experiencing trauma due to neglect and abuse. I have also experienced the personal and

academic benefits of volunteerism through participation in voluntary service in the community

and enrollment in service learning courses. It is my view that public policy impacts volunteerism

as it can either create conditions for the successful use of volunteers or can hinder the ability of

nonprofit organizations, government entities and higher education institutions to attract, manage

and support volunteers.


Participation in Study Abroad to Northern Europe provided an opportunity to research

and compare volunteer policy in Copenhagen Denmark, Tallinn, Estonia, and London, England.

Preparation for this research began with gaining a basic understanding of comparative research.

According to Jreisat (2002), a significant portion of what is known about public administration

stems from agreement among practitioners, observers and researchers. Administrative

information and knowledge is both evolutionary and experiential and develops from tradition,

precedent, observation, expert opinion, and cumulative data. This information is then

synthesized using quantitative and qualitative analytical tools to ascertain regularities and

patterns of administrative action (Jreisat, 2002).

Analytical tools have not been used to examine the comparisons made in this paper:

however, these comparisons are framed through research strategy as outlined by Jreisat (2002).

This framework involves establishing objectives concerning the policy information I wish to

learn through comparison, determining why I want to know the information (significance and

relevance) and determining how to effectively find and apply the information by selecting a

method to do so. Jreisat (2002) also suggests that the most meaningful administrative actions

occur in the context of formal organizations and therefore the organization is a credible unit of

analysis. In addition, comparative organizational perspective supports many of the objectives of

comparative analysis: therefore, the unit of organizations will be used in my comparative

analysis. Jreisat does caution that a genuine cross-cultural comparison most generally requires in

depth knowledge of the cultures being examined including history, language, values, norms,

administrative institutions and processes (Jreisat, 2002).

Based on the above-mentioned framework, this paper will address comparative volunteer

policy, recognizing that the comparison will not be as extensive as envisioned by Jreisat due to


the lack of use of analytical tools and my limited knowledge and exposure to culture. As

previously mentioned, I have defined my objectives based on my experience with volunteerism

in the nonprofit and higher education institution context. I determined what information that I

wished to gather for comparison and formulated the following questions:

Do service learning and volunteer opportunities exist for students on college/university campuses? If so, are the any policies in place for promoting and governing this opportunities?

What “best practices” are followed by nonprofit agencies involving recruitment, training, monitoring and evaluating volunteers?

What governmental and organizational policies exist promoting volunteerism and protecting volunteers and nonprofit organizations from liability?

Each of these questions was addressed with individuals representing the appropriate

organizations visited during the study abroad experience. These organizations included higher

education institutions and nonprofit organizations. The comparisons include information

received through personal interviews, organization websites, and other academic sources as

indicated.

SERVICE LEARNING AND STUDENT VOLUNTEER OPPORTUNITES

A brief history of the importance of the service learning concept in the United States

provides the foundational basis to allow for a comparative analysis involving student volunteer

opportunities. Cooper (2013) defines service learning as natural learning occurring as a result of

“observation, personal involvement, and problem solving in a real life situation” (p.296). The

basic theory behind service learning is credited to Dewey’s belief that the key to learning is the

interaction of experience with knowledge and skills (Felten & Clayton, 2011). During the 1980s,

David Kolb built on John Dewey’s philosophy by proposing the Theory of Experiential Learning

(Cooper, 2013). The 1980’s also produced discussions as to how service learning could address

education concerns, particularly the lack of relevance throughout undergraduate curriculum


(Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). Organizations such as Campus Compact and Campus Opportunity

Outreach League grew in the 1980’s in response to the irrelevance of curriculum and a desire to

create more meaningful undergraduate experiences by institutional leaders and students. These

organizations created opportunities and incentives for students to relate educational experiences

to community service activities (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). In 2005, the Community Engagement

Classification was initiated as an elective Carnegie Classification (“Carnegie Community

Engagement Classification”, 2014). This classification identifies higher education’s

commitment to community engagement by strengthening the bonds between community and

campus through the practice of service.

Student interest in service learning in the United States has steadily increased. Service

learning was identified as “one of the fastest growing areas of interest on many college

campuses” based on the commitment of the college-aged population to participate in service

activities (Schuh, Jones, Harper, & Associates, 2011, p. 461). A perusal of Utah higher

education institutions’ websites discloses that service learning centers and/or courses exist at all

of these institutions.

A similar internet search for Roskilde, Tallinn University of Technology, University of

Greenwich and Regents University websites in preparation for visits and interviews provided no

mention of “service learning” centers or courses. I asked Dr. Patrick Clarke, one of the

professors from SUU about this and he told me that “service learning” was not a term recognized

abroad (Dr. Patrick Clarke, personal communication, May 2, 2014). Based on this conversation,

I knew I would have to restructure my question to focus on volunteerism and student field

experience since the vernacular of “service learning” would likely not be understood.


