Part 1 Book e Knowledge

7/30/2019 Part 1 Book e Knowledge

1/176


2/176

2003 by Society for College and Un iversity Pl an n i n gAll Rights Res e rved. Published 2003

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 0-9700413-2-2

Tr a n s f o rmi ng e-KnowledgeI I

Society for College and Uni versity Pl a n n i n g

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104

www.scup.org

The mission of the Society for College and Un i versity Pl a n n i n g

is to promote the practice of compre h e n s i ve planning in higher

education by developing and disseminating planning know l e d ge .


3/176

How do we capture the essence of the

transformational power of e-know l e d g e ?

The digital technologies pose a moun-tainous challenge to all of us trying to

e x p l o re the possible futures they offer.

They combine a new medium with a new

d e l i ve ry system, and each multiplies the

effect of the other. The adaptive com-

puter is as re vo l u t i o n a ry a way of sup-

p o rting the way we think and learn as

was the invention of writing. The In t e r-

net is as perva s i ve in i ts communicative

impact as was the invention of the print-

ing press. In harnessing the two together,

we find ourselves grappling with the

e q u i valent of the invention of writing

and the invention of the printing press at

the same time. This extraord i n a ry histor-

ical convergence must give us pause. And

yet the pace of invention never pauses,

n e ver gives us the time we need to reflect.

We cannot predict the future, but we do

sense that we have the power to shape it.

So we need to take time to reflect: on what

those possible futures are, which are the

m ore desirable, and what it takes to rea li s e

them. The authors of this book set out tohelp us with that process. On eve ry page

you will find them striving to express the

ways in which e-systems can be exploited,

the benefits they could yield, and what we

all, individuals and organisations together,

must now do.

Underlying many of the contributions in

this book is a debate about epistemol-

ogywhen the knowledge technologies

change so radically, they change not just

what we know, but how we come to know

it. The contributors here argue that

k n owledge is contextual, social, re l a t i v i s-

ticnot a discrete and unchanging

object. The e-learning agenda creates the

dilemma that while we can atomise

kn owledge into elements such as learning

o b j e c t s, we must recognise that they are

t h e re to be shared, contextualised, and

negotiated in the social context of the

online community of practice.

We will come to a better understanding

of the epistemology of e-knowledge as

we slowly acquir e the habits of thee -K n owledge Economy: multitasking

a c ro s s the different modes of activity,

publishing with or without authorship

and with or without ow n e r s h i p, manag-

ing the tyranny of choice, manipulating

the multiple sources of knowledge . . . it

wil l t ake us a generat ion to understand

the full impact of the new media. Me a n-

while, the author s of thi s volume have

succeeded in articulating, through the

p rosaic combination of writing, graphics,

and storytelling, re p resented in print and

PDF forms, the pathways we can use to

transform ourselves and our organisa-

tions through e-know l e d g e .

Diana Laurillard

Tr a n s f o rming e-Know ledge I I I

Foreword

About Diana Lauri llard

P rofessor Laurillard is Head of the E-Learning Strategy Unit at th e

UK Government's Department for Education and Skills (DfES). She

was previously Pro - Vice-Chancellor for Learning Technologies and

Teaching at the Open University. Her role there was to ensure that

l e a rning technologies a chieved their appropriate balance within t he

full range of learning and teaching methods in the university's

courses. She is known world-wide for her widely acclaimed book

Rethinking University T e a c h i n g , which recently entered its second

edition. Th e fi rst edition is still used in courses on learn i n g

technology all over the world. She has also made a significant

contribution to fundamental re s e a rch on the relationship between

student learning and learning technologies, using the notion of a

'conversational framework' to define the learning process for higher

education, and then to interpret the extent to which new technology

can support and enhance high level conceptual learning.


4/176

Judy Brow nUn i versity of Wisconsin System andexe c u t i ve director of the ADL co-labis a

key f i g u re in the development andd e p l oyment of SCORM (Sh a r a b l e

Content Object Re f e rence Model). Sh e

p rovides re s e a rch and consulting on

technology directions for all campuses of

the Un i versity of Wisconsin Sy s t e m .

D r. Richard Ha me sis one of Au s t r a l i as most influentiali n t e l l e c t u a l s . A celebrated author, publicspeaker and futurist, Richard is chairman of

The Hames Group (a global network of

strategic advisers and knowledge designers),

chairman of Australia Tomorrow (an initia-

tive of Renaissance Earth) and a director of

the Australian Foresight Institute.

Maria T h e resa Mart i n e zdirector, Academic Development, TechnicalMillennium Un i ve r s i t y, part of ITESMi s

widely invo l ved in Mo n t e r rey Te c hs

e-learning activities that extend thro u g h-

out the Americas.

Professor Toshio Ok a m ot oUn i versity of El e c t ro Co m m u n i c a t i o n s ,

Japan is a full pro f e s s o r in the Gr a d u a t e

School of Information Systems, the Un i-versity of El e c t ronics and Communica-

tions and is a leading figure in the

e-learning standards movement in Ja p a n .

He is also president of the Japanese Society

for Systems and Information of Education.

D r. Madanmohan Ra oe d i t o r, INOMY. c o mis a well-kn own com-mentator on e-business, e-learning, and

kn owledge development in India. He was

formerly the communications director at

the United Nations Inter Press Se rv i c e

b u reau in New Yo rk, and vice president at

India World Communications in Bombay.

D r. Robby Ro b s o npresident, Ed u wo rks Corporation, is chairof the IEEE Learning Technologies St a n-

d a rds Committee (LTSC) and is reg a rded

as a leading adviser and practitioner in the

field of e-learning standards and produ c t s .

Professor James C. Ta yl o rUn i vers ity of So u t h e rn Qu e e n s l a n d ,Australia is widely re g a rded as one of thetop experts in the theory and practice of

e-learning in the world. He and his univer-

sity have been recently recognized as leaders

in dual-mode university education.

Professor Zhu Zhitingis vice dean of the College of Online Ed u -cation at East China No rmal Un i ve r s i t yand Dire c t o r, (Chinese) National Com-

mittee of Distance Learning Te c h n o l o g ySt a n da rdization. He is a specialist in edu-

cational technology and a leading figure in

the development of e-learning standard s

and practices in China.

Tr a n s f o rmi ng e-KnowledgeI V

A d v i s o ry Committee

To support this initiative,

we have assembled a

committee of pro f e s s i o n a l s

recognized as leaders in the

e - l e a rning, knowledge

management, and

i n t e rnational standard s

m o v e m e n t s .

A Guide to Using This Book

For an overview of key trends and issues in the Knowledge Economy,

read the introduction and the brief summaries at the beginning of each

c h a p t e r. Each chapter also contains a list of terms and concepts .

This book is designed to make it easier to skim high-level concepts and

drill down into the details on items of personal interest. When skim -

ming, pay attention to boxed information, tables, graphics, bolded

passages, and section headings.

Use the online re s o u rces atw w w. t r a n s f o rm i n g e k n o w l e d g e . i n f o at the

same time as reading the book to support your learning. Open the site

and read along with the book, using the searchable glossary and whos

who in e-knowledge, index of topics, full bibliography, case studies, and

other re s o u rc e s .


5/176

To succeed in the Knowledge

Eco n o m y, most of us will need an

ord e r-of-magnitude leap in our

ability to create, acquire,

assimilate, and share knowledge.

Even the manner in which we

experience knowledge will bet r ans formed, through technologies

and practices that exist today or

will soon be available. Between now

and the year 2010, best practices

in knowledge sharing will be

substantially reinvented in all

settingseducation, corporations,

g overnment, and associations and

non-profits. That is our vision.

This transformation is underwa y

t o da y. We provide examples of

leading-edge enterprises that are

currently using e-knowledge to

achieve significant savings in the

time, cost, and effectiveness of

deploying and sharing knowledge.

And vignettes and projections of

best practices in the future that will

use e-knowledge to build and

sustain competitive advantage

relative to historic market leaders

in all fields.

This book traces the thre e

pr i m ary indicators of e-knowledge

t rans formation: 1) Intern et

technologies, intero p er abil i ty

st an da rds, and emergi n g

e-knowledge repositories and

marketplaces; 2) enterprise

infr as tructu res, pro c e ss es,

and knowledge cultures; and

3) cascading cycles of reinvention of

best practices, business modelsand strategies for e-knowledge.

