LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY

KAMILIA PUNCEVIČ

PATTERNS OF SEMANTIC CHANGE IN FORMATION OF ENGLISH SYNONYMS

MA THESIS

Academic advisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eglė Petronienė

Vilnius, 2016

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LIETUVOS EDUKOLOGIJOS UNIVERSITETAS FILOLOGIJOS FAKULTETAS

ANGLŲ FILOLOGIJOS KATEDRA

ANGLŲ KALBOS SINONIMŲ REIKŠMIŲ KAITOS DĖSNINGUMAI

Magistro darbas

Magistro darbo autorė Kamilia Puncevič Patvirtinu, kad darbas atliktas savarankiškai,

naudojant tik darbe nurodytus šaltinius

(Parašas, data)

Vadovas doc. dr. Eglė Petronienė

(Parašas, data)

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CONTENTS

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………….4

INTRODUCTION…………………...……………………………………………….5

1. KEY CONCEPTS IN THE STUDIES OF SYNONYMY………………………...7

1.1. The Concept and Criteria of Synonymy in English...……………..……..9

1.2. Classification of Synonyms………...……………………………………12

1.3. Sources of Synonyms…..…………………………………………….….15

2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE………..….17

3. SEMANTIC CHANGE IN ENGLISH………………………………………..…..20

3.1. The Concept of Semantic Change..…………..………………………….20

3.2. Causes of Semantic Change.....………………….………………………21

3.3. Classifications of Semantic Change....…………………………….…….21

4. ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC CHANGE IN SYNONYMY……..……………….25

4.1. Quantitative analysis…………………………………………………….26

4.2. Qualitative analysis……………………………………………….……..39

4.2.1. Semantic changes of OFFER, READ and their synonyms……39

4.2.2. Semantic changes of LARGE, GREAT and their synonyms.....42

4.2.3. Semantic changes of WORLD, TIME and their synonyms.......45

4.2.4. Patterns of formation of meaning……………………………..48

CONCLUSIONS……………………………...……………………………………..53

SUMMARY…………………………………………………………………………54

REFERENCES...……………………………………………………………………55

APPENDICES …………......……………………………………………………….58

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Abstract

The development of a language is stimulated by linguistic, historical and social causes

and results in changes at all language levels. Language contact and loanwords basically cause

the formation of synonyms. English synonyms not only vary etymologically, but also exhibit

a variety of semantic changes they underwent to be anchored in the English

vocabulary. This paper addresses the question what is the relationship between the origin of

words, the period of time, part of speech the words within synonymic group belong to and the

type of semantic changes the words undertake. To test the relationship, the most frequently

used twenty-three headwords of the English language were chosen from the wordlist in the

British National Corpus. The twenty-three synonymic groups made total of 122 words. The

paper set out to point out their diachronic features and analyze the formation of meaning of

words within a synonymic group. The aim of the research was achieved by employing

qualitative and quantitative research methods. The research focused on two traditions

of changes in meaning - amelioration and pejoration as well as broadening and narrowing --

proposed and defined by a number of linguists: Kleparski (1988), Kiełtyka (2006), Grygiel

and Kleparski (2007) Yu, Ren (2013). After the primary meanings of the words were found

out, changes in the meanings of synonymous words by comparison to the modern meanings

were identified; then, the patterning of the changes of word meanings within a synonymic

group was established. Chai square and ANOVA quantitative methods were used to identify

and compare the semantic changes the synonymous words originating from one and the same

language underwent. The analysis has revealed the archetypal patterns of semantic change

relating to the period of time when the words within synonymic groups started functioning in

the English language. Also, the analysis showed that there is a tendency of broadening of

meaning of words within synonymic groups in English.

