PALMQUIST.tree.36. This Glossary Briefly Defines

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By Stephen Palmquist ([email protected])

This Glossary briefly defines the most important technical terms used

in The T ree of Philosophy. Where relevant, opposite terms are given in

parentheses at the end of the definition. Words defined herein (including

slight variations) appear in italics the first time they are used in the

definition of some other word in either section of this Glossary. An asterisk

(*) is appended to any italicizedword that is defined in the other section.

The first sectiondefines terms used mainly by Kant. The second section

defines other technical terms as they are used in this text, usually naming

the philosopher(s)who used them in the specifiedway(s).

I. Kant's Technical Terms

a pos

ter

ior

i: aw

ay of gaining know

led

ge by appealing tos

ome par

ticu

lar

experience( s ). Kant used this method to establish empirical and

hypothetical truths*. (Cf. a priori.)

a priori: away of gaining knowledgewithout appealing to any particular

experience( s ). Kant used this method to establish transcendental and

logical truths*. (Cf. a posteriori.)

aesthetic: having to dowith sense-perception. In Kant's first C ritique this

word refers tos pace an

d time as the necessary conditions for sense-

perception. The first half of his thirdC ritique examines the subjective

purposiveness in our perception of beautif ul or sublime objects in order to

construct a system of aesthetic judgment. For example, he defined beauty*

in terms of four basic principles: subjective universality,disinterested

delight, purposiveness without a purpose, and necessary delight.(Cf.

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teleological.)

analysis: division of a representation into two opposing representations,

with a view toward clarifying the original representation. Philosophy* as

metaphysics employs analysis more than synthesis. (Cf. synthesis.)

analytic: a statement or an item of knowledge that is true solely because of

its conformity to some logical laws. "All bachelors are unmarried" is a

typical analytic proposition*. (Cf. synthetic.)

anarchy: a politicalsystem having "no ruling power" ("an" and "arche" in

Greek) and serving as the basis for many versions of utopian visions.

appearance: an object of experience,when viewed f rom the transcendental

ers

pective. Thou

gh oftenus

ed

as

as

ynonym for

phenomenon, it technicallyrefers to an object considered to be conditioned by s pace and time, but not

by the categories. See also appearance*. (Cf. thing in itself .)

architectonic: the logical structure given by reason (especially through the

use of twofold and threefold divisions),which the philosopher should use as

a plan to organize the contents of any system.

autonomy: the principle of self-legislation,whereby the subject f reely

chooses his or her own ends by imposing the mor

al law

onto thew

ill. Anaction must be autonomous in order to be moral. (Cf. heteronomy.)

belief : holding something to be true on the basis of subjective certainty,

even though objective certainty is lacking. See also faith. (Cf. knowledge.)

categorical imperative: a command expressing a general, unavoidable

requirement of the moral law. Its three formulations convey the

requirements of universalizability, respect and autonomy. Together they

establish that an action is properly called "morally good

*" only if (1)we canwill all persons to do it, (2) it enables us to treat other persons as ends and

not merely as the means to our own selfish ends, and (3) it allows us to see

other persons as mutual law-makers in an ideal "kingdom of ends".

categories: the most general concepts, in terms ofwhich every object must


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be viewed in order for it to become an object of empirical knowledge. The

four main categories (quantity, quality, relation, and modality) each have

three sub-categories, forming a typical example of a twelvefold,

architectonic pattern. (Cf. s pace and time.)

concept : the active species of representation, by means ofwhich our under-standing enables us to think. By requiring perceptions to conform to the

categories, concepts serve as "rules" allowing us to perceive general

relations between representations. (Cf. intuition.)

conscience: the faculty of the human subject that enforces the moral law in

a particular way for each individual by providing an awareness ofwhat is

right andwrong in each situation.

Copernican revolution: in astronomy, the theory that the earth revolvesaround the sun; in philosophy*, the (analogous) theory that the subject of

knowledge does not remain at rest, but revolves around (i.e., actively deter-

mines certain aspects of) the object. Thus, the formal characteristics of the

empirical world (i.e., s pace and time and the categories) are there only

because the subject' s mind puts them there, transcendentally.