It concludes with practical,

how-to guidance on accelerating

your enterprises readiness for

e-knowledge in order to mobilize

leaders and practitioners around the

concept of e-knowledge, and develop

an enterprise knowledge strategy

explicitly driving business plans.

Tr a n s f o rmin g e-K nowledge V

I n t ro d u c t i o n

Our international team has

assembled to produce a

manifesto on e-knowledge.

We begin with a simple vision:

in the Knowledge Economy,

those individuals and

enterprises that share and

p rocess their knowledge

e ffectively have a gre a t

a d v a n t a g e .


6/176

These are complex topics that cannot be

left to specialists. Transforming e-Knowledgeaims to demystify these topics and make

them approachable to eve ryone. Tos u p p o rt this effort we have created an

online re p o s i t o ry of re s o u rces, including

a searchable glossary of terms at

w w w. t r a n s f o r m i n g e k n ow l e d g e . i n f o. Us e

the online re s o u rces simultaneously to

s u p p o rt your re a d i n g .

Ac ross the globe, we see examples of the

e - kn owledge re volution. From Bombay to

Brisbane to Boston, practitioners are

heightening their appreciation of the

strategic importance of knowledge.

Knowledge has become the keyeconomic resource and the dominantand perhaps the onlysource ofcompetitive advantage.

Peter Drucker

Individuals and organizations must fun-

damentally reshape the manner in which

they appraise what they know, what theycan do with it, and what they need to

k n ow. They must also t rack bes t practices

when they create, manage, deploy, and

l e verage knowledge. These new compe-

tencies will be compelling sources of com-

p e t i t i ve advantage in the Know l e d g e

Ec on o my. Over time, technology will be a

c o re component o f all knowledge man-

agement and learning. The e will tru l y

be redundant in reference to e-knowle dg e

management, e-learning, and e-business

activitiesif it is not already so.

What do we know now that we didntknow ten years ago? That learningand knowledge are the result ofmultiple intertwining forces: content,context, and community.

John Seely Brown

Tod a y, a wide choice of solution provi d e r s

s p e c i a l i ze in the distinct areas of content,

context, and community. Within five

years, successful solution providers willmeet the challenge of covering all thre e

a reas, while o thers will specialize in par-

ticular areas. Early adopters and influ-

encers sense that now is the time to

p a rticipate in shaping these deve l o p-

ments. Enterprises that wish to succeed

re a l i ze that they mus t act now to start

to build and reshape knowledge infra-

s t ru c t u res, capabilities, and cultures.

A div erse assortment of learning and

training organizations and industry con-

s o rtia are well positioned to advance this

transformation. Poised for leadership

and success are standards organizations,

content aggregators, and collaborative

alliances of knowledge organizations,

including libraries, colleges and unive r-

sities, and professional societies, and

a s s o c i a t i o n s .

L e veraging technological innova t i o n ,

solution providers are creating applica-tions that will evo l ve into powe rful and

p e rva s i ve e-knowledge capabilities. An e-

K n owledge Economy is emerging, con-

sisting of providers and u sers in eve ry

s e c t o r. All have a stake in the deve l o p-

ment of policies, protocols, and practices

that will accelerate the growth of e-know l-

edge to meet the knowledge sharing

i m p e r a t i ves of the Knowledge Ec o n o m y.

As an e-Knowledge In d u s t ry emerges, we

can expect a series of jump shifts in our

best practices for learning and know l e d g emanagement and in our ability to harness

technological capability.


Tr a n s f o rming e-KnowledgeV I

A Revolution in the Sharing of Knowledge

In an economy where the onlycertainty is uncertainty, the onesure source of lasting advantageis knowledge.

Ikujiro Nonaka


7/176

Jump Shifts in Perspectives,

Practices and Circ u m s t a n c e s

What is a jump shift? It is a fundamental

and disru p t ive change in our way of doing

business. It invo l ves le aping to a higher

plane of vision and performance. Ju m pshifts occur during periods of disru p t i ve

technological innovation, such as the

e -k n owledge disruption were experienc-

ing today. To d a ys emerging Know l e d g e

Economy is very different from yesterdays

In formati on Ec o n o m y. To m o r rows

K n owledge Economy will be differe n t

f rom todays in ways that affect eve ry

aspect of learning, knowledge manage-

ment, and performance for individuals

and organizations. The power of this

vision is not only that it helps enterprises

plan for the future, but that it energize s

enterprises to act decisively now, to par-

ticipate in the jump shifts r ather than

be left behind.

Jump shifts can take different forms. Ju mp

shifts in vision and perspective enable one

to consider a different plane of perf o r-

mance with different practices and val u e s .

But jump shifts can also occur in circ u m-

stances. For example, it is ve ry likely that

within the next few years, the traditionalmodel for scholarly publishing will make

a jump shift to an even more unbundled

form based on digital repositories and hor-

i zontal marketplaces. Our vi sioning for

the future must consider potentials posed

by such dramatic changes in circumstances.

Planning fro m

the Future Backward

The essence of foresight-based planning is

planning from the future backward

( Slaughter 2002). Rather than mere l y

extrapolating present knowledge concepts

and practices forward into the future, fore-

sight-based planning develops plausible

scenarios of the future that capture the

potential of current and anticipated

t rends. Then those scenarios can be pulled

back to the present to identify actions and

changes in perspective that are necessary

to get there from here. T h a ts planning

f rom the future backward.

Fu t ure scenarios can include a range of e-

k nowledge impacts. Pragmatic changes in

e - k n owledge can improve the efficiency of

existing business and knowledge processes.

Pro g re s s i ve changes in e-knowledge can

facilitate the re i n vention of business and

k n owledge processes and the underlying

k n owledge ecology of organizations. At

the re vo l u t i o n a ry level, e-knowledge can

stimulate rethinking of the basic founda-

tions of our enterprises and institutionscolleges and universities, associations,

corporations, government agencies, and

other enterprises. e-Knowledge scenarios

can include permutations and combina-

tions of these impacts.


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge V I I

The most successful leaderof all is one who sees another

picture not yet actualized.

Mary Parker FollettIkujiro Nonaka


8/176

A Single Future or

Multiple Scenarios?

Even if one accepts the notion that our

f u t u re holds what for many individuals

and organizations will be a re volution in

the sharing of knowledge, there is no suchthing as the future in a singular sense.

Th ere are many scenarios for a future state

of knowledge sharing. Mo re ove r, these

conditions and practices of know l e d g e

sharing will differ in significant ways

a c ross the g lobe. And they will va ry dra-

matically within organizations, communi-

ties, and nations, based on the preferences,

capacities, and choices made by individu-

als, enterprises, and gove r n men t s .

The author of the novel The Ne u roman cer,Willi am Gibson, said The future is

already here; it is just not distributed ve ry

well . Meaning that many of the social/

economic/technological elements of the

f u t u re that we will eventually experience

a l ready exist today. Those elements have

p roponents and users. Howe ve r, the

f u t u re will be the result of competition

b e t ween the established order and other

possibilities, some of which will re q u i re

jump shifts . The particular future condi-tions that emerge will depend on personal

and organizational decisions not ye t

made, technologies not yet invented or

not yet deployed at sufficient scale to be

influential, and human pre f e rences not

yet verified through choosing from re a l

a l t e r n a t i ves. So we describe and pro j e c t

f u t u res with humil ity, not hubris, using

the language of scenarios and choice, not

monolithic, singular conditions.

Choosing How to Participate in

the Knowledge Revolution

It is about choice. As our capacity to share

knowledge increases, individuals and orga-

nizations will make choices about how

they will acquire, process, and assimilate

knowledge. The range of choices will be far

g reater than today. But one fact is c lear:

those individuals and organizations that

achieve a quantum leap in their capacity to

a c q u i re, process, assimilate, and share

knowledge will enjoy a relative competitive

a d vantage in the Knowledge Ec o n o m y.

It is also about chance. The uncert a i n t i e s

and imponderables in todays world seemmuch more daunting than they did in the

1990s. Continuing problems with the

e c on o m y, political setbacks, and terrori sm

remind us that pro gress cannot be guaran-

teed. An unfortunate confluence of these

conditions could seriously re t a rd the

d evelopment of the Knowledge Ec on om y

and a re volution in knowledge sharing.

