Patrizia de LucaUniversity of Trieste (Italy)2015

Consumer attitudes

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Agenda

Definition and nature of consumer attitudes Relationship among attitudes, beliefs, intentions and behaviour Explicit and implicit attitudes Measurements of attitudes Attitude change Some examples and applications

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Defining attitudes

• Attitude is a predisposition to evaluate a specific concept positively or negatively.

• Attitude is lasting because it tends to endure over time.

• Attitude is general because it applies to more than a momentary event.

• ... But Attitudes can change.

“Attitudes are learned predispositions to respond to an object or class of objects in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way” (Allport G, 1935).

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Neutral response

Sometimes consumers do not have either a positive or

negative attitude, due to:

Indifference

which is a truly neutral response

Ambivalence

which is a consequence of conflict (between positive and

negative evaluation).

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Objects: •Product (carbonated drinks)•Brand (Coke)•Company (Coca-Cola)•Product attributes (sugar content)•Retailer (Wal Mart)•Store format (hard discount)•…

Actions:•Buying•Renting•Using•Eating•Stealing,•Saving•Downloading• …

Attitude Towards

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Why do we study attitudes?

Because attitudes should be strongly connected with behaviour…

… but sometimes the relationship is weak.

ATTITUDE INTENTION BEHAVIOUR

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Attitude Components: ABC Model

The model emphasises the interrelationships between

knowing, feeling, and doing.

BehaviourAffect

Cognition

how a consumer feels

about an attitude object

the consumer’s intention to do something with regard to an attitude object.

the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object: how he/she explains his/her attitude

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What do you think about oranges?

Affect component:I like them. I like their taste …

Behaviour component:I try to eat at least one daily …

Cognitive component:Oranges contain a lot of vitamin C: they are healthy …

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The Cognitive Component (Beliefs) 1/2

A consumer belief is a psychological association between a product or brand and an attribute or feature of that product or brand.

Beliefs are cognitive (based on knowledge). The stronger the association of features or attributes with the product

or brand, the stronger the consumer’s belief. Note that beliefs that consumers hold need not be accurate.

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The Cognitive Component (Beliefs) 2/2

A consumer may hold both positive or negative beliefs toward an object.

Some beliefs may be neutral (coffee is black)

Some beliefs may be differ in depending:

– on the person (the same coffee could be hot for a person and cold for another);

– on the situation (coffee is hot and stimulates good on a cold morning but not good on a hot summer evening)

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The Cognitive Component:Vocabulary of brand beliefs for a soft drink product (an example)

Product Attributes Consumer Benefits

Caloric contentVitamin contentNatural ingredientsSweetnessAftertasteCarbonation

Restores energyNutritionalGood for the whole familyGives a liftGood at mealtimesThirst quenching

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Purchase decisions are continually influenced by affective response. Affect – the way in which we feel in response to marketplace stimuli. It is emotive rather than cognitive (beliefs) It is comprised of both our knowledge of stimuli and our evaluation of

them. Affective responses can be very general or very specific.

The Affective component

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The Hierarchy of Effects (Mower, Minor, 2001)

The relationship between the three components of attitudes (responses) is known as the hierarchy of effects

Type of hierarchy

Sequence Nature of information processing

High-Involvement

Beliefs Affect BehaviorAttitude based on cognitive information processing

Low-Involvement

Beliefs Behavior Affect

Affective, Experiential

Affect Behavior Beliefs Attitude based on hedonic consumption

Behavioral Behavior Beliefs Affect Attitude based on behavioral learning process

(Mower, Minor, 2001)

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Cognitive Hierarchy

High-involvement hierarchy:

–Active, purchase-specific processingLow-involvement hierarchy:

–Passive, purchase-specific processing

(often, an “act before you think” process)

A “think before you act” process

But we have to distinguish between…

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The low-involvement, passive consumer vs the high-involvement, active consumer (1/2)

Source: Assael, 1998; p. 155

Low-Involvement View of a Passive Consumer

High-Involvement View of an Active Consumer

Consumers learn information at random.

Consumers are information processors.

Consumers are information gatherers.

Consumers are information seekers.