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Introduction

The theory of Semantic Change explains how linguistic expressions may change their

meaning over time. It was the principal achievement of the 19th century linguists when they

not only realized the importance of linguistic change more clearly than their predecessors, but

also put its scientific investigation by means of the comparative method (Ivic, 2015). Some

linguists in the early 20th century maintained an active interest in language change of various

forms including semantic (Riddel, 1999). Evaluating the history of the English language it can

be inferred that from the semantic point of view, the influence of other languages on English

resulted in formation of synonyms; besides other effects on vocabulary. Native lexical items

and borrowings undergo particular changes in meaning to function in the language and thus

enter synonymic word groups. Semantic changes have long been studied to identify their

causes and classify the types (Riddel, 1999); however, this research focuses only on two

traditions that distinguish the following changes in meaning: amelioration and pejoration;

broadening and narrowing. These particular changes are chosen for the analysis as some

scholars reckon that ‘broadening’ and ‘narrowing’ are the main kinds of semantic change;

while others (e.g. metonymy, litotes, pejoration, amelioration etc.) are merely subtypes

(Campbell, 2004). As far as changes in meanings such as ‘pejoration’ and ‘melioration’ often

excite people (e.g. silly which meant ‘happy, innocent, pitiable’ but later came to mean

‘foolish, stupid’); these semantic changes were chosen for the analysis as separate kinds of

semantic change (Campbell, 2004). Taking into consideration that the language evolves

slowly, but it is a continuous and unavoidable process, there is necessity of more extensive

investigations on semantic change (Riemer, 2010). Consequently, the research question

guiding this study is:

• What is the relationship between the origin of a word and the types of semantic

change the word undergoes?

• What is the relationship between the part of speech of a word and the types of

semantic change the word undergoes?

• What is the relationship between the time (historical period) a word enters the

language and the types of semantic change the word undergoes?

The aim of the research is to set the patterns of the development of meaning of words

within a synonymic group. To achieve the aim, the following objectives of the research were

set:

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• to reveal the etymological variety of English synonyms,

• to determine the semantic changes words of similar meanings undergo in their

historical development,

• to establish the factors determining the change of meaning of words having similar

meanings.

Novelty of the research

The research is topical because it is intended to add a new dimension to the

investigation of English synonyms: by incorporating the two approaches – synchronic and

diachronic – the analysis reveals the sources, relationship and patterns of development of

meaning of words within synonymic groups in the English language.

Significance of the research

The research contributes to the historical semantics studies of language by reviving the

ways of how the meaning of the lexicon of a language develops. The results of this study can

be used as the background material for further research into synonymy and semantic change.

From the practical point of view, this study could be useful for teaching semantic potential of

the language.

Methods of the research

The analysis sets out to analyze English synonyms from the diachronic point of view.

The aim of the research is achieved by employing qualitative and quantitative research

methods. First of all, the analytical-descriptive method is used as the entries are analyzed and

their origin and development of their meanings is described. Then, the quantitative method is

adopted, which helps to establish the most common patterns of formation of meaning of

synonymy in English and relationship between semantic changes and such variables as parts

of speech, origin, the period of time.

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The scope of the research

The research is based on 23 headwords, which were chosen according to their frequency

of occurrence from the list in the British National Corpus. The headwords were derived from

the research-based project Word Frequencies in Written and Spoken English: Based on the

British National Corpus (Leech, Rayson & Wilson, 2001). On the list of the most frequently

used words in English, the development of meaning throughout the history of some words

was unknown; for this reason, these words were omitted. As a result, the selected 23 words

include the following notional parts of speech: nouns, verbs and adjectives. Their synonyms,

which count 99 words, are derived from Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonyms and Oxford

Learner’s Thesaurus. The qualitative analysis of all 23 synonymic groups is carried out. The

Etymological dictionary (www.etymonline.com) is used for the analysis of development of

meaning of 23 synonymic groups (all in all 122 words). 23 synonymic groups appeared to be

enough and were chosen in order to obtain tangible results and to establish the prevailing

patterns of semantic change and relationship between semantic changes and such variables as

parts of speech, origin, the period of time.

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1. KEY CONCEPTS IN THE STUDIES OF SYNONYMY

In language study, there are numerous terms to consider. The present work is related to

lexicology, historical linguistics, synonymy, semantics and linguistic change. Lexicology

combines a number of different areas of interest; consequently, it is closely connected with

historical linguistics as it is focused not only on the study of the relationships between various

words and the labeling of types of words but also on the evolution of a word and language use

which occurs over time. Historical linguistics looks at the history of words, exploring their

origins and seeing how their usage has deviated from their original meaning. If we look at

synonymy from diachronic angle, it becomes apparent that synonymy is closely related to the

phenomenon of linguistic change. The relationship between linguistic change and synonymy

is well explained by Haase who claims that one of the causes of linguistic change is the

existence of synonymic groups (1874 cited by Geeraerts, 2010). Sturtevant (1965, 99) makes

a straightforward and accurate statement, which can be called as a language economy

principle, that unless synonyms come to be differentiated in meaning at some point of their

history, one of them is usually lost.