And it is about readiness. Cu r rent own e r s

of large bodies of knowledge re s o u rces will

attempt to extend and pre s e rve existing

paradigms. Under normal conditions, new

a p p roaches will be invented by outsiders

and deployed despite the efforts of the

defenders of the status quo. It pays for

organizations and individuals to pre p a re

for the coming paradigm shift in know l-

edge sharing. This book attempts to

p rovide the insights and re c o m m e n d e d

actions that will accelerate organizational

and individual readiness for e-know l e d g e .

Today, many of the technologies and prac-

tices re q u i red for perva s i ve e-know l e d g e

exist as proof-of-concept pilots or early

d e ployment prototypes. Pro g re s sive deve l-

opments in standards, commerc i ali z a ti o n ,

d e p l oyment, and acceptance are needed

for the e-Knowledge In d u s t ry to firmly

take root. We believe conditions are favor-

able for these to occur in large measure

b e tween now and the year 2010.


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowled geV I I I

Uncertainties are inevitable.But some forces areunstoppable. Scenario planningmeans weaving the unknown

around the known.

Ian Wylie


9/176

The e-Knowledge In d u s t ry is at a forma-

t i ve stage in its development. Pe rva s i ve

and powe rful forces described in the

table below are driving the emergence ofe - k n owledge in theory and practice.

Yet even leading-edge innovators and

organizations are taking fundamentally

i n c remental steps in v ision and practice.

Its time for practitioners and policy

makers to make a jump shift in vision.

These potential forces provide the basis

for raising expectations, elevating per-

s p e c t i ves and mobilizing energies for the

e - K n owledge In d u s t ry and for transform-ing the ability of organizations and indi-

viduals to create, manage, re p u r p o s e ,

combine and experience know l e d g e .

This book aims to support and art i c u l a t e

the need for this transformation. We

e n d e a vor to explain the meaning of these

d e velopments in terms that are clearly

understandable to policy makers, organi-

zational leaders and managers, and educa-

tors and learning/training professionals in

all settings. We illustrate how this tr ans-

formation will touch virtually eve ry

l e a r ning and knowledge management

enterprise. The focus is on understanding

the implications of these developments for

the various contextstechnical, pro c e s s ,

s t a n d a rds, cultural, and politicalwhere

t h e re is interplay of knowledge manage-

ment and learning. Mo reove r, the focus i s

also on both insight and concrete advice

on how to accelerate individual and

o r g anizational readiness for e-know l e d g e .Put simply, Tra n s f o rming e-Know l e d geaims to be a manifesto for the emerging

e - Kn owledge In d u s try.

The table on the following two pages

s u m m a r i zes the topics and ideas that

f o l l ow. Scan them now and revisit them

as you proceed through the book.


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge I X

F o rces Enabling and Stimulating

the e-Knowledge Industry

Investments in infrastru c t u re and best practices by early adopters of

e-knowledge (e.g. associations, governmental agencies, corporations,

universities) deliver results that encourage wider adoption, and also

facilitate new generations of enterprise applications.

Global enterprises increase competitiveness by developing faster ways

to manage their knowledge and their strategic learning, creating tools

that non-experts can use.

G rowth in expert networks and easier, more productive part icipation in

communities of practice push e-knowledge practices and competencies.

I n c reasing sophist ication by users, who develop an appetite for

s e rvices that provide s ignificant gains in their capacity to access

and assimilate knowledge.

Advances in Internet and intranet-based capabil ities enab le jump shifts

in creating and accessing knowledge store s .

Innovations in mobile communications provide ubiquitous access to

perpetual learning solutions as well as new ways to meet demands for

e - c o m m e rce any place or time.

Insight into new and more effective ways of experiencing knowledge

drives innovation.

I n c reased understanding about how to deploy international standards in

ways that ensure useful re t u rn on investment (e.g. thro u g h

i n t e roperability) stimulates continued investment.

A Manifesto for the e-Knowledge Industry


10/176


Tr a n s f o rming e-KnowledgeX

An Information Economy where

most knowledge is pro p r i e t a ry

and hoard e d .

C o n v e rgence is heralded in the

wake of developments in telecom -

munications, computer networks,and information technology.

Value and supply chains for

knowledge are embedded in

p ro p r i e t a ry sources of knowledge.

Content is king. Learning silos

and academic publishing silos exist.The metaphor for traditional learn -

ing is program delivery. Distance

l e a rning is isolated from other

f o rms of learning and knowledge

m a n a g e m e n t .

Traditional learning is expensive,

due to cost of content and other

re s o u rces and faculty involvement

at all stages.

Tactical learning is a response to

specific needs and skills gaps.

L e a rning practices differ across

the enterprise.

An emerging Knowledge Economy

w h e re the power of shared knowl -

edge becomes evident. Tr a d i t i o n a l

power relationships relating to

knowledge begin to ero d e .

Networked webs and the pro l i f e r a -

tion of mobile telecommunications

advance the practice of networkedk n o w l e d g e .

Value chains for content begin to

be unbundled and disinterm e d i a t ed

(eliminating the middleperson),

h a rnessing the malleability of all

things digital.

Content and context are equally

i m p o rtant. Distance andtraditional learning are enhanced

t h rough e-learning, using the

metaphor of interactivity.

Traditional scholarly publishing

models begin to be unbundled.

e - L e a rning is used to digitize

existing models and begins to

reinvent cost, availability of

content, and roles of faculty,

mentors, and learn e r s .

Integrated learning is share d

a c ross the org a n i z a t i o n ,

i n t roducing consistent practices

and infrastru c t u re s .

A mature, fully developed

Knowledge Economy that re w a rd s

knowledge sharing and the

p roliferation of knowledge. Perv a s i v e

access to knowledge changes many

power relationships and even soci -

etal assumptions and practices.

Computing and networks become

p e rvasive, enabling the mobilization

of knowledge to take account of thelocation of users and their needs at

each location.

Value chains become value nets as

content is unbundled and available

f rom many sources. The cost and

n a t u re of content change.

Content, context, and community

a re stru c t u red and interpenetrating.Interactivity drives learning. The use

of knowledge management to

s u p p o rt learning is a major

b re a k t h rough. New publishing

models emerg e .

Economic models of learning are

fully reinvented. The cost of

e-content declines and usage soars.

F a c u l t y, mentor, and learner interac -

tions are re i n v e n t e d .

Strategic, enterprise-wide learn i n g

uses directed and autonomic learn -

ing to respond rapidly to org a n i z a -

tional challenges. Who cand ow h a t

is more important than who

k n o w sw h a t .

Ye s t e rd a y To d a y To m o rro w


11/176


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge X I

Ye s t e rd a y To d a y To m o rro w

R u d i m e n t a ry standards for

c o m p u t e r-based training (CBT) are

d e v e l o p e d .

O rganizational infrastru c t u res are

i n t roduced for using digitized

k n o w l e d g e .

Content is held in pro p r i e t a ry

channelscourses, books and

corporate repositoriesthat are

i m p e rmeable, vertical silos.

F o rmal knowledge management is

practiced by selected, knowledge-

centric org a n i z a t i o n s .

Users acquire knowledge in fixed

locations tied to physical

repositories and links to networks.

Clusters of international standard s

g roups create the first generation

of standards for learning objects

and e-content re p o s i t o r i e s .

Early generations of integrated

p o rtals, enterprise re s o u rce

planning (ERP) systems, learning

management systems, learning

content management systems, andknowledge sharing tools.

New repositories and models of

sharing content are under develop -

mente.g., MERLOT and the

Advanced Distributed Learn i n g

(ADL) co-lab, plus the SPARC model

for insti tutional re p o s i t o r i e s .

The practice of knowledge manage -

ment expands as tools develop and

knowledge ecologies are under -stood. Insight develops on making

communities of practice both eff e c -

tive and re f l e c t i v e .

Mobile devices and wireless

networks are enabling users to

a c q u i re, create, and store

knowledge anywhere and any time.

Iterative cycles of standards

development continue, creating tru l y

scaleable, interoperable standard s

for digital content, its access, and

t r a n s m i s s i o n .

P o w e rful, open (yet secure) enter -

prise application infrastru c t u res and

solutions support knowledge sharing

and reinvention of business processes,

o rganizational dynamics, and knowl -edge culture s .

Robust, open content marketplaces

c reate horizontal channels for

exchanging content and aggre g a t i n g

supply and demand.

Enterprises actively shape their

knowledge ecologies. Knowledge

management is practiced thro u g h o u tall organizations, fused with learn -

ing. Communities of practice are the

key strategic organizational unit in

the Knowledge Economy.