C ritical: Kant's philosophical* method, distinguishing between different

ers pectives and then using such distinctions to settle otherwise

irresolvable disputes. The Critical approach is not primarily negative, but isan attempt to ad judicate quarrels by showing how both sides have a

measure of validity, once their perspective is properly understood. Kant's

system of Critical philosophy examines the structure and limitations of

reason itself, in order to prepare a secure foundation formetaphysics. .

C ritique: to use the C ritical approach to doing philosophy*. This term

appears in the titles of the three main books in Kant's Critical philosophy,

which adopt the theoretical, practical and judicial stand points, respectively.

dis position: the tendency a person has in any given situation to act either

good* or bad (i.e., to obey the moral law or to disobey it). (Cf.

redis position.)

duty: an action thatwe are obligated to perform out of respect for the moral


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law.

empirical: one of Kant's four main pers pectives, aiming to establish a kind

of knowledge that is both synthetic and a posteriori. Most of the knowledge

we gain through ordinary experience, or through science*, is empirical.

"This table is brown" is a typical empirical statement. (Cf. transcendental).

experience: the combination of an intuitionwith a concept in the form of a

udgment. "Experience" in this (mediate) sense is a synonym for "empirical

knowledge". The phrase "possible experience" refers to a representation

that is presented to our sensibility through intuition, but is not yet known,

because it has not been presented to our understanding through concepts.

"Experience" in this (immediate) sense contrasts with "knowledge".

aculty: a f undamental power of human subjects to do something orperform some rational f unction.

aith: in the first C ritique, a synonym of belief . Kant encouraged a more

humble approach to philosophy* by claiming to deny knowledge in order to

make room for faith-i.e., by distinguishing between whatwe can know

empirically andwhat is transcendent,which we can approach only by

means of faith. " P ractical faith" refers to the conviction that Godwill

reward thosewho adopt a good* dis position. " Rational faith" is Kant's term

for pure (moral) religion, in contrast to "historical faith",which refers tothe extra-rational tradition that attempts to explainwhatwe cannot

understand by reason alone.

ormal: the active or subjective aspect of something-that is, the aspect that

is based on the rational activity of the subject. (Cf. material.)

heteronomy: the principle of letting something other than the moral law

determinewhat ought to be done. This replaces f reedomwith something

outside of practical reason, such as a person's inclinations. Such actions ontheir own are nonmoral-i.e., neither moral nor immoral-but can be immoral

if they prevent a person f rom doing their duty. (Cf. autonomy.)

hypothetical: one of Kant's four main pers pectives, aiming to establish

knowledge that is both analytic and a posteriori-though Kant himself


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wrongly identified it as synthetic and a priori. Most metaphysical ideas are

properly viewed f rom this perspective, instead of f rom the s peculative

perspective of traditional metaphysics. (Cf. logical).

ideas: the species of representation that gives rise to metaphysical belief s.

Ideas are special concepts that arise out of our knowledge of the empiricalworld, yet seem to point beyond nature to some transcendent realm. The

three most important metaphysical ideas are God, f reedom and

immortality.

ideology: an idea or system* of ideas that is treated as a myth to live by and

often forced onto others who may not otherwise accept it as true.

imagination: the facultywhich,when controlled by the understanding,

makes concepts out of intuitions and synthesi z es intuitions with conceptsto produce objects that are ready to be judged. In aesthetic judgment, by

contrast, imagination takes control over the power of thinking. See also

imagination*.

inclination: the faculty or object that motivates a person to act in a

heteronomous way. Following inclinations is neither morally good* nor

morally bad, exceptwhen doing so directly prevents a person f rom acting

according to duty-i.e., only when choosing to obey an inclination results in

disobedience to the moral law.

int uition: the passive species of representation, by means ofwhich our

sensibility enables to have sensations. By requiring appearances to be given

in s pace and time, intuitions allowus to perceive particular relations

between representations, thereby limiting empirical knowledge to the

sensible realm. (Cf. concept.)

ud gment : in the first C ritique, the use of the understanding bywhich an

object is determined to be empirically real, through a synthesis of intuitions

and concepts. The thirdC ritique (adopting the judicial stand point)

examines the form of our feelings of pleasure and displeasure in order to

construct a system based on the faculty of judgment in its aesthetic and

teleological manifestations.