Consumers represent a passive audience for advertising. As a result, the effect of advertising on the consumers is strong.

Consumers represent an active audience for advertising. As a result, the effect of advertising on the consumer is weak.

Consumers buy first. If they do evaluate brands, it is done after the purchase.

Consumers evaluate brands before buying.

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Low-Involvement View of a Passive Consumer

High-Involvement View of an Active Consumer

Consumers seek some acceptable level of satisfaction. As a result, consumers buy the brand least likely to give them problems and buy based on a few attributes. Familiarity is the key.

Consumers seek to maximize expected satisfaction. As a result, consumers compare brands to see which provide the most benefits related to needs and buy based on multi-attribute comparisons of brands

Personality and lifestyle characteristics are not related to consumer behavior because the product is not closely tied to the consumer’s identity and belief system.

Personality and lifestyle characteristics are related to consumer behaviour because the product is closely tied to the consumer’s identity and belief system.

Reference groups exert little influence on product choice because products are unlikely to be related to group norms and values.

Reference groups influence consumer behavior because of the importance of the product to group norms and values.

The low-involvement, passive consumer vs the high-involvement, active consumer (2/2)

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The Experiential Hierarchy (1/2)

It is based primarily on a consumer’s emotional response to a brand or product.

Consumers first evaluate an object on an overall bases by relying on thier feelings, emotions, and fantasies and then act on this basis.

The consumer’s primary purchase motive is the anticipated experience of enjoying the object, not the projected performace of the object based on evaluative product criteria.

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The Experiential Hierarchy (2/2)

Beliefs about the attributes and characteristics of an object may be formed after the fact.

It shows that when a product is perceived as pleasurable or expressive, cognitive processes do not have to be central.

As a result, marketers can directly appeal to brand evaluations - without necessarily influencing beliefs - using symbols and imagery to evoke positive feelings and emotions about the brand.

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The Behavioural Hierarchy

–An “act before you think” process.

–In some cases, consumers evaluate brands or products after buying.

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Can you find any examples?

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Do positive attitudes translate into purchase and consumption? It depends…

Just because consumers prefer brand A, doesn’t mean they will necessarily buy brand A.

Having a favorable attitude toward a product is not the same as having a favorable attitude toward its purchase or consumption.

– For example, consumers may think that eating fish is good for their health, but that does not mean that they will eat fish rather than red meat!

WHY? Try to find the reason why!

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Factors inhibiting the relationship between beliefs, attitudes, and behavior

Lack of involvement

Lack of purchase feasibility

Lack of direct product experience

Lack of relation between values and beliefs

Changing market conditions

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LET US PLAY:

FIND OUT YOUR ATTITUDE TOWARD THE OBJECT/ACTION…

You can use a “short” in-depth interview to know (defining your main questions):

- Do you like/dislike …?

- Why? (Use abc model)

- Do you usually buy or use …?

- Would you like to buy/use/do…?

- And so on!

… AND THEN EXPLAIN IT TO OTHERS.

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Measuring the Attitudinal Components

Using colas as an example, the following table* shows one or more rating scales° to measure the attitudinal components°:

– Brand Beliefs

– Attribute Evaluations

– Overall Brand Evaluation

– Intention to Buy

°Scales for brand beliefs and attribute evaluations are developed for a number of characteristics such as sweet, carbonated, good to serve guests, and so forth.

* Source: Assael, 1998, p. 290

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Measures of attitudinal components (1/4)

Brand Beliefs

How likely is it that I will get a highly carbonated cola if I buy Brand A?Very likely - - - - - - - Very unlikely

Rate Brand A by the following characteristics:Highly carbonated - - - - - - - Not at all carbonated

Indicate how well Brand A is described by the following characteristics:Highly carbonatedDescribes very well - - - - - - - Does not describe at all

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Attribute Evaluations

How important is buying a cola that is highly carbonated?Very important - - - - - - - Not at all important

Indicate the degree of satisfaction you would get from the following:Highly carbonatedVery satisfying - - - - - - - Not at all satisfying

Think of your ideal brand of cola and rate it on the characteristics listed below:Highly carbonated - - - - - - - Not at all carbonated