P e rvasive information and communi -

cation technology (ICT} enviro n m e n t s

will enable people to experience

knowledge any time, any place, and

in new ways. Knowledge sharing

a c q u i resa m e n i t y. Leading-edge

knowledge users experience ano rd e r-of-magnitude leap in their

capability to acquire, use, and share

k n o w l e d g e .


12/176

What is e-Knowledge? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Understanding e-Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Pioneering Examples of e-Knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3

P e rvasive Technology Changes How We Experience Knowledge . . . . . . . . 1 8

Beyond Existing Knowledge Concepts and Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8

Vignettes from the e-Knowledge Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1

Tales from the Not-So-Distant Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3

Other Vi s i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1

Understanding Our e-Knowledge Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2

Paths to the e-Knowledge Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3

R e v o l u t i o n a ry Vision, Expeditionary Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5

The e-Knowledge Imperative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6

Paths to the e-Knowledge Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 4

Tracking the Indicators of the e-Knowledge Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5

Technologies, Standards, and Marketplaces for e-Knowledge. . . . . . . . 7 1

I n t e rnet Culture Drives the e-Knowledge Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3

I n t e rnet Infrastru c t u res and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5

Application Integration through Web Serv i c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 9

S t a n d a rds Incorporate Consensus and Create Va l u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 0

Repositories and Emerging e-Knowledge Marketplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 8

Infrastructures, Processes, Capabilities, and Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5

To m o rro w s User-Centric, Interoperable Infrastru c t u re s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 7

Closing the Gap Between Today and To m o rro w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 2

Value on InvestmentA New Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 4

P rocesses, Communities of Practice, and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2

Building Individual and Organizational Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 9

Best Practices, Business Models, and Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 1

Best Practices in Changing Ti m e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3

Time Frames for e-Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 4

Experiencing Continuous Reinvention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 9

Achieving Success in the Emerging e-Knowledge Industry . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 9

10 Ways to Accelerate Your Readiness for e-Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 1

Mobilizing Leaders, Policy Makers, and Practitioners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 1

Developing a Knowledge Strategy that Drives Enterprise Initiatives . . . . . . 1 5 4

Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 5 9

A u t h o r s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 0

S p o n s o r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 1

Publisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 1

D e s i g n e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 1

R e f e re n c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 2

Web-based Resourc e s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 4

C o n t e n t s

Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowled geX I I

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8


13/176

Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowle dge 1

C H A P T E R

What is e-Knowledge?

Understanding e-Knowledge

Pioneering Examples of e-Knowledge

Pervasive Technology Changes How

We Experience Knowledge

Beyond Existing Concepts of e-Knowledge

1Knowledge is interpreted content,

available to a member of a

community and understood in a

p a rticular context. Digital

re p resentations of content and

context become e-knowledget h rough the dynamics of human

engagement with them. The digital

elements of e-knowledge can be

codified, combined, re p u r p o s e d ,

and exchanged. Knowledge is both

a thing and a flow, shifting

between explicit and implicit states

and between diff e rent meanings in

d i ff e rent contexts. The original

c o n c e p t of knowledge management

has evolved to a broader notion of

knowledge ecology. e-Knowledge ischanging the traditional value chain

to a value net. It is also creating

opportunities for marketplaces for

digitized content, context, and

narrative. The e-Knowledge Industry

may democratize the provision and

use of knowledge, reshape power

centers, recalibrate the economics

of publishing and enable new roles.

Pioneering examples of

e-knowledge are presented incorporations, universities,

associations, govern m e n t ,

and health care settings.

Mobile, ambient technology is

changing the dynamics of how we

will live, work, and learn. Such

technology environments will

revolutionize everything about the

knowledge experience: place,

use of time, nature of interf a c es ,

intensity of engagement, re l i a n c e

on just-in-time knowledge and

agents, ability to multi-task,

and the amenity of the knowledge

experience. These new experiences

will shape behaviors, practices,

and social groupings for

knowledge sharing.


14/176

I n f o rmation and Communications

Technology (ICT): Enables e-knowledge

and the reinvention of e-knowledge

processes.

Data: A collection of unorganized facts

and/or figures.

I n f o rmation: Data that has been

organized in such a way that it achieves

meaning, in a generalized way.

Knowledge: Information that is

presented within a particular context,

yielding insight on application in that

context, by members of a community.

e-Knowledge: Digital representations of

content and context become e-knowledge

through the dynamics of human

engagement with them.

Value Chain: A chain of activities and

relationships that adds value to business

processes. e-Knowledge enables the

unbundling and reinvention of traditional

value chains for learning and knowledgemanagement and the enterprise activities

that depend on them. The traditional

value chain can become avalue web in

tomorrows e-knowledge environment.

Content: Objective information,

sometimes codified knowledge, sometimes

a fusion of data, information, and

knowledge that is used to support

learning, business applications, and

processes.

Context: The setting and conditions in

which the content is or can be applied.

Content is given different meaning by

differing contexts.

Community: The formal and/or

informal groupings in which people

function when they experience

e-knowledge.

Explicit Knowledge: Objective

knowledge codified and captured in

textbooks, manuals, process descriptions,

learning objects, and topical contentrepositories. Typically, the what of

knowledge.

Tacit Knowledge: Insights, intuitions,

and subjective knowledge that constitute

the intellectual capital of most

organizations. Advanced knowledge

management focuses on tacit knowledge.

Typically, the how (process) of

knowledge acquisition and application.

Knowledge Management (KM):

The practice of nurturing, collecting,

managing, sharing, and updating the

knowledge resources of an enterprise

e-Knowledge Marketplaces:

Repositories that are set up to encourage

and enable the exchange of the elements

of e-knowledge. Over time, horizontal

marketplaces will cut across industry,

disciplinary, and enterprise boundaries.

e-Knowledge Industry: The full range

of enterprises that provide and/or use

e-knowledge constitutes the e-Knowledge

Industry.

Intellectual Capital: The sum and

synergy of an organizations knowledge,

experiences, relationships, processes,

discoveries, innovations, and market

presence

The Semantic Web: (An initiative ofthe World Wide Web Consortium).

In the Knowledge Age, networked

information will develop from both the

syntax and the semantics of

e-knowledge. Computer applications will

be able to handle meaning and context

from metadata (data used to describe the

content of knowledge objects).


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge2

To attain knowledge, add thingsevery day. To attain wisdom,remove things every day.

Lao TzuChinese Philosopher


15/176


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge 3

We begin with a definition of know l e d g e .

In simple terms, knowledge is informa-

tion and insight understood in a part i c-

ular context. Its dynamic and contextualn a t u re has led Peter Dru c k e r, the cre a t o r

of the term knowledge work e r, to assert

that the nature of knowledge is that

it makes itself obsolete (Ruggles and

Holtshouse, 1999). Because the combi-

nation of knowledge and its context are

continuously changing, common sense

suggests it must be linked with pro c e s s e s

of perpetual learning.

The context of knowledge is especially

critical in todays global marketplace. Indi-

viduals and organizations must deal with

multiple contextual meanings to an extent

that would have seemed obsessive only ten

years ago. Our approach to knowledge and

learning draws from contexts and settings

f rom across the globe. For example, con-

sider the Chinese context where the term

g ua n x ifocuses on the importance of re l a-tionships or networks between people

rather than organizations. Know l e d g e

management and learning in such asetting expresses different dynamics than

ma i n s t ream Western appro a c h e s.

In this book, we use a diversity of lenses

t hrough which to understand the facets of

k n owledge and its interaction with learn-

ing. The first lens is the simple value chain

that re p resents the relationships betwe e n

data, information, and knowledge. Ot her

lenses make use of the re l a t i o n s h i p s

b e t ween knowledge and strategy, organi-

zational change, networks, and economics(including supply chains and demand

chains for know l e dg e ) .

Ne tw o rked information and communica-

tions technology (ICT) has put the e in

e - k n owledge. But e-knowledge invo l ve s

much more than merely digitizing and

passing around everything we know using

p resent concepts, stru c t u res, and pro t o-

cols. As it develops, e-knowledge is cre at-

ing new standards, stru c t u res, pro c e s s e s ,

best practices, business models, and strate-

gies for creating and exchanging data,information, and know l ed ge .