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udicial: one of Kant's three main stand points, relating primarily to experi-

ence-i.e., towhatwe feel, as opposed towhatwe know or desire to do.

Judicial reason is virtually synonymouswith "C ritique" itself, and is

concernedwith questions about our deepestways of experiencing the

world. Finding the source of two examples of such experiences is the task of

the thirdC ritique. (Cf. theoretical and practical.)

knowled ge: the final goal of the understanding in combining intuitions and

concepts. If they are pure, the knowledgewill be transcendental; if they are

impure, the knowledgewill be empirical. The certainty produced must be

objective as well as subjective. In a looser sense, "knowledge" also refers to

what arises out of adopting any legitimate pers pective. (Cf. belief .)

logical: one of Kant's four main pers pectives, aiming to establish a kind of

knowledge that is both analytic and a priori. It is concernedwith nothingbut the relationships between concepts. The law of noncontradiction

(A≠-A) is the f undamental law of traditional, Aristotelian or analytic logic*.

Synthetic logic* is based on the opposite, the law of contradiction (A=-A).

(Cf. hypothetical.)

material: the passive or objective aspect of something-that is, the aspect

that is based on the experience a subject has, or on the objects given in such

an experience. (Cf. formal.)

maxim: the material rule or principleused to guide a person in a particular

situation aboutwhat to do (e.g., "I should never tell a lie"). It thus provides a

kind of bridge between a person's inner dis position and outer actions.

metaphysics: the highest aspect of philosophy*, attempting to gain

knowledge of the ideas. Because the traditional, s peculative pers pective fails

to succeed in this task, Kant suggests a new, hypothetical perspective for

metaphysics. Metaphysics can succeed onlywhen it is preceded by

C ritique. See also metaphysics*.

moral law: the one "fact" of practical reason that is present in every

rational person, though some people are more aware of it than others. The

moral law, in essence, is our knowledge of the difference between good* and

evil, and our inner conviction that we ought to dowhat is good. See also


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categorical imperative.

noumena/noumenal: objects viewed as having transcendent reality. Also

the realm consisting of such objects. (Cf. phenomena/phenomenal.)

object : a gener

al ter

m for

any "thing" that is

cond

itioned

by thesu

bject' s

representation, and so is capable of being known. The thing in itself is a

thing that cannot become an object of human knowledge. (Cf. subject.)

objective: related more to the object or representation out ofwhich knowl-

edge is constructed than to the subject possessing the knowledge.

Considered transcendentally, objective knowledge is less certain than

subjective knowledge; considered empirically, objective knowledge is more

certain. (Cf. subjective.)

opinion: holding something to be true even though both objective and

subjective certainty are lacking. (Cf. ignorance*.)

ers pective: Kant himself did not use this word, but he used a number of

other, equivalent expressions, such as stand point,way of thinking,

employment of understanding, etc. The main C ritical perspectives are the

transcendental, empirical, logical, and hypothetical. See also pers pective*.

henomena/phenomenal: objects

of know

led

ge, viewed empir

ically, intheir f ully knowable state-i.e., conditioned by s pace and time and the

categories. Also the realm consisting of such objects. See also appearance.

(Cf. noumena/noumenal.)

ractical: one of Kant's three main stand points, relating primarily to

action-i.e., towhatwe desire to do as opposed towhatwe know or feel.

Finding the sources of such action is the task of the secondC ritique.