In semantics and historical linguistics, semantic change refers to any change in the

meaning of a word over the course of time but it does not deal with change in the phonetic

form of the word; also, called semantic shift (Campbell, 2004). The most common types of

semantic change include amelioration, pejoration, broadening, semantic narrowing,

synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, metaphor and metonymy (Campbell, 2004). Semantic change

may also occur when native speakers of another language adopt English expressions and

apply them to activities or conditions in their own social and cultural environment (Campbell,

2004).

In this research we are more interested in lexical meaning (each word has a unique

meaning). Lexical meaning is divided into denotative meaning and connotative meaning.

Denotative meaning is a primary meaning which names objects, things spoken about and is

the same for all words. Connotative meaning is a secondary (additional) and it denotes a

speaker’s feelings as well as deals with an effect on the listener (Arnold, 1986). Arnold

suggests 4 types of connotative meaning:

1) Stylistic – it depends on the stylistic features of the word (colloquial or formal), e.g. a

chap – a boy; in this case chap is an informal word, while boy is more formal word.

2) Emotional – it helps to express emotions, e.g. beseech, which expresses anxiety,

desperate wish of something.

3) Evaluative – it expresses approval or disapproval, e.g. It’s magic/ Oh it’s witchcraft;

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the first example presents a positive evaluation, while the other example a negative

one.

4) Expressive – it underlies the intensity of the utterance, e.g. beastly weather (negative

emotion, expressive, informal or even old-fashioned word).

A characteristic feature of a vocabulary of any language is the existence of synonyms.

English has the largest vocabulary and the most synonyms of any language in the world

(Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 1985). This richness is due to the fact that the English

language has grown over the centuries by constantly incorporating words from other

languages. Even before the Norman Conquest, the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary included words

borrowed from Latin, Greek and Scandinavian. After the Norman Conquest, the English

vocabulary was virtually doubled by the addition of French words. Also, many words

introduced into the language during the Renaissance and later periods. Synonyms in English

therefore originate from a variety of languages: Anglo-Saxon, French, Latin, Greek, Spanish,

South American, Indian, etc.

1.1. The Concept and criteria of Synonymy in English

The word synonym originates from Greek and means ‘same name’ (Crystal 1995, 164).

The definition of synonymy is often difficult to grasp, due to sometimes vague explanations

given by different linguists. The fact is that many researchers do not agree with the simple

explanation, that “synonyms are two or more forms with very closely related meanings, which

are often, but not always, intersubstitutable in sentences” (Yule 1996, 118).

Whereas this definition would be useful for most beginners of linguistic studies,

Crystal argues that the definition of synonymy depends much on the individual lexemes: “it is

usually possible to find some nuance which separates them, or a context in which one of the

lexemes can appear but the other(s) cannot” (1995, 164). The problem is then that it is

downright difficult to stake out what a synonym is and what it is not; the question is whether

there are any ‘real’ synonyms? However, synonyms appear because there is a need for

another word that expresses the same thing as the first word or because two languages are in

contact (Campbell, 2004). The appearance of synonyms also concerns the difference between

speech and writing. As noted by Saeed (2003, 65-66), “the synonyms may portray positive or

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negative attitudes of the speaker [...] formality is another factor: many of these words are, of

course, slang terms used in colloquial context”.

Arnold (1986, 195) states that "synonyms are two or more words of the same

meaning, belonging to the same part of speech, possessing one or more identical meaning,

interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational

meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning,

connotation, affective value, style, emotional coloring and valency peculiar to one of the

elements in a synonymic group". This definition of synonyms is very accurate, detailed and

gives a full understanding of the phenomenon. Charles J. Smith defined synonyms as "words

which agree in expressing one or more characteristic ideas in common" (Webster's Dictionary

of Synonyms, 1968, 24a). However, Charles J. Smith’s definition is too general and it is not

as informative as the one of Arnold. From the given definitions synonymy can be described as

a semantic relation that means sameness of meaning. Synonyms are similar, but not identical.