Books, manuals, process descriptions, and

detailed operating pro c e d u res have long

served as repositories of what organizations

k n ow and what they do. In addition, the

associated pro c edures and insights histori-

cally have been shared with others through

education, training, and appre n t i c e s h i p

programs, both formal and informal. Di g-

itization of res ou rces and sharing throu g h

computer and telecommunications net-

w o rks are making a wide range of re p o s i-

tories of potential knowledge available and

accessible in ways never before possible.

Eve ry day brings technical advances that

make it easier to store, transmit, and share

many kinds of information in digital form

and at high speed. It becomes incre as in gl y

feasible to routinely capture ones daily

experiences and their contexts for later

analysis and perhaps incorporation in

organizational processes. In principle,

most, if not all, of that information could

be a source of knowledge for others.


D a t a is a collection of unorganized facts and/or figures.

I n f o rm a t i o n is data that has been organized in such a way that it

achieves meaning, in a generalized way.

K n o w l e d g eis information that is presented within a particular context,

yielding insight on application in that context.

Wisdomis the reflective or realized insight resulting from successful

application and/or synthesis of knowledge. It is a higher plane of

understanding that exists beyond the simple value chain of knowledge.

H o w e v e r, there is no agreement among the knowledge management

community on what truly constitutes wisdom.

The Value Chain of Knowledge


16/176

Some information can be shared dire c t l y,

embedded in distinct courses, planned

learning experiences, and other forms of

communicating and sharing. Other infor-

mation must be repurposed or otherw i s e

transformed, through data mining or

other types of filtering and aggre g a t i o n ,

that expose significance in the information.

Sense making i s performed by humansusing these tools. One persons information

can become another persons know l e d g e ,

and vice versa, but not without ove rc o m-

ing some barriers in current practice.

Its impossible to calculate the fullvalue of a given piece ofinformation to all the people whomight possess it.

Richard Hunter, 2002

O v e rcoming Obstacles to

Digitization and Sharing

Obstacles still remain to the effective

sharing, exploitation, and creation of

k n owledge. The first obstacle is not fully

a p preciating the elements of latent poten-

tial in each source of knowledge. T h e

second is representing the results to others

in a form that is accessible, easily compre-

hensible, and useful, even if others are sep-

arated by time or distance from the source

of the knowledge. This re p resentation of

content and context is what we call

e - k n owledge. One important aspect of

e - k n owledge is being able to unbundle

content in ways that facilitate subsequent

editing and recombination. Another aspectis being able to identify other contexts in

which content might be re l e vant if it can

first be generalized from its original form

then repurposed to suit the new context.

The capacity to combine learning content

in use ful ways is also significant. As ye t ,

few organizations can do those things well,

if at all. Even organizations having deve l-

oped such capability face significant pro b-

lems in exploiting their advantage. Fo r

example, historically publishers have

bought and sold exploitation rights on ageographic basis: country-by-c ountry with

d i ff erent pricing structures in each marke t.

That business model is incompatible with

forays by those same publishers into e-pub-

lishing via the Internet where the market is

worldwide. Reconciling those two business

models (traditional and digital) is prov in g

p roblematic. Issues of publisher pre ro g a-

t i ves and intellectual pro p e rty rights have


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge4

Repositories of Knowledge Resourc e s

P e o p l e

Books, texts, manuals, and other media

Libraries (physical and digital)

Courses and other learning experiences

O rganizational processes and contexts

Training and apprenticeship pro g r a m s

P rofessional knowledge and tradecraft of individuals, working gro u p s ,

and associations, both formal and informal

News services

Informations pretty thin stuff,unless mixed with experience.

Clarence Day


17/176


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge 5

e-Knowledge is digitized content

and context that can be

atomized, repurposed, updated,

recombined, metered, and

exchanged. e-Knowledge includes

explicit knowledge and means of

dealing with aspects of tacit

knowledge, such as its transfer.

e-Knowledge enables the

development of processes and

marketplaces for the exchange of

digital content that have never

b e f o re been possible.

The e-Knowledge Industry

consists of all of the part i e s

involved in the creation, storage,

enhancement, combination, and

exchange of e-knowledge.

complicated the combination of content

f rom different publishers, even under the

most favorable conditions. At worst, pub-

lisher pre ro g a t i ves have scuttled most

c ro s s - s o u rce content exchanges and com-

binations of intellectual property from dif-

f erent publishers.

Ad vances in ICT, coupled with gre a t e r

flexibility within and between organiza-

tions, are providing the means to ove r-

come these barriers and transform the

practice of combining and sharing of

k n owledge. The technology is not just

making content exchange more efficient,

it is enabling the emergence of e-know l-

edge and an industry dedicated to its cre-

ation, storage, enhancement, updating,

combination, and exchange. These con-

cepts and the associated technologies and

s t an d ards enable processes that have neve r

before been possible, such as instant, auto-

mated, Web-based negotiation of copy-

right clearance to use third -pa rty material

in e-content.

e-Knowledge Requires the

Codification and Exchange of

Digital Content

e - Kn owledge is re n d e red from digital

content where c o n te n t itself can take

many forms depending on the user or appli-

cationas data, metadata, transactions,

pe rformance logs, stru ctured and unstru c-

t ured information, etc. Fo llowing on, one

p e r s o ns information may be anothers

knowledge due to the intrinsic malleabil-

ity of things digital. Digital content

becomes e-knowledge through the dynam-

ics of human engagement with it. It is easily

repurposed and recombined with other e-k n owledge. All the while, the intellectual

property rights of e-knowledge can be mon-

itored, metered, and charged to users.

e-Knowledge includes two distinct types of

k n owledge that can be re n d e red digital ly:

Explicit know l e d g eis knowledge that istransmittable in a formal, systematic

m a n n e r. It consists of objective content

( s t ru c t u red information and codified

kn owledge). In digital form, it is derive d

f rom all kinds of sourc e s f rom data-

bases to information atoms, from pur-

posed modules and aggregations of

content that can be stored, share d ,described, combined, repurposed, syn-

dicated, metered, and exchanged for

fee or for free . These sources are ava i l-

able in a full spectrum of forms and

characteristics, ranging from highly

granular (paragraphs, individual images,

video clips), to chapters and topics, to

full texts and anthologies. When suchcontent is modularized and coupledwith learning objectives, it is typicallyre f e r red to as learning objects or k n owledge objects.

But the lumping of digita l re s o u rc e s

into modular objects also demands that

attention is given to the details of ensur-

ing that the learning objects can be

learned from. This invol ves understand-

ing the organizational routines, trade-

craft, and other inputs that give learning

objects meaning in particular contexts.

Providing these details will be the n ew

f ro n t i e r of learning object exc h a n g e sand marketplaces. It brings the pros p ect

of mining those details to determine

g e n e ra l i zed ways to re-purpose learning

objects to suit new contexts. It also

makes more feasible the routine associa-

tion with learning objects of data on

their effectiveness for learners, both

when used by themselves and when

combined with other learning objects.


18/176

Implicit or tacit knowledgeis subjective,experience-based knowledge. Ty p i c a l l y,

it is not easily expressed in words, sen-

tences, and formulae. It is highly

context specific. It includes, but is not

limited, to beliefs, values, tradecraft,

mental models, and technical skills.Tacit knowledge resides in formal and

informal networks of experts and com-

munities of re f l e c t i ve practice. Some of

this knowledge can be codified, made

explicit, and migrated into content

repositories and marketplaces. Most is

accessed through person-to-person

k n owledge sharing or social interac-

tions. New opportunities for sharing are

made possible through pervasive, secure ,

online interactivity through communi-

ties of practice. Practitioners are deve l-

oping heightened appreciation for the

i m p o rtance of such vibrant sources of

tacit know l ed ge.

Tacit knowledge includes the infor-

mal k n ow l e d g e that exists thro u g h

common practice and is shared via e-

mails, communities of practice, expert

n e t w o rks, and other permutations of

online interaction. As organizations

d e velop their e-knowledge competen-

cies, they enhance their capacity to

n u rt u re, harvest, and use informal ,

tacit know l e d g e .

The policies, practices, competencies,

n e t w o rks, communities, and mark e t-places for exchanging explicit and tacit

e - k n owledge are developing today. T h e i r

refinement to handle continuously

revised knowledge will catalyze and drive

the re volution in learning and know l e d g e

management tomorrow.

The nature of knowledge is that itmakes itself obsolete.