Practical reason is a synonym for will; both terms relate to issues

concerning morality. (Cf. theoretical and judicial.)

redis position: the natural tendency a person has, apart f rom (or before

having) any experience, to be morally good* or evil. (Cf. dis position.)

ure: not mixedwith anything sensible. Although its proper opposite is


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"impure", Kant normally opposes "pure" to "empirical".

rational: grounded in the faculty of reason rather than in sensibility.

reality/ real: if regarded f rom the empirical pers pective, this refers to the

ord

inar

yw

or

ld

of natur

e, or

to an object in it; ifr

egard

ed

f r

om thetranscendental perspective, it refers to the transcendent realm consisting

of noumena.

reason: in the first C ritique, the highest faculty of the human subject, to

which all other faculties are subordinated. It abstracts completely f rom the

conditions of sensibility and has a predetermined architectonic form. The

secondC ritique (adopting the practical stand point) examines the form of

our desires in order to construct a system based on the faculty of reason.

Reason's primary f unction is practical; though interpreters have oftenregarded its theoretical f unction as primary, Kant viewed the latter as being

subordinate.

religion: the way of acting, or pers pective,wherebywe interpret all our

duties as divine commands.

representation: the most generalword for an object at any stage in its de-

termination by the subject, or for the subjective act of determining the

object at that level. The main types of representations are intuitions,concepts, and ideas.

sensibility: the faculty concernedwith passively receiving objects. This is

accomplished through physical and mental sensations, via "outer sense"

and "inner sense", respectively.However, such sensations are possible only

if the objects are intuited, and intuition presupposes s pace and time to exist

as pure formal conditions. (Cf. understanding.)

sensible: presented to the subject by means of sensibility. Contrasts with"intelligible", a term roughly equivalent to su persensible and transcendent.

s pace and time: considered f rom the empirical pers pective, they constitute

the context inwhich objects interact outside of us; considered f rom the

transcendental perspective, they are pure, so they exist inside of us as


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conditions of knowledge. (Cf. categories.)

s peculative: the illusory pers pective adopted in traditional metaphysics by

wrongly using reason in a hopeless attempt to gain knowledge about

something transcendent. Sometimes used loosely as a synonym of

theoretical.

stand point : the special type of pers pective that determines the point f rom

which awhole system of perspectives is viewed. The main C ritical stand-

points are the theoretical, practical, and judicial.

subject : a general term for any rational personwho is capable of having

knowledge. See also representation. (Cf. object.)

su

bjective:r

elated

mor

e to thesu

bject than to the object or r

epr

es

entationout ofwhich knowledge is constructed. Considered transcendentally,

subjective knowledge is more certain than objective knowledge; considered

empirically, subjective knowledge is less certain. (Cf. objective.)

summum bonum: Latin for highest good*. This is the ultimate goal of the

moral system presented in the secondC ritique; it involves the ideal

distribution of happiness in exact proportion to each person's virtue. To

conceive of its possibility,we must postulate the existence* of God and

human immortality, thus giving practical reality to these ideas.

su persensible: see transcendent.

synthesis: integration of two opposing representations into one new repre-

sentation, with a view toward constructing a new level of the object' s real-

ity. Philosophy* as C ritique employs synthesis more than analysis. On the

operation of synthesis in the first C ritique, see imagination. (Cf. analysis.)

synthetic: a statement or item of kno

wle

dge that is known to be true

because of its connectionwith some intuition. "The cat is on the mat" is a

typical synthetic proposition*. (Cf. analytic.)

system: a set of basic facts or arguments, called "elements", arranged

according to the order of their logical relationships, as determined by the


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architectonic patterns of reason. Kant's C ritical philosophy* is a System

made up of three subordinate systems, each defined by a distinct

stand point, and each made up of the same four pers pectives. The System's

overall Perspective is determined by Kant's Copernican revolution.

teleological: having to do with purposes or ends. The second half of thethirdC ritique examines the objective purposiveness in our perception of

natural organisms in order to construct a system of teleological judgment.

(Cf. aesthetic.)

theoretical: one of Kant's three main stand points, relating primarily to

cognition-i.e., towhatwe know as opposed towhatwe feel or desire to do.