Measures of attitudinal components (2/4)

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Overall Brand Evaluations (Affective Component)Rate Brand A as follows:I like it very much - - - - - - - I don’t like it at all

Which of the following brands do you prefer most? Which of the brands do you prefer second, third (and so forth)? (Key brands of cola would you be listed)

Rate Brand A as follows:Very favourable - - - - - - - Very unfavourable

Suppose you could pick ten free cans of cola and had the choice of any combination of brands. Which brands would you pick? How many of each brand? (Make sure the total adds up to ten cans).(Key brands would be listed and respondents instructed to place any number of cans next to each brand so the total allocated equal ten).

Measures of attitudinal components (3/4)

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Intention to Buy

What is the likelihood you would buy Brand A the next time you purchase cola?

•Definitely will buy

•Probably will buy

•Might buy

•Probably will not buy

•Definitely will not buy

(Key cola brands will be listed and respondents asked their intention to buy)

Measures of attitudinal components (4/4)

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Attitude Development

Attitudes develop over time through a learning process affected by:

Family influencesPeer group influencesInformationExperiencePersonality

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Family Influences

The family is an important influence factor on purchase decisions.

Regardless of their tendency to rebel in teenage years, many studies have shown a high correlation between children’s attitudes and those of their parents towards numerous objects/actions (personal hygiene, preferences for food items, boiled vegetables or fried food, and so on)

The influence is demonstrated in some advertising theme.

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Peer Group Influences

Many studies have shown pervasive group influence on purchasing behaviour.

Peer groups seem to be much more likely than advertising to influence attitudes and purchasing behaviour.

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Information and Experience

Information is an important attitude determinant.

Consumers’ past experiences also influence their

brand attitudes.

Such experiences condition future behaviour.

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Personality

Consumers’ personalities affect their attitudes:– Aggression

– Extroversion

– Submissiveness

– Authoritarianism

– ...

These traits may influence attitudes toward brands and products.

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Functions of Attitudes

Understanding the funcions of attitudes means understanding how they serve the individual.

Attitudes can fulfill more than one function.A classification of attitude functions (Katz, 1960):

– Utilitarian function

– Value-expressive function

– Ego-defensive function

– Knowledge function

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Utilitarian Function

The utilitarian function of attitudes guides consumers in achieving desired benefits.

An example: auto advertising reflects the utilitarian function of attitudes when it features performance characteristics.

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Value-Expressive Function

Attitudes can express consumers’ self-images and value systems, particularly for a high-involvement product.

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Ego-Defensive Function

Attitudes protect the ego from anxieties and threats. Consumers purchase many product to avoid anxiety-producing

situations. Consumers develop positive attitudes toward products and brands

associated with social acceptance, confidence and desirability.

Contact lens

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Knowledge Function

Attitudes help consumers organize the mass of information they are exposed to daily.

Consumers sort all of the messages, ignoring the less relevant information.

The knowledge function also reduces uncertainty and confusion.

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Forming attitudes

Attitudes can form in different ways:

– Classical conditioning

– Instrumental conditioning

– Complex cognitive process

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Relationship of Behavior to Attitudes

Not only do consumer attitudes influence behavior, but behavior can also influence attitudes:

– Cognitive Dissonance

– Passive Learning

– Disconfirmation of Expectations

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Cognitive Dissonance

According to dissonance theory, consumer attitudes sometimes change to conform to previous behavior, thus reducing post-purchase conflict.

Individuals tend to reinforce their decision after the fact by changing their attitudes in favor of the chosen brand.

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Passive Learning

Under conditions of low involvement, a change in attitude is not necessary to influence a change in behavior.

The awareness of a new brand may be sufficient reason for consumers to switch in a search for variety, and consumers may form attitudes toward the new brand after using it.

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Disconfirmation of Expectations

When expectations regarding product performance are not met (disconfirmation of expectations), consumers may have more negative attitudes toward the product after the purchase.

When consumers are very disappointed, a negative change in attitudes is likely to occur after the purchase, and they may exaggerate this change (negative word of mouth).