Peter Drucker, 1999

Interactions Between Ta c i t

and Explicit Knowledge

By definition, knowledge is dynamic, not

static. Knowledge continuously changes

meaning and form. Whether know l e d g e

is held by individuals, organizations,

c o m m u n i t i e s of practice or networks of

organizations, the content, context, and

community in which it is used are

always changing.

It is especially critical to understand how

elements of explicit and tacit know l e d g e

can transcend their current states thro u g h

p ro g re s s i ve cycles of conversion. Ik u j i ro

Nonaka (1999) has captured the essence

of the relationships and interactions of

tacit and explicit knowledge in fourmodes: socialization, externalization, com-

bination, and internalization. T h e s e

k n owledge conversions are port r a yed in

the figure to the right.

Depicting the Interactions

Between Tacit and Explicit

Knowledge

In their work on the integration of e-

learning and knowledge management,

Woelk and Agarwal (2002) have schemat-

ically rep resented the transitions of knowl-

edge between No n a k as four phases. T hey

h a ve added a fifth phase, cognition, in

which the knowledge seeker makes sense

of tacit knowledge in context thro u g h

applying it to a business pro blem .


as a Thing and a Flow

In recent years, practitioners havebegun to understand the complexities

of modeling knowledge in all its forms.

In consequence, the assumption of a clean

delineation between tacit and explicit

k n owledge and the migration of know l-

edge between different states is question-

able. The emerging ecology of know l e d g e

re p resentation suggests that know l e d g e

exists as both a t h i n g and af l ow at thesame time. The t h i n g is knowledge that

is know n (the know - w h a t) and can be

formally shared and used. The f l ow isthe changing contexts or passage of

k n owledge through the informal stru c-

tu res of organizations where communities

of practice and others make sense of it and

c o n ve rt it from know a b l e to know n .

To accept this paradox, practitioners must

accept that in the uncertain conditions

that characterize most real-life settings,

k n owledge is continuously changing ,


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowled ge6

Knowledge Management Phases


19/176

f l owing between different states of chaos,

c o m p l e x i t y, and know a b i l i t y. What is

known at any time depends on the man-

agement of content, context, and narra-

tive. Under such conditions, organizations

need to manage the different kinds of

k n owledge using different tools and tech-

niques (Sn owden, 2002).

Only when tacit and explicitknowledge interact caninnovation occur.

Ikujiro Nonaka, 1999

This conception of knowledge re c o g n i ze s

that organizations consist of differe n t

k n owledge habitats, each of which hasdi ffe rent contexts and rules. These include

thef o rmal organization, formal commu -nities of practice , shadow or inform a lorganizations, and temporary teams

dealing with environments re c o g n i zed tobe chaotic and turbulent (many organiza-

tions operate in such environments but

f ew seem to accept t his). The practice

of knowledge management is dealing with

these complexities with greater sophisti-

cation and understanding. The concept

of k n owledge management has been

superseded in some circles by the more

metaphorical k n owledge ecology.


Tr a n s f o rming e-Know ledge 7

The most profoundtechnologies are those thatdisappear. They weavethemselves into the fabric of

everyday life until they areindistinguishable from it.

Marc Weiser

Tacit and explicit knowledge are nottotally separate. Rather they aremutually complementary. Theyinteract and exchange with each other

in the creative activities of humanbeings. Our model of dynamicknowledge creation is anchored in the

assumption that human knowledge iscreated and expanded through socialinteractions between tacit and explicitknowledge. We call this interaction

knowledge conversion.

Ikujiro Nonaka, 1999

Interactions Between Explicit and Tacit Knowledge


20/176

In the third generation, we growbeyond managing knowledge as athing to also managing knowledge asa flow. To do this, we will need to

focus more on context and narrativethan on content.

Dave Snowden, 2002

Knowledge Management

T h rough Five Lenses

T h e re can be many lenses through which

to discern knowledge and its management.

These different lenses incorporate a range

of perspectives and di fferentiate betwe e n

the purposes and motivations shaping

k n owledge management at various leve l s .

A broad classif ication scheme would dis-

tinguish between :

Personal knowledge management( i nd i-vidual dispositions and behaviors);

Organizational knowledge management(multi-national corporations, small-to-

medium enterprises, governments, non-

g overnment organizations, educational

i n s t i t ut io ns );

Sectoral knowledge management

(economic sectors such as informationt e c h n o l o g y, pharmaceuticals, agricul-

t u re, indigenous culture, etc.);

National knowledge management(national policies for stimulating inno-

va t i ve cultures within industry); and

Cultural knowledge management(transcends and spans organizational,

sectoral, and national boundaries).

In terms of outcomes, knowledge man-

agement could further be classified into

outcomes that improve e f f i c i e n c i e s a n doutcomes that stimulate i n n ova t i o n.

An International Standard sMovement Has Developed

Perhaps the most visible activity in the e-

k n owledge world invo l ves a compre h e n-

s i ve process of international collaboration

in the development of standards and spec-

ifications for systems to manage and

e xchange learning content, process orga-

nizational knowledge, and support e-busi-

ness transactions. St a ndards deve l o p me nts

in applications interoperability have also

a d vanced the growth of so-called We b

s e rv i c e s which will facilitate the deve l op-

ment of seamlessly and easily integrated

applications infrastru c tu res .

The standards movement has been facili-

tating the birth of durable and trans-

actable e-knowledge. The complex work

of these standards groups has been far too

a rcane to engage the detailed attention of

most professionals who are responsible in

their organizations for knowledge man-

agement and learning. But the strategicimplications of standards for implement -ing processes , networks, and mark e t p l a c e s

for e-knowledge are clear: such standard sassist in building and maturing e -know l -edge marketplaces while also stimulatingi n n ovation in the use of transactable e-k n ow l e d g e. These issues should featurep rominently in the planning of eve ry

enterprise for which knowledge is essential

to competitive adva nt a g e .


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledg e8

Successful knowledgemanagement requiresconcentrating on the 8 Cs:connectivity, content,

community, culture, capacity,commerce, cooperation andcapital.

Madanmohan Rao


21/176

The major standards eff o rt shave involved participation by

g o v e rnment, educational, and

c o m m e rcial enterprises. Early

focal points have included

s t a n d a rds for describing content

and ensuring that it will work

with other content and with all

d e l i v e ry systems

( i n t e ro p e r a b i l i t y s t a n d a rd s ) .

Relevant groups include the IMS

Global Learning Consortium, ADL,

IEEE LTSC, Dublin Core, and

MPEG. More re c e n t l y, pro c e s s

s t a n d a rds have gained attention

(WfMC and GKEC). In addition,

the publishing, media, and

technology industries have

focused on standards for digital

asset managementPRISM,

XMCL, ebXML, XrML, ODRL.

At the end of the day, the standard sd e veloped by these groups, while impor-

tant for implementers, may prove less

significant for organizations than the vis-

ibility they have given to the re q u i re-

ments and potentials of the emerging

e - K n owledge In d u s t ry. Mo re ove r, they

h a ve been a powe rful force for the deve l-

opment of a truly global perspective to

the e-Knowledge In d u s t ry. In addition,

while working together to develop learn-

ing object standards, professionals in

these fields quickly discove red the t a c t i -c a l i m p o rtance of mobilizing and unify-ing the energies of professionals in

e-learning and knowledge management.

Pa rtnering with one another, they have

a c h i e ved greater visibility than either

e-learning or knowledge management

would have achieved acting alone. Ove r

time, the s t r a t e g i ci m p o rtance of fusinge-learning and knowledge management

wil l become abundantly clear to policy

makers and practitioners alike.


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowled ge 9

Traditional Publishers and Direct-to-Digital Publishers

traditional publishers like Harc o u rt Brace, Pearson, Thomson

and new direct-to-digital publishing enterprises

Course and Learning Management Systemscourse materials

held by We b C T, Blackboard, Click2learn, Outstart, and other

a p p l i c a t i o n s

Universities and Collegesuniversity presses plus faculty

course materials

P rofessional Societies and Associationstrade publications plus

tradecraft-rich bodies of know ledge

Corporate Learning and Knowledge Managementprivate

channels for pro p r i e t a ry content, off-the-shelf content, intern a l

documents, white papers, and specifications

Content/Context Repositoriesdiscipline- and institution-

specific repositories, plus marketplaces that aggregate content

repositories into a meta-marketplace

Content Creation Toolstools for creating and managing

content/context through Learning and Content Management

Systems (LACMS)

Value-Added Content Servicesadditional services that enhance

the value of content and codified context in learning objects

Exchange Infras tru c t u rethe marketplace exchange serv i c e

that enables metering, repurposing, combining of content by

demand aggregators, and direct users

Demand Aggregation/Syndicationenterprises that aggre g a t e

demand for e-knowledge, such as colleges and universities,

p rofessional societies and associations, and corporate learn i n g

(e.g., Emerald Now)

To d a y s Ve rtical Channels

for E-Content

Components of To m o rro w s Horizontal

Channels For e-Knowledge

A g g regators are enterprises or organizations that aggregate or package learning content, such as MERLOT and Emerald Full text.