Theoretical reason is concernedwith questions about our knowledge of the

ordinaryworld (theworld science* seeks to understand). Finding the source

of such knowledge is the task of the first C ritique,which would best beentitled the C ritique of P ure Theoretical Reason. See also s peculative. (Cf.

ractical and judicial.)

thing in it self : an object considered transcendentally apart f rom all the

conditions under which a subject can gain knowledge of it.Hence the thing

in itself is, by definition,unknowable. Sometimes used loosely as a

synonym of noumenon. (Cf. appearance.)

time: see s pace and time.

t ranscendent : the realm of thought that lies beyond the boundary of pos-

sible knowledge, because it consists of objects that cannot be presented to us

in intuition-i.e., objects we can never experiencewith our senses

(sometimes called noumena). The closestwe can come to gaining

knowledge of the transcendent realm is to think about it by means of ideas.

The opposite of "transcendent" is "immanent".

t ranscendental: one of Kant's four main pers pectives, aiming to establish akind of knowledge that is both synthetic and a priori. It is a special type of

philosophical knowledge, concernedwith the necessary conditions for the

possibility of experience.However, Kant believed all knowing subjects

assume certain transcendental truths*,whether or not they are aware of it.

Transcendental knowledge defines the boundary between empirical


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knowledge and s peculation about the transcendent realm. "Every event has

a cause" is a typical transcendental proposition*. (Cf. empirical.)

t ranscendental ar gument : Kant's special method of proof by reference to

the possibility of experience; it claims that something (e.g., the categories)

must be true because if it were not true, experience itselfwould beimpossible.

understanding: in the first C ritique, the faculty concernedwith actively

producing knowledge by means of concepts. This is quite similar towhat is

normally called the mind. It gives rise to the logical pers pective, enabling us

to compare concepts with each other, and to the empirical perspective

(where it is also called judgment), enabling us to combine concepts with

intuitions in order to produce empirical knowledge. The first C ritique

(adopting the theoretical stand point) examines the form of our cognitionsin order to construct a system based on the faculty of understanding. (Cf.

sensibility.)

will: the manifestation of reason as viewed f rom the practical stand point,

including but not limited to the faculty of choice.

II. Other Technical Terms used in The T ree of Philosophy

2 LAR: see second level analytic relation.

analytic logic: the type of logic based on the laws of identity (A=A) and

noncontradiction (A≠-A). (Cf. synthetic logic.)

analytic method: see deduction.

angst : the Danishword for anxiety or dread. Kierkegaard used this term to

refer to a special kind of existential fear, involving a person's fear of

non-being. It therefore includes not only a fear of death, but a fear of themeaninglessness of life.

appearance: Plato's term for an object* or event in the materialworld,

indicating it is an illusory reflection of an ultimate reality* in the world of

forms. See also appearance*.


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pollonian:Nietzsche's term for the type of personwho is willing to

sacrifice personal greatness in order to follow traditional (life-denying)

moral and political norms. Following a "slave" morality and a "herd"

mentality, they tend to be conscious, rational, and calm in their actions, and

democratic in their politics. (Cf. Dionysian.)

aristocracy: Aristotle's term for a political system*wherein a few of the

"best" ("aristos" in Greek) people have the power and authority to rule. (Cf.

oligarchy.)

beauty: one of the three aims of the philosophical quest, as conceived by

Plato and many subsequent philosophers. It corresponds to the heart and is

powered by the s pirit. See also aesthetic*.

being-it self : the term used by Tillich and other existentialists to refer tothe ultimate reality* f romwhich existing things stand out; also referred to

as "the Ground of Being" or "God".

compound relations: the term used in Palmquist's geometry of logic to

refer to any logical relation that combines an analytic* (twofold) and a

synthetic* (threefold) relation. The most significant type is twelvefold

(12CR), combining a second-level analytic relationwith a simple synthetic

relation. Kant's table of categories* is a typical example of a 12CR.

deconst ructionism: a literary and philosophical movement in the late

twentieth century inspired largely by Derrida and based on the conviction

that supposedly absolute foundations for knowledge* or truth are actually

tools of oppression that need to be replaced by a more playf ul approach to

interpreting the meaning of spoken andwritten language.

deduction:Euclid's analytic method of arguing that defends a

predetermined conclusion by showing how it necessarily follows f rom two

or more "premises" (i.e., propositions that are assumed to be true). Aristotledemonstrated that if the premises are accepted and if the deduction is

constructed properly,without any fallacies, then the conclusion is certain.