In other words, a synonym is a word with a meaning identical or very similar to that of

another word. Traditionally, synonyms can be nouns, adverbs, verbs or adjectives, as long as

words are of the same part of speech. For example, smart and intelligent, baby and infant, etc.

As it was mentioned above, the question of synonymy has always been a hotly

discussed area in which different linguists have proposed a variety of claims and hypotheses.

Breal (1897 cited by Geeraerts, 2010) argued that synonyms are not tolerated as the very

existence of synonymy contradicts the internal economy of the language system and,

therefore, language users spread them over different semantic domains and registers. It was as

early as the 19th century that Reisig (1890 cited by Geeraerts, 2010) dealt with synonyms,

stressing the importance of a new branch of study called synonymology, which would study

synonyms. In present-day Linguistics, synonyms are defined as follows: linguists such as, for

example, Rayevska (1979, 183) identifies synonyms as words different in sound but identical

or similar in meaning; similarly, Burkhanov (1998, 230–234) states that “synonyms are

linguistic signs connected by the paradigmatic relationship of sameness or strong similarity of

meaning”. Naturally, a number of features may be attributed to groups of synonymous

expressions. Burkhanov (1998, 230) lists the following ones:

1. Two and more lexical items that belong to the same part of speech and are related

onomasiologically to one and the same conceptual category, or various aspects of the same

conceptual category are called synonyms, e.g. farmer/dirt farmer.

2. The term synonymy may also denote a cluster of lexical items belonging to the same

part of speech and designating the same concept, but different in expressive meaning, e.g.

peasant (evaluatively neutral) yokel (derogatory).

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3. The term synonymy is also used in reference to syntactic constructions that can be

characterised in terms of the same – or almost the same – semantic features, e.g. They kept

tabs on the Negroes/The Negroes were kept tabs on.

Although a myriad of views on synonymy are provided, it is essential to note that all

the definitions are reasonable and it depends on the researcher and the peculiarities of his

research which definition of synonymy to consider. In this research synonyms are considered

to belong to the same part of speech, the words that are not necessarily the same in meaning

but relating to the same concept; and might have different expressive meaning.

Many theories of grammar even do not acknowledge the concept of synonymy at all.

An opinion prevails that a difference in form should necessarily correspond to a difference in

meaning. While analyzing scientific literature, the conclusion was made that there are no

identical forms in every aspect of meaning so that the two words can be applied

interchangeably. The only true synonyms are thought to be words having precisely the same

denotation, connotation and relevancy (Greenbaum, 1996, 409; Crystal, 2003, 450). Most

often, these true synonyms are concrete words that come from linguistically different sources.

A good example of such a pair is car (from Latin) and automobile (from French). This pair of

words has precisely the same denotations, connotations and they are used in identical

contexts.

From the given definitions of synonyms it follows, that there are some criteria of

synonymy. According to Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova (1985, 145), a notional criterion

is used. In terms of this criterion, synonyms are described as words belonging to the same part

of speech, having the same idea (notion) but differing in shades of meaning or stylistic

characteristics. Also, semantic criterion was mentioned in "Webster's Dictionary of

Synonyms". Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms asserts that synonyms are words with the

same denotative component but different in connotative components. Moreover, a criterion of

interchangeability was distinguished and according to the latter, synonyms are described as

words that are interchangeable at least in some contexts (Riemer, 2010).

All these criteria have been criticized as each of them has their advantages and

disadvantages. The term of synonym lacks one and exact definition, so it is impossible to

distinguish criteria as each criterion should be applied for all synonyms.

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1.2. Classification of Synonyms

Most of the students of language who confront the issue of synonymy recognize the

existence of two major categories that are absolute synonyms and partial synonyms.

The concept of absolute synonymy covers those clusters of expressions that share one

and the same set of semantic features, i.e. their descriptive, social and affective meanings are

identical, and such synonyms are interchangeable in all possible contexts. The prevailing view

among linguists is that such absolute synonyms are either an extremely rare occurrence or –

according to the majority of linguists – their existence is altogether questionable.