A g g regation is a lso occurring at the institut ional l evel, provid ing concentrations of inte llectual capi tal.

Adapted from: Patrick McElroy, A New Paradigm for Acquiring, Managing, and Distributing Content in Higher Education Institutions, 2002.


22/176

Digital Marketplaces for

e-Knowledge are Gestating

To d a y, pro p r i e t a ry, ve rtical channels for

distributing e-knowledge have been initi-

ated by traditiona l publishers, dire c t - t o -

digital publishers (purely digital),learning management system prov i d e r s ,

and others. Gl o b a l l y, hundreds of differ-

ent channels have developed using their

own content repositories, pro p r i e t a ry

authoring tools, and learning manage-

ment systems. These channels have failed

to attract a gro u n d s well of users sufficient

to effect cultural change. And they wont

until pro p r i e t a ry silos are replaced by

open, interoperable, and scaleable mar-

ketplace mechanisms for e-know l e d g e .

These mechanisms will create horizo n-

ta l channels that enable the combination

and repurposing of content held by dif-

f e rent publishers, learning content man-

agement systems, and digital content

repositories in general.

To d a ys ve rtical channels are merely an

e vo l u t i o n a ry step in the migration path

toward horizontal channels based on more

robust, interoperable mechanisms for

k n owledge sharing. To d ay, the knowle dg ei n d u s t ry is ve ry much like the computer

i n d u s t ry in the 1980s as described by

A n d rew Grove (1998) in his book, On l ythe Paranoid Su rv i ve . The ve rtical, pro p r i-e t a ry channels in the computer mark e t

we re transformed by the shift to a hori-

zontal computer marketplace that enabled

cascading innovation, fast growth, keen

competition, and reductions in price.

In the not-so-distant future, advances in

e - k n owledge will enable the creation ofh ori zontal marketplaces in the Knowl edg e

In d u s t ry. They will facilitate the seamless

e xchange of formally re n d e red, explicit,

and tacit knowledge, slashing acro s s

t o d a ys publishing and intellectual pro p-

e rty boundaries, while metering and

paying for the use of intellectual prop erty.

In n ovation, competition, growth, and

cost reduction are likely to thrive as we l l .

The Power of e-Knowledge:

F rom Value Chain to Value Net

The fundamental value chain of the

K n owledge Economy is familiar and

p roven: the relat ed and bi-d ire c t i o n a l

p rocesses of computation, cognition,context, and communication that create the

hierarchy of data, information, and knowl-

edge. Yet as leading-edge practitioners have

applied network-based tools of knowl edge

management and sharing, they have dis-

covered several transformative new insights.

First, e-Knowledge Chunks are Malleable,

Expandable, and Fungible. e - K n ow l e d g e

tools enable the unbundling, re p ro c e s s-

ing, and repurposing of data, informa-

tion, and knowledge in ways that can

render them into other forms. Da t a

becomes information when organized in a

way to give it meaning; info rmat ion is

codified as knowledge when pre s e n t e d

within a context. We say more on this

subject later when we discuss new ways of

experiencing e-knowledge. Conve r s e l y,

codified knowledge can be decontextual-

i zed and disaggregated to form data-like

chunks of content that can then be re -

ag g regated or re-purposed. The tools of e-k n owledge can be used to combine

content and context to create know l e d g e

chunks that are malleable, expandable,

and fungible (see graphic page 15).

Digital publishing technologies andextensive global networkingcoupledwith an increasing volume ofscientific research and decreasingsatisfaction with a dysfunctionaleconomic modelchange the

fundamental structure of scholarlypublishing by allowing its variouscomponents to be de-linked, both

functionally and economically. Whenthe functions are unbundled andbegin to operate separately, each canoperate more efficiently andcompetitively.

Raym Crow


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowled ge1 0

By three methods we may learnwisdom: first, by reflection,which is noblest; second, byimitation, which is easiest;

and third by experience, whichis the bitterest.

Confucius


23/176

Second, e-Knowledge Tools Enable the

Reinvention of Processes and Rela -

tionships. e - K n owledge has a funda-

mental characteristic in common with

e-business. The core principle of e-busi-

ness is to change the way that enter-

prises conduct business, whatever thatbusiness may be. This translates into

re i n venting and transforming core

p rocesses, relationships, and culture s .

Si m i l a r l y, e-knowledge is about the use

of techno logy to transform pro c e s s e s

and relationships pertaining to the cre-

ation, nurturing, and management of

k n owledge. Over time, e-knowledge will

c reate a breed of know l e d g e - s h a r i n g

p rocesses, relationships, and culture s

that are much more than just more effi-

cient versions of existing practices.

If we apply knowledge to tasks wealready know how to do, we call it

productivity. If we apply knowledge totasks that are new and different, wecall it innovation.

Peter Drucker, 1999

T h i rd, e-Knowledge Tr a n s f o rms Va l u e

Chains into e-Knowledge Value Nets.The traditional view of the value chain

follows the linear progressions of an Indus-

trial Age product cycle. But the Knowledge

Age has been changing all that: d i s a g g re -gating and d i s i n t e rm e d i a t i n g t r a d i t i o n a lvalue chain relationships and reinte rme di -a t i n gn ew relationships between mark e tp l a yers. Don Tapscott (2001) intro d u c e d

the termpolymediationto herald the emer-gence of entirely new business entities and

o p p o rtunities enabled by digital capital.

The richness in relationships combines ver-tical and horizontal supply chains to create

what Patrick Mc Elroy (2002) characterizes

as a value net in referring to the e-knowledge space. This metaphor of a value

net aptly captures the multi-dimensional,

m u l t i - d i rectional opportunities for va l u e

c reation, knowledge enhancement, and

sharing in our e-knowledge future.


Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge 1 1

Owners of various supply channels

set the rules and control supply.

Demand aggregators have limited

c l o u t .

Digital publishing and print-on-

demand are controlled by owners of

v e rtical channels who set the ru l e s

and the practices.

New players cannot break into

existing channels.

New supply channels empower the

individual pro v i d e r f a c u l t y,

re s e a rchers, practitionerand

communit ies of pro v i d e r s .

Demand aggregators enhance their

clout, building on the power

p rovided by their re lationship with

l e a rn e r s / c o n s u m e r s .

Traditional providers are

d i s i n t e rmediated by indivi dual

faculty and learners using the

marketplace to create digital

p ro d u c t s .

New organizational forms (form a l

and informal) evolve to support the

c reation and sharing of knowledge

communities of practice.

Power in the Printed

Knowledge Age

Power in the

e-Knowledge Age


24/176

The e-Knowledge Industry

Develops and Grows

The e-Knowledge Ind u s t ry consists of the

individuals and enterprises that cre a t e ,

s t o re, and exchange digital content, add

value to it, and/or aggregate content, ands e rve demand for e-knowledge. The

e - K n owledge In d u s t ry includes publish-

ers, new media companies, content deve l-

oper companies, professional societies

and associations, companies, colleges and

u n i versities, and other know l e d g e - c re a t-

ing enterprises. In addition, individual

p rofessional s, facu lty, and practitioners

a re empowe red by the emerging influence

of e-knowledge to create their ow n

content, knowledge, and insight and

offer it for exchange.

Democratization, Empowerment, and

New Choices. In a very real sense, the e-

K n owledge In d u s t ry is a powe rful engine

for democratization and empowerment. In

the Information Age, publishers, colleges,

and universities controlled the supply of

vetted content. In the e-Knowledge Age,

n ew market mechanisms w ill emerge,

including free sources of content, context,

and insight. Ma rketplaces will enable

individual professionals, practitioners,

f a c u l t y, and others to create and supplye-knowledge resou rces to augment the tra-

ditional supply channels.

New Roles, Responsibilities and Players.