(Cf. induction).

democracy: Aristotle's term for a political system*wherein the "common"


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("demos" in Greek) people have the power and authority to rule.He calls it

the "least bad" of the three bad types of political systems. (Cf. polity.)

demythologi z ing: the process of questioning a myth in order to distinguish

between aspects that areworth believing and aspects that should be given

up as meaningless.

dialogue: Plato's method of philosophi z ing,whereby two or more persons

discuss various philosophical questions, in the hope that reasonwill lead

them to the truth.

Dionysian:Nietzsche's term for the type of personwho is more concerned

about personal greatness and other life-affirming values than about

following traditional moral and political norms. Following a "master"

morality and a "hero" mentality, they tend to be unconscious, irrational, andpassionate in their actions, and aristocratic in their politics. (Cf.

pollonian.)

ecclesiocracy: Palmquist's term for theworst kind of political system*,

wherein leaders believe God directs the people solely through their

mediation and /or church structures are imposed onto the secular political

realm. Following this system requires people to give up their God-given

f reedom in exchange for the presumed right to claim salvation. (Cf.

theocracy.)

empiricism: the approach to philosophy that regards sense* experience*

and observation as the f undamental means of finding philosophical truth.

Empiricists usually tend to mistrust evidence based solely on logical

argumentation. Hume is a typical example of an empiricist. (Cf.

rationalism.)

epistemology: the branch of philosophy dealingwith questions about the

origin and nature of knowledge*. One of its most f undamental questions is:"Howdo we come to know something thatwe do not already know?" Since

Descartes, most philosophers have thought one's epistemologydetermines

one's metaphysics, rather than vice versa.

existence: Tillich's term for the quality of "standing out" ("ex-sistere" in


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Latin) f rom being-itself . Also Palmquist's term for the common factor

uniting metaphysics and science through the application of ignorance and

knowledge*, respectively. (Cf. meaning.)

existentialism: the major school of twentieth centurywestern philosophy

inspired largely byHeidegger and based on the conviction that discoveringthe meaning of human existence is philosophy's main role. This is typically

accomplished by means of analogical reasoning, based on the f undamental

distinction between existing things and being-itself and /or nothing. (Cf.

hermeneutics and linguistic analysis.)

allacy: a mistake in the formal* structure of an argument used to draw a

conclusion based on some evidence. A fallacious argument may appear to

prove something that is not actually true. Aristotlewas the first to give a

systematic* account of the various types of logical* fallacies.

geomet ry of logic, the: Palmquist's method of mapping logical relations

onto simple geometrical figures. The simplest analytic* relations are

twofoldwhile the simplest synthetic* relations as threefold; these are best

mapped onto the endpoints of a line and a triangle, respectively. See also

compound relations and second-level analytic relations.

goodness: according to Plato and many subsequent philosophers, one of the

three aims of the philosophical quest. It corresponds to the belly and ispowered by appetite.

hermeneutics: the major school of twentieth centurywestern philosophy

inspired largely by Gadamer and based on the conviction that grasping the

art of meaningf ul interpretation is philosophy's main role. This is typically

accomplished by reflecting on the nature of texts-e.g., by focusing on the

f undamental interplay between the author's intentions and the reader's

prejudices. (Cf. existentialism and linguistic analysis.)

idealism: the metaphysical position inspired largely by Plato and based on

the conviction that the objects* we perceive in the externalworld are not

ultimately real, but are "shadows" or appearances of a higher or deeper

reality*.