My research found that students participate in volunteer and experiential learning through

three major areas: student unions and university involvement, business consultation, and

internships. Students may volunteer through the Student Union at both Tallinn University of

Technology (Estonia) and the University of Greenwich (England). According to the Student

Union page on the University of Greenwich website, students can volunteer through student

groups and during Fresher’s Fortnight, as representatives in Union Offices or Program reps, with

projects such as Union campaigns and in the local community or areas related to their course

(“Volunteering,” 2014). Harry Hodges, Vice President for Student Activities said he would like

to see more student volunteers interacting with the community; however, he felt that he would

need a staff member to facilitate that involvement and that there were not funds for such a

program (Harry Hodges, personal communication, May 11, 2015). Another interesting statement

on the website similar to service learning in the United States is that students can log hours and

skills gained through volunteering and work toward recognition and awards to celebrate these

achievements. The union offers to help students find volunteer opportunities with them or in the

local community through their partnership with Greenwich Volunteering Center (“Volunteering,

“2014). The Student Union page at Tallinn University explains that most students act as

volunteers for the union and that students can mentor new students through the “Students

Helping Students” program (“People,” 2014). Students at Regents University can volunteer

through the Buddy Program, a mentoring program providing support for international students

(Beata Penkoswska, personal communication, May 13, 2015). Regents also employs an

Outreach and Community Engagement Coordinator, Irene Uwejeyah with whom I met briefly.

She told me that she sought meaningful partnerships with the community: for instance, she had

formed a partnership with the Regents Park Zoo and students would be helping with the design


of their new zoo store and products to be sold there (Irene Uwejeyah, personal communication,

May 13, 2015.

Student volunteers can be found as consultants in start-up organizations and businesses in

Denmark and Estonia. Jonathan Weng, President of the Copenhagen chapter of the nonprofit

180 Degrees Consulting, explained that students from both Copenhagen Business School and the

University of Copenhagen provide consultation to start-ups and social organizations to improve

the effectiveness of the business or organization. All of the consultation services are provided by

students who apply to be part of the program and are offered at no charge. The goal is to

connect the capabilities of university students with the unmet needs of social organizations

(Jonathan Weng, personal communication, May 4, 2015). RUC innovation a part of Roskilde

University in Denmark and offers collaboration opportunities with business and RUC’s

researchers and students (“Cooperation,” 2014).

Mektory is the innovation and business center for Tallinn University of Technology. The

goals of Mektory include bringing together researchers, students and entrepreneurs to solve

practical product development problems and generate new intelligent ideas to tie theoretical

studies at the university with the practical side of business, to prepare better-trained, experienced

engineers, to encourage forward movement of students start-up companies (they hold business

model competitions) and to show children of all ages that engineering is exciting, feasible and

down to earth (“Mektory,” 2014). In addition, Tallinn Science Park Tehnopol, a science and

business environment for knowledge based companies, Tallinn University of Technology, and IT

College in Tehnopol use student volunteers to help assist start-up businesses through consulting

and locating investors (Triin Mahlakov, personal communication, May 7, 2015).


Students in Denmark and Estonia expressed to me the importance of voluntary

internships relating to obtaining a job after their degrees were complete. Even though Roskilde

University offers students opportunities to participate in the RUC business partnerships, the

students and one faculty member I spoke with had a different view of volunteerism. When I

asked a student named Soren, a guide on the Roskilde tour if he had ever participated as a

volunteer he stated that he had not, explaining that the social system in Denmark eliminates the

need for volunteers because social programs provide jobs for individuals to meet citizen’s needs

(Soren, personal communication, May 5, 2015). This view was shared by social work faculty

member Aksyl who expressed that there is not so much volunteerism in social services in that

individuals are provided with needed services through paid employees. He further discussed the

idea that as funding becomes an issue, the subject of using volunteers may be debated, but for

now, people paid for providing social services are fearful of losing their jobs if volunteers are

willing to provide the services (Aksyl, personal communication, May 5, 2015). A social work

student whom I interviewed at Roskilde named Stine, said that she does volunteer at a substance

abuse clinic as part of an internship to gain experience that will help her later get a job (Stine,

personal communication, May 5, 2015). The Official Website of Denmark presents a contrasting

opinion than that of Soren and Aksyl. According to it, volunteerism has been increasing and

43% of Danes over the age of 16 volunteer. A senior researcher at the Center for Social

Research, Torben Friedberg states (“Volunteer Work in Denmark, “2014).

There are several reasons for this. First of all we have a strong civil society and a tradition for making volunteer organisations of all sorts. Historically there has been a focus in Denmark on the necessity of volunteer work for the benefit of the greater society. But the many organisations have also been part of the democratic project. The volunteer work, negotiations within the organisations and their advocacy in relation to the government and administration have been a way for people to ‘practise democracy’.