Some scholars, like Bloomfield (1933), who went as far as to claim that absolute

(perfect) synonymy is hard to obtain in language; the fundamental hypothesis of the great

American scholar implies that each linguistic form has a invariable and definite connotation.

Many other linguists felt equally pessimistic about the existence of absolute synonymy. Nida

(1975, 151) complements Bloomfields statement by saying that no morphemes or

combinations of morphemes are identical in meaning and hence there are no real synonyms.

To illustrate this Nida (1975) discusses words: peace and tranquillity. These words are

regarded as synonyms, but they are hardly identical in meaning. One may speak of a peace

conference, but the expression tranquillity conference is certainly not an identical equivalent.

Stern (1931, 226) seems to be pessimistic about the existence of absolute synonyms as

well. He formulates an extremely right belief that: “[...] synonyms may by defined as words

with identical or partly identical referential rage, but different semantic ranges. That is to say,

they denote the same referents, but each word denotes it in an aspect that somehow differs

from the others. When a speaker wants to denote a referent, he is practically always seeing it

in a peculiar context, into which one of the synonyms may fit, but not necessarily the others.”

Ogden and Richards (1923) noticed that two words may have exactly the same

referential meaning, but differ in terms of emotive charge they carry, for instance such pairs

as horse and steed. Similarly, Brook (1958, 168–169) states that the emotive content of words

is one of the main reasons why there are so few absolute synonyms in any language.

Likewise, Ullmann (1957, 108) sees emotive overtones as one of the main forces, which

alleviate against absolute synonymy.

In contrast to the pessimistic opinions mentioned, Cruse (2004) argues that synonyms

do not necessarily have to express the same meaning in every context. His observations are

not less correct and accurate than those of Ogden and Richards, Brook, Ullmann, Stern and

Nida. He describes three subtypes of synonymy. First of all there are absolute synonyms,

which are completely identical in their meaning (Cruse 2004, 154). Examples of this very

rarely occurring semantic phenomenon are kick the bucket, die and pass away – all of them

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express ‘the dying of a living thing’. But when we have to use one of the synonyms in order

to express our condolences to the bereaved at a funeral, only pass away seems suitable. So,

even those absolute synonyms differ in their stylistic characteristics and in the appropriateness

in various contexts. It seems as if real absolute synonyms, which can be exchanged in every

imaginable context and situation, are very hard to find.

The second subtype by Cruse is called propositional synonymy (2004, 155). This type is

not restricted to single words and their meanings; it rather refers to the meanings of whole

phrases or sentences. Whenever items of a sentence can be exchanged without changing the

meaning of the sentence, we speak about propositional synonyms. Hence, the nouns violin

and fiddle are propositional synonyms in the sentence e.g. He is tuning his violin/fiddle.

Although, both nouns refer to the same musical instrument they cannot be regarded absolute

synonyms, due to their different degree of formality.

Cruse mentions a third type of synonymy: near-synonymy. It is difficult for him to

define this term, however, because as he explains, “it is not obvious what principle underlies

the distinction [between near-synonymy and non-synonymy]” (2004, 156). Apparently, it is

up to the intuition of the speaker to make this distinction. In this paper near-synonyms will be

referred to as lexical groups of words that have very similar denotative meaning, but which

may differ in colloquial behavior and are restricted to certain stylistic, conceptual or

contextual conditions. Examples of near-synonyms are the adjectives pretty and handsome.

Although both mean ‘good looking’, they can neither be regarded as absolute synonyms nor

as propositional synonyms, because they refer to different concepts. In reference to human

beings, handsome is bound to men, whereas pretty is basically used in reference to women.

This classification of synonymy seems to be the most accurate of all. For this reason, in this

paper I will rely on the classification of Cruse.