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ignorance: the goal of metaphysics, serving as the door to all good

hilosophical thinking. Kant distinguished between necessary (i.e.,

unavoidable) ignorance and empirical* ignorance that can be transformed

into knowledge* oncewe recognize that it exists. (Cf. opinion*.)

imagination: the power of the mind that is typically most active in aperson's childhood and reaches its highest expression in myth. See also

imagination*.

induction:Euclid's synthetic method of arguing that draws a conclusion

based on evidence collected f rom experience*.Hume argued that induction

always involves some guesswork, so it can never suffice to provide absolute

certainty that its conclusion is true. (Cf. deduction.)

insight : the "f ruit" of the tree of philosophy; a creative new thought thatcomes to a person suddenly and often unexpectedly, providing a deeper

understanding* of some issue or away of answering a previously

unanswered question. Insights often provide a new pers pective that enables

us to break through old, traditionalways of thinking. To be sure they are

more than mere opinions*.we should subject our insights to thorough

analysis*.

kingship: Aristotle's term for a political system*wherein one good person

holds all the power and authority. (Cf. tyranny.)

language-game: Wittgenstein's term for the different socially-constructed

contexts that give meaning to theway people usewords in specific

situations. For example, aword such as "s pirit" will have one meaning and

follow one set of rules if it appears in a religious context, but may take on a

completely new meaning,with different rules, if it appears in a

conversation between two fans at a sports event.

lateral thinking: de Bono's term for away of thinking that runs counter tothe ordinary or accepted ("horizontal") way of thinking about a given

problem or situation . By looking at a familiar situation f rom a new

ers pective,we can gain interesting new insights about how best to

proceed.


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linguistic analysis: the major school of twentieth centurywestern

hilosophy inspired largely by Wittgenstein and based on the conviction

that clarifying concepts* is philosophy's main role. This is typically

accomplished by means of logical* analysis* of key propositions, or by

showing how most philosophical problems arise out of a misuse of theway

words are used in ordinary language. (Cf. existentialism and hermeneutics.)

logic: the systematic* study of the structures that enablewords to be

understood. The main question of logic is: "What gives words and

ropositions their meaning?" See also logical*.

meaning: Palmquist's term for the common factor uniting logic and

ontology through the processes of understanding*words and silent wonder,

respectively. Frege argued that a proposition has meaning only if it has both

a "sense" and a "reference". (Cf. existence.)

metaphysics: Aristotle's term for the area of philosophy that is "after" or

"beyond" physics. Its main question is "What is ultimate reality*?" Socrates

and Kant both thought the proper outcome of studying metaphysics is

negative: to enable us to recognize our ignorance. See also metaphysics*.

myth:Eliade's term for a belief * that is held to be absolutely true.

Palmquist's term for any unquestioned belief that a person holdswith deep

conviction. (Cf. science.)

numen/numinous: Otto's terms for the mysterious object* that causes a

religious* experience* to happen.He argued that a numinous experience

typically involves the same set of five elements, regardless of one's religious

tradition: awe, majesty,urgency, mystery (or "otherness"), and fascination.

oligarchy: Aristotle's term for a political system* wherein only "a few"

("oligos" in Greek)wealthy people hold all the power and authority. (Cf.

aristocracy.)

ontology: the study of being, aiming to promote silent wonder of the

mystery of human existence. One of the four main aspects of philosophy,

investigating the essential nature of various kinds of human experience*.


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aradox: a meaningf ul contradiction,used intentionally by philosophers

such as Chuang Tzu andHegel in order to stimulate insight into various

aspects of transcendent* reality*. Synthetic logic can also be called the

"logic of paradox".

ers pective: Palmquist's term for away of thinking about or dealingwithan issue or problem, or a set of assumptions adoptedwhen viewing an

object*. Knowing which perspective is assumed is important because the

same question can have different answers if different perspectives are

assumed. See also pers pective*.

hilosophy: the Greek term for love of wisdom. It is a product of human

understanding*whose four main aspects are metaphysics, logic, science,

and ontology. One distinctive feature of philosophy is that it is self-defining:

it is the only discipline wherein asking the question "What is thisdiscipline?" is part of the discipline itself.

oet ry: a product of passionate human creativity (or "making") that

provides a cultural link between mythical and philosophicalways of

thinking.

olity: Aristotle's term for a political system* wherein the middle class

holds the power and authority to govern. In the version called "timocracy",

only landowners are eligible to vote. (Cf. democracy.)

roposition: a sentence or set of words that expresses a meaningf ul

content.

rationalism: the approach to philosophy that regards logic and rational*

argument as the f undamental means of finding philosophical truth.