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Attitude Reinforcement and Change

Beliefs are easier to change than desired benefits Brand beliefs are easier to change than brand attitudes For hedonic products, attitudes are a more relevant vehicle for change

than beliefs. Attitudes are easier to change when there is a low level of involvement

with the product. Weak attitudes are easier to change than strong ones. Attitudes held by consumers who have less confidence in their brand

evaluations are easier to change. Attitudes are easier to change when they are based on ambiguous

information.

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Strategies to Change Attitudes(Repositioning)

Changing Attitudes of Existing Users

– Companies faced with declining sales often attempt to reposition their offerings to existing users.

Changing Attitudes of Nonusers

– In an attempt to appeal to new segments of the market, companies often attempt to change attitudes among nonusers. Often these changes are necessary for the company to ensure future sales.

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Strategies to change consumer beliefs

Positioning by: – product attributes,

– intangible attributes,

– consumer benefits,

– price,

– brand user,

– celebrity recognition,

– brand personality,

– product category,

– association with competitors,

– country or geographic area.

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Every man has reminiscences which he would not tell to everyone but only his friends. He has other matters in his mind which he would not reveal even to his friends, but only to himself, and that in secret. But there are other things which a man is afraid to tell even to himself, and every decent man has a number of such things stored away in his mind.

(F. Dostoevskij, 1821-1881)

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Attitude manifestation

Explicit Attitude consciousness

Implicit Attitude unconsciousness

Attitude do not have to be consciously accessible to produce evalutative reaction to an object. The mere presence of the attitude object is often sufficient to activate the associated attitude automatically, often without awareness.In short, attitudes may be implicit as well as explicit.

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Measurement of explicit attitudes

Multi-attribute models

Theory of Reasoned Action

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Multi-attribute model

As a simple response does not always provide all the information, we need to know about why a consumer has certain feelings towards a product or about what marketers can do to change consumers’ attitudes.

Fishbein’s multi-attribute model

describes attitude formation as a function of consumer beliefs about the attributes and benefits of a brand.

Elements of the models:

– Attributes – characteristics that consumers consider when evaluating the attitude object.

– Beliefs – cognitions about the specific attitude object.

– Importance weights – these reflect the relatived priority of an attribute to the consumer.

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Fishbein’s Multiattribute Model

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Theory of Reasoned Action

Intentions versus behavior:– The Fishbein’s theory of reasoned action aims to measure

behavioral intentions, recognising that certain uncontrollable factors inhibit prediction of actual behavior.

Social pressure:– The power of other people in influencing behavior.

Attitude towards buying:– Focusing on the perceived consequences of a purchase.

(Ajzen, Fishbein, 1980)

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Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action

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Measuring social elements

Normative beliefsMy family thinks I Should buy Brand X

- - - - - - -

Should not buy Brand X

Motivation to complyI want to do what my family thinks I should do regarding Brand X

- - - - - - -

I do not want to do what my family thinks I should do regarding Brand X

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Problems in predicting behavior

Outcomes beyond consumers’ control.

Behavior is not always intentional.

Measures of attitude often do not really correspond to the behavior they are supposed to predict.

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Implicit Attitudes

Many cognitive process that affect behavior are unconscious in nature and are inaccessible to observation by the actor.

These implicit processes affect perception, influence behavior, and color interpretation of past events.

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Measurement of Implicit Attitudes

IAT - Implicit Attitude Test:

– It is an experimental method within social psychology designed to measure the strength of automatic association between mental representations of objects (concepts) in memory.

– It requires the rapid categorization of various stimulus objects, such that easier pairings (and faster responses) are interpreted as being more strongly associated in memory than more difficult pairings (slower responses).

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IAT – Implicit Attitude Test

The IAT was introduced in 1998 by Anthony Greenwald, Debbie McGhee, and Jordan Schwartz.

Project Implicit, a research and educational outreach program that allows individuals to take the test over the web, is run by social psychologists (Greenwald, Mahzarin Banaji, and Brian Nosek).

https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/

Thank you very much for your attentionPatrizia de Luca, Ph.D.E-mail: patrizia.deluca@econ.units.it