Another proper classification of synonyms is introduced by Rayevska. According to

Rayevska (1979, 187), synonyms can be divided into two major categories - ideographic

(relative) synonyms and stylistic synonyms. The concept of ideographic synonymy implies

contrasting shades of meaning or diverse degrees of a given quality, for instance beautiful/

fine/ handsome/ pretty, great/ huge/ tremendous/ colossal. The members of groups of

ideographic synonyms are almost equivalent in one or more denotative senses; therefore, they

can be used at least in some contexts. A great number of ideographic synonyms have the same

meaning in certain collocations and another one in other contexts. Words of this group belong

to the same stylistic type, for instance when we consider a pair of synonyms wild/savage we

see that we may say wild berries and wild animals, but we can hardly say savage berries or

savage animals. On the contrary, stylistic synonyms vary not so much in meaning as in either

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emotive value or stylistic sphere of application. It is important to note that pictorial language

often uses emotive words as stylistic alternatives of neutral ones, for instance eve/evening,

lone/lonely.

Antrushina, Afanasyeva and Morozova complement the theory of Rayevska by adding

additional categoties of synonyms. According to Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova (1985,

148), the only classification of synonyms was suggested by V.V. Vinogradov and he presents

three types of synonyms: ideographic, stylistic and absolute synonyms. Ideographic

synonyms are those of the same notion but with different shades of meaning (e.g. to love – to

like). Stylistic synonyms are those words that belong to different styles (neutral, formal,

informal). Good examples for this type of synonyms are the following pairs: to begin (neutral)

and to commence (formal), a meal (formal) and a bite (informal). The words that are identical

in meaning and style are called absolute synonyms (e.g. baggage - luggage). Also, the authors

claim that some of the words become synonyms only in a particular environment (context)

and they are called contextual (e.g. to buy – to get (some bread)).

Many authors, such as Crystal (1995) and Rayevska (1979) have attempted to list the

factors that distinguish members of synonymic clusters. Crystal (1995, 164) presents

differences between synonyms, such as:

1. Dialectal difference – sandwich/butty are synonymous in Britain, but the former is standard

while the latter is regional, autumn/fall are synonymous, but the former is British English

while the latter is American English.

2. Stylistic difference – salt/sodium chloride are synonymous, but the former is an everyday

standard word while the latter is technical, insane/ loony are synonymous, but the former is

formal while the latter is informal.

3. Collocational difference – rancid/rotten are synonymous, but the former is used only of

butter or bacon, kingly/royal are synonymous, but the mail has to royal in the UK.

4. Difference of emotional feeling or connotation – youth/youngster are synonymous, but the

referents of youths are felt to be less pleasant than those of youngsters.

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1.3. Sources of Synonyms

It is of high importance to discuss the origins of the synonymous expressions.

Rayevska (1979, 196–197) proposes a detailed account of the sources of synonyms and

discriminates between the following etymological types:

1. Groups of synonymic expressions, which originate from the native element denoting

different shades of denotative meaning, e.g. fast/ speedy/ swift, handsome/ pretty/

lovely, bold/manful/steadfast.

2. Groups of synonyms the elements of which are found in dialectal usage, e.g. child/bairn

(Scot.), long ago/langsyne (Scot.), mother/minny (Scot.).

3. Groups of synonyms, which have foreign lexical sources because of the contact with other

languages, e.g. begin/commence (Fr.), eaven/sky (Old Norse).

4. Groups of synonyms, which stem from the non-literal figurative use of words in pictorial

language, e.g. walk of life/occupation, star-gazer/dreamer, pins and needles/the creeps.

5. Synonymic groups originated in euphemistic and vulgar use employed for stylistic

purposes, e.g. die/to pass away/to kick the bucket.

Palmer (1981, 89) argues that English is rich in synonyms for several reasons. Firstly,

synonyms may belong to different dialects of the language. The Americanisms used in British

English also results in the formation of synonymous pairs, where one is a traditional Briticism

and the other an American loan, e.g. fall (AmE)- autumn (BrE). Another source of synonymy

is the process of euphemism, which can be described as a way of avoiding unpleasant, rude

words or socially distasteful subjects by replacing with inoffensive ones, e.g. I’m going to

powder my nose. The other reason is that English borrowed foreign words from almost every

country in the world, e.g. words of music, architecture and poetry were taken from Italy which

was the center of European Culture for so long. French also had an influence on English

because it was at the height of prestige; therefore, most of the legal words or those that refer to

fashion and meals are French.