Rationalists usually tend to mistrust evidence based solely on the senses*.

Descartes is a typical example of a rationalist. (Cf. empiricism.)

realism: the metaphysical position inspired largely by Aristotle and based

on the conviction that the objects*we perceive in the external world are

ultimately real.

republic: Plato's term for a political system*wherein a philosopher serves


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as king,who wisely distributes the power and authority to a trusted body of

advisers and representatives.

science: a product of human judgment; derived f rom "sciens", Latin for

"knowing". Viewed in this broad sense, it is one of the four main aspects of

hilosophy, aiming to determine the transcendental* boundary betweenknowledge* and ignorance in various fields. Viewed more narrowly, as

empirical* or natural science, it is the discipline that attempts to transcend

philosophy by ignoring all myth, yet paradoxically ends up creating one of

the greatest modern myths.

second-level analytic relation ( 2 LAR): the mostwidely used term in

Palmquist's geometry of logic, referring to any set of four concepts* that can

be derived by relating two sets of opposites to each other. A 2LAR is most

often mapped onto the four poles (or the four quadrants) of a cross, thoughthe corners of a square can also be used.

self-reference, the problem of : a paradox that arises by applying a certain

type of proposition to itself. For example, "This sentence is false" makes

sense if it refers to some other proposition; but if it refers to itself, it

produces a logically impossible situation.

skepticism: a metaphysical position that calls into question the human

capacity to obtain knowledge*, expressed in its most influential form byHume.

s pirit : together with mind and body, one of the three traditional aspects of

human nature. Kierkegaard regarded the human spirit as the paradoxical

key to both human sinf ulness and genuine religious faith*.

symbol: Tillich's term for an empirical* object* that points beyond itself to a

transcendent* object and somehow participates in the reality* of that more

real object.

synthetic logic: the type of logic based on the laws of nonidentity (A≠A)

and contradiction (A=-A). (Cf. analytic logic.)

synthetic method: see induction.


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theocracy: Palmquist's term for a non-political political system*,wherein

the person regards God as the absolute ruler of the heart, regardless of

which human political system may be operating concurrently. Following

this system requires a person to give up all rights, but promises to provide

absolute f reedom in return. It can be used as a model for the best kind of

human leadership. (Cf. ecclesiocracy.)

timocracy: see polity.

t ransvaluation:Nietzsche's term for the radical reinterpretation of

traditional morals,whereby ourusual conceptions of good and evil are

negatively assessed as tools for making human beings mediocre; genuine

values must transcend* good and evil.

t ruth: according to Plato and many subsequent philosophers, one of thethree aims of the philosophical quest. It corresponds to the head and is

powered by reason*.

t ruth table: any of numerous ways of displaying the truth value of a

specific type of logical* proposition. One of the f unctions of truth tables is

to help avoid committing fallacies.

tyranny: Aristotle's term for a political system*wherein one bad person

holds all the power and authority. (Cf. kingship.)

verification: the principleused by Ayer and other logical* positivists in the

hope of constructing a philosophy thatwould be genuinely scientific. It

states that a proposition should be admitted as true only if it can be shown

to be true by reference to some empirical* state or situation.

wisdom: the ideal object* of a philosopher's love ("sophos" means wisdom

in Greek), telling us how to use or apply our knowledge* most appropriately.

According to Socrates, only God is trulywise; for human beings,wisdomconsists in recognizing our ignorance of genuine wisdom.

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Original URL:

http://staff web.hkbu.edu.hk/ppp/tp4/tp4glos.html


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PALMQUIST.tree.36. This Glossary Briefly Defines