The e-Knowledge In d u s t ry will prov i d e

n ew roles and responsibilities for exis ting

p l a yers and encourage new players to

come to the table. e - Kn owledge suppliersand aggregatorswill be able to prov i d etheir content and encoded contexts to a

wider range of audiences than offere d

t h rough traditional ve rtical channels.

Value-added e-knowledge partnersw i l lenrich content and context, providing a

variety of useful services. e - Kn ow l e d g edemand aggregatorswill be able to leve r-age their market power through aggre -

gating demand among their clientele.

e - Kn owledge userswill include individualsand organizations. Their influence will be

dramatically enhanced in the e-knowl edg e

ma rketplace economy.

A Chan gi ng En terpri se Lan dscape.

Which organizations and enterprises willfill these roles over the next ten ye a r s ?

Existing learning, publishing, and know l-

edge management organizations? New

subsidiaries of existing enterprises? To t all y

new enterprises? New kinds of communi-

ties of practice that cross traditional orga-

nizational boundaries? Cooperatives of

free agents or amorphous peer-to-peer net-

w o rks? New strategic alliances and collab-

orations? Only time will tell, and the

outcomes may be surprising. The enter-

prise landscape of the e-Knowledge In d u s-

t ry in ten years time wi ll l ikely be ve ry

different from the clusters of organizations

and individuals that aspire to be major

p l a yers in e-knowledge today.


Tr a n s f o rmi ng e-Knowledge1 2

Players in the e-Knowledge Industry

Adapted from: Patrick McElroy, A New Paradigm for Acquiring, Managing, and Distributing Content in Higher Education Institutions, 2002.


25/176


Tr a n s f o rmi ng e-Kno wledge 1 3

Pioneering Examples of e-Knowledge

Pervasive Computing Transforms

Approaches to Elder Care

Professional Society as Indispensable

Knowledge Resource

Universities Leverage Their Knowledge

Resources

Industry-wide Knowledge Sharing

Enables German Industry to Compete

Making e-Government Work

P e rvasive Computing Tr a n s f o rm s

A p p roaches to Elder Care

An e-knowledge approach can be com-

bined with perva s i ve computing to

i m p rove our understanding of aging, to

i m p rove elder care, and to make some

aspects of our own aging less pro b l e m-

atic. Pe rva s i ve computing makes possible

the collection of detailed, moment-by -

moment data on user actions and con-

texts , wire l e s s l y, anywhere and anytime.

A global community of organizations is

using this approach to gather data on

the lives and needs of the elderly with

a view to increasing their autonomy and

quality of care.

One of the data capturing pioneers is Elite

Cares Oatfield Estates in Milwaukee, Wis-

consin, which has built pervas ive comput-

ing into its living spaces. Residents carry

dual-channel radio frequency locator tags

that serve as their apartment key and emit

periodic infrared pulses to the sensors in

each room. Beds have embedded we i g h t

sensors. Each apartment has motion and

health vitals sensors plus a network e d

computer with touch screen interf a c e ,enabling communication through e-mail,

w o rd processing, audio for speech re c o g-

nition, and video conferencing using

webcams. These systems and sensors feed

p e r s o n a l i zed databases on each re s i d e n t .

C a re g i vers use these databases to monitor

personal health, activity levels, and inter-

actions with medical attention and status

of medication. Managers use this know l-

edge base to monitor staff perf o r m a n c e .

Residents use the personal history data,

both theirs and others, to foster social

interactions with other patients. This envi-ronment has changed the way that re s i-

dents live. They have greater control and

a u t o n o m y, knowing that if they become

disoriented and wander, re q u i re emer-

gency help, or fall behind in their medica-

tion, assistance will be fort h c o m i n g

i m m e d i a t e l y. Care g i vers and medical per-

sonnel do not need to manually re c o rd

and enter patient data; they have access to

a far richer knowledge base on each

patient, easily accessed and arrayed.

While these developments bring immedi-

ate benefit to residents, their families, and

c a re g i vers, our primary interest is in the

implications for e-knowledge. From the

p e r s p e c t i ve of health professionals and

policy makers, the data collected in such

schemes can be merged with data being

collected globally on patient health,

a cti vity, and care. Multiple analyses can be

u n d e rtaken, ranging from pattern deter-

mination (e.g., as in epidemiology) to cod-ification of what work s in elder care, in

repositories of grounded knowledge and

tradecraft that can be used by care g i ve r s

and medical educators.

Mo re futuristically, new forms of assisted

living can be envisaged in which perva s i ve

computing is combined with intelligent

agent technology to compensate for

declining cognitive facilities. An example

is the difficulty that many people have in

retaining their skill base and tacit know l-edge as they age. Even when we are yo u ng ,

our ability to perform a task fluidly and

automatically typically declines if we do

not practice the task fre q u e n t l y. We

become ru s t y. This loss of competence in

relation to rarely-used knowledge may

become more problematic as we age. Pe r-

va s i ve computing offers the prospect of

regaining that knowledge on demand.

The important thing is not tostop questioning.

Albert Einstein


26/176

P e rvasive computing pro v i d e s

mechanisms to capture and re p l a y

e v e ry aspect of what we know and

what we do. This has implications

for people throughout their lives.

I m p o rtant applications in elderc a re include empowering older

people and enlarging the

knowledge base of what works

in assisted living.

In a possible scenario, our individual

re t i rement plans would go beyond finan-

cial considerations to include prov i s i o n

for cognitive augmentation. If we learned

a skill that we wanted to have available to

us years later, we would use perva s i ve

computing to assemble rich data on our

peak level of performance on that skill.

This could be possible through the com-

bined use of webcams and data glove s .

Webcams can capture video re c o rds of

that performance from multiple va n t a g e

points (including what we see when we

p e rform a task). Data gloves can capture

data on how our hands and fingers move

during performance of a task. T h e

various data streams can be analyzed by

re m e m b r a n c e agents to identify keyelemen ts that could be re p l a yed ye a r s

later to stimulate recall of the el ements

of that skilled performance. For example,

re c o rdings from data gloves might be

replayed through force-feedback (haptic)

g l oves to convey how it felt to perf o r m

the task. Pro s p e c t i ve l y, this could be

s h a red with others immedia tely (to

demonstrate what a skill entails), and

used by us in later life (to re - e s t a b l i s h

our original level of competence).

As an indication of the wider implications,

e l d e rc a re environments that use perva s ive

ICT are being pro g re s s i vely improved by

outlinks from patients facilities to their

families and others. One result is that fam-

ilies can participate in the monitoring of

their loved ones pro g ress, activities , and

condition. They can also provide more fre-

quent contact and interactivity thro u g h

e l e c t ronic communication and large-

s c reen visual displays that enable re si d e n t

and family to see one another. An unex-

pected outcome has been the involve m e n t

of elder care residents in family history

projects and oral history projects invo lving

ch ildren, grandchildren, and great- grand-c hi l d ren. Such developments will be facil-

itated if perva s i ve computing is used

routinely to capture day-to-day experi-

ences in a whole-life diary.

P rofessional Society as an

Indispensable Knowledge

R e s o u rc e

The American Association of Ph a r m a c e u-

tical Scientists is a professional society

s e rving 4,000 pharmaceutical scientists as

members and another 50,000 customers.

AAPS has evol ved a knowledge portal that

members and non-member customers use

to access the latest findings in re s e a rc h

and practice in pharmaceutical science.

Using the portal, users can create m y

p rofessional journal using the port a ls

p e r s o n a l i zed search capabilities to assem-

ble re l e vant data (author, title, key terms,

etc.) on all recently published articles in

topic areas that they can enumerate. Su c hdata is typically stored as m e t a d a t a fol-

l owing standards. Subscribers can extract

not just the metadata/abstract, but the

e n t i re articleor in future, just key por-

tions of it. AAPS began by digitizing its

own journals, but has since added links to

other scientific journals, including 20

f rom El s e v i e r. The persona lized port a l

also features a specialized news serv i c e

dealing in new developments in the field.


Tr a n s f o rmi ng e-Knowled ge1 4

A knowledge advantage isa sustainable advantage.

Thomas H. Davenport and

Laurence Prusak


27/176

The future for the AmericanAssociation of PharmaceuticalScientists is to fuse education andknowledge experiences together so itsmembers will be learning wheneverthey access the digital body of

knowledge or use the po

Documents

Part 1 Book e Knowledge