I asked Lizette, a student intern at the US Embassy in Tallinn, about her experience with

volunteerism. She said that she began volunteering for the Red Cross as a youth because her

mother had been a volunteer. She ran a children’s group in her hometown and really liked it.

She said that she does not volunteer now for the Red Cross, but participates in her internship as

do most students. These internships are not mandatory, but needed for resumes and to help

procure jobs (Lizette, personal communication, May 6, 2015). It is interesting to note that

according to a report prepared by GHK Consulting, Educational, Audiovisual & Culture

Executive Agency, & Directorate General Education and Culture (2010), 20 to 29% of Estonian

adults engage in volunteer activities.

In summary, even though the term “service learning” is not specifically used, the concept

is practiced to a certain extent as exemplified above resulting in enhanced student learning and

increased community engagement. In addition, it appears that students are encouraged to

volunteer, especially at their own institutions. Many students volunteer in the form of

internships in order to gain experience that will result in obtaining a job after graduation.

BEST PRACTICES

Best practices encompass recruitment, training, supervision and retention and these

practices were examined as part of my research. As a volunteer recruiter for the past seven

years, some of the strategies I use are outlined by CASA, the organization for which I work.

These include volunteer fairs, flyers and posters and the use of other volunteers (“Recruitment,”

2014). In addition, the past few years have seen an increase in recruitment success through the

use of technology and social media including websites, Facebook and Twitter. Additional best

practices have been identified by Brudney (1999). These include:

Assign a manager to the volunteer program. Also known as “coordinators” or “directors” of volunteers or volunteer services. The responsibility of this individual would be


managing and working with volunteers. This may seem obvious; however, empirical research shows that most volunteer coordinators have major additional work assignments limiting the time they can devote to the volunteer program.

Establish written policies that govern the program thus providing a consistent pattern of supervision, assistance and direction.

Develop volunteer job descriptions that include specific performance tasks. Provide support activities including orientation, basic and ongoing training, and

recognition. Evaluate volunteers: keep formal records of volunteer participation and discuss

performance periodically with the volunteer. Provide liability insurance coverage for volunteers.

I had the opportunity to review best practice with three individuals representing nonprofit

organizations in Denmark, Estonia, and England. An individual designated as a director or

coordinator of the program existed at all three organizations that I visited (best practice). I

learned from Jonathan Weng, President of the Copenhagen chapter of 180 Degree Consulting

that he uses social media, word of mouth and attends recruitment fairs in order to recruit

volunteers. Training is provided to these student volunteers through PA Consulting and

Implement Consulting Group, two groups with whom 180 has developed partnerships (Jonathan

Weng, personal communication, May 5, 2015). Maris Jogeva, Executive Director of NENO:

Network of Estonian Nonprofit Organizations, told me that volunteers are mainly recruited

through the use of social media, radio announcements and flyers. NENO works with several

nonprofits in Estonia and actually provides training to them (Maris Jogeva, personal

communication, May 7, 2015).

I also met with Sheila Norris, Marketing Communications Manager for the Volunteer Center

of Camden, England. Sheila mainly recruits through volunteer fairs and word of mouth. The

Volunteer Center, which is an umbrella organization for nonprofits similar to NENO in Estonia,

offers trainings to other nonprofit organizations. They are also part of a larger nonprofit

organization called Team London (Sheila Norris, personal communication, May 13, 2015).


Team London outlines best practices for organizations in the London area. These are listed

on their website and are similar to those in the U.S. They are as follows (“Managing Volunteers-

Best Practice,” 2012.

Volunteers should only ever be involved because they add value, and are not used to replace paid staff or to reduce costs

All volunteer roles should provide volunteers with high levels of satisfaction, and the chance to gain new, or enhance existing, skills and experiences.

Organizations must ensure that they provide appropriate volunteer insurance coverage Volunteers should always receive an induction or introduction to the organization, and any

training that is relevant to their role. This should ensure that volunteers understand their responsibilities and that they can carry out their role safely. You should include Health & Safety, outline of roles and responsibilities, practicalities of the role, and identify a contact in the organization as well as support and supervision arrangements.

Wherever possible volunteers should be reimbursed for out of pocket expense incurred while volunteering. This may include travel expenses or refreshments. The volunteer must always be informed before they start the role whether expenses are being reimbursed. The volunteer role description should be transparent around this issue.

Organizations must provide access to an identified support person who will be the main point of contact for the volunteers.

Organizations should have a problem solving procedure in place for when things go wrong.

To summarize, the organizations that I researched appear to use similar best practices to

those in the United States. Two practices suggested by Team London that I find different and

perhaps worth pondering are 1) not using volunteers to replace paid staff or to reduce cost and 2)

reimbursing volunteers for out of pocket expense, travel or refreshments. I know that these are

not practices currently followed in my organization and may be worth exploring.

GOVERNMENTAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

The Volunteer Protection Act (VPA) 42 U.S.C. § 14501 (b) was signed into law by

President Bill Clinton in 1997 and became effective in September of that year. The act provides

that “no volunteer of a nonprofit organization…shall be liable for harm caused by an act or

omission of the volunteer on behalf of the organization” when the volunteer is acting in an

official capacity (Charles, 1997, p.96). The act preempts all state liability laws that were not


consistent with the purposes of the VPA and prohibits a court from imposing punitive damages

for injuries caused by the actions of a volunteer unless they were caused by gross negligence or

criminal misconduct. The act does allow volunteers to be held liable if harm is due to “willful

or criminal misconduct, gross negligence, reckless misconduct or a conscious, flagrant

indifference to the rights or safety of the individual harmed by the volunteer”. In addition,

volunteers can be held liable if the harm is due to the operation of a motor vehicle, aircraft,

vessel or other vehicle without a license or required insurance”(Charles, 1997, p.96). This means

volunteers can be held liable for harm for misconduct involving a violation of federal or civil

rights laws, cases where the volunteer has been under the influence of alcohol or drugs, or harm

has been caused by a hate crime, violent crime or sexual offense for which the volunteer has

been convicted under state law (Charles, 1997. Charles (1997) points out that the act is not a

“blanket exemption” from damages for volunteers acting in official capacity and does not

prevent a plaintiff from collecting damages from the paid staff or the organization itself. As a

result, it is recommended that organizations supervising volunteers carry liability insurance

covering volunteers (Brudney, 1999).

Denmark, Estonia and England do not have legal framework in place for volunteering;

however, volunteering is implicit within or regulated by other existing general laws (GHK

Consulting, et al, 2010). Even though there may be no legal status for volunteers in these

countries, the general laws and rules that apply to people in paid employment apply to

volunteers. For example in England, Section 3 of the ‘Health and Safety at Work Act” of 1974

covers volunteers (GHK Consulting, et al, 2010). According to Mark Restall, a freelance trainer,

consultant, and author who once worked for the organization Volunteering England, this act

imposes a duty on every employer to ensure that employees are not exposed to health or safety


risks and that the health and safety of people who are not employees are not affected by the way

in which the employer conducts business. Mark agrees that this act includes volunteers. In

addition, he also believes that the common law “duty of care” requires organizations to take

reasonable care to avoid causing harm to their volunteers. In other words, organizations should

take reasonable steps to ensure that the likelihood and or potential of serious injury to volunteers

is reduced (Mark Restall, personal communication, May 19, 2015). Many of these steps were

outlined above in the “Best Practices” section.

Implications of the Health and Safety Act are that organizations involving volunteers are

required to ensure volunteers and any acts which result in a volunteer causing injury to others are

covered by a Public Liability Insurance Policy (GHK et al, 2010). As is common in the United

States, organizations without this insurance may be held liable. In addition, in countries where

there is no legal obligation to provide insurance for volunteers, third party liability becomes the

responsibility of the organization; therefore in practice, organizations using volunteers have

insurance in place that covers their volunteers. In some countries, such as Estonia and Denmark,

insurance is not as big an issue because all individuals are covered by the national health

insurance scheme (GHK et al, 2010).

In summary, the Voluntary Protection Act of 1997 exists in the United States to protect

volunteers; however, best practice recommends that volunteer organizations carry liability

insurance as the act does not extend to misconduct of volunteers or motor vehicle accidents. In

Estonia, Denmark and England, no specific legal framework is in place, however general laws

apply to volunteer organizations and these organizations are encouraged to carry insurance to

protect themselves and their volunteers; however, in countries such as Estonia and Denmark,

insurance is not as vital due to national health insurance plans.


CONCLUSION

In conclusion, through the use of personal interviews, organizational websites, and other

academic materials, my research concludes that volunteerism is recognized as an important

contribution to society not only in the United States, but in Denmark, Estonia and England as

well. Three areas of focus have been specifically examined. These include service learning and

student volunteers, best practices, and governmental and organizational policy. While “service

learning” is not recognized as a specific term in the countries examined, student volunteerism

does still exist, especially as it applies to community engagement and business, volunteering

within a student’s higher education institution, and voluntary internships. Best practices in

volunteer organizations in the United States and the countries analyzed are also very similar and

involve persons who are identified as directors or coordinators for nonprofit organizations,

recruitment methods, and adequate training. Governmental and organizations policies are

similar in that nonprofit organizations may be held liable for acts of volunteers and are

encouraged to carry liability insurance. Policies also ensure the safety of volunteers as they

perform their duties in the organization. It is my conclusion that all of these policies contribute

to uniformity that promotes volunteerism as a global practice.


References

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Documents

PADM 6615 Volunteerism Policy Comparison