Borrowings have made English word-stock extremely rich in synonyms, e.g. the

general idea of "thief" has thirty-seven synonyms (robber, burglar, plunderer, cracksman,

house breaker, pick pocket, cut-purse, stealer, etc.) (Eckersley, 1960, 432).

Synonyms in English are organized according to 2 basic styles. One of them involves

double, the other a triple scale. In English there are numerous pairs of synonyms where a

native term is opposed to one borrowed from French, Latin, and Greek. In most cases the

native word is more spontaneous and colloquial, whereas the foreign one is formal. Double

scale synonyms is a pair of words in which one word is native and the other one borrowed,

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e.g. bodily - corporal, inner - internal, friendship - amity, world – universe, answer - reply,

buy - purchase. (Arnold, 1986)

Triple synonyms consist of one native, one French and a Latin word, for instance:

NATIVE FROM FRENCH FROM LATIN

to ask to question to interrogate

to end to finish to complete

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2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Every living language changes through time and it is a natural process. Rastorguyeva

(1983, 14) claims that “it has long been recognized that a living language can never be

absolutely static; it develops together with the speech community, that is, with the people who

speak it”. This statement proves that evolution of language exists and that language is

influenced by different processes connected with human beings, as language lives as long as

people speaking it live. Also, it is important to mention that language evolves slowly, but its

change is continuous and unavoidable.

It should be acknowledged that many causes of language development are only

interpretations and linguists do not have a definite answer. Rastorguyeva (1983, 22)

distinguishes external (extra-linguistic) and internal (intra-linguistic) factors of language

development. Firstly, extra-linguistic factors are numerous circumstances and events closely

associated with human life. External factors include language contact, political and economic

aspects of the society, geographical division, the progress of science. Secondly, internal

factors are related to the wish to improve the language, the principle of analogy, interaction of

changes at different language levels and randomness – sometimes language change is

unpredictable and cannot be explained.

The history of the English language begins with the invasion of the British Isles by

Germanic tribes in 5th century or with oldest written records about 7th century (Shay, 2008). It

is possible to reconstruct some of the prehistory before that time, but the further back in time

we go, the less certain we can be about what the language was like. Traditionally, the history

of English is divided into three periods: Old English, Middle English and Modern English

(Algeo, 2010, 10).

As it was mentioned the earliest period begins in the fifth century around 449 A.D. with

the migration of three Germanic tribes (the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) who crossed the

North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time Celts, the

inhabitants of Britain, spoke Brythonic and Gaelic dialects. Most of the Celtic speakers were

pushed west and north mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The invading

Germanic tribes spoke Kentish, West Saxon, Mercian and Northumbrian, which developed

into Old English. The language in this form was used for over 600 years and during that time

it was constantly changing. Old English did not sound or look like English today (Shay 2008,

83). The vocabulary of Old English contained a small number of borrowings; mainly it

consisted of native words inherited from Proto-Germanic. Foreign elements in the Old

18

English vocabulary came from Celtic and Latin.

In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered

England; consequently, it lead to the development of the English language, as it was

influenced by French. Normans brought with them a kind of French, which became the

language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period there was a

kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper

classes spoke French. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but

with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. Main sources of

loanwords in Middle English are Scandinavian, French, Latin and Greek languages

(McIntyre, 2009). Latin and Greek borrowings came to the language from French or as a

result of translation of classical works during the age of Renaissance. The presence of

Scandinavians in the British Isles is indicated by a large number of place names and other

words connected with every day life. Scandinavian words were the synonyms of the native

ones. As Old Scandinavian and Old English were closely related (both developed from

Proto-Germanic, but one belongs to East Germanic, other to West Germanic branch)

Scandinavian words were very similar to native ones. For this reason some borrowings

either disappear, or replace native ones, were restricted to dialectal use, or borrowed both

but slight difference in meaning appeared (McIntyre, 2009).

Early Modern English might be said to begin in 15th century. It is thought to begin with

the invention of printing in 1476. From the 16th century the British had contact with many

peoples from around the world and this means that many new words entered the language. By

the beginning of the eighteenth century, period of late Modern English starts (Shay, 2008).

The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary.

Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the

Industrial Revolution and new technologies created a need for new words, especially

scientific vocabulary; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the

earth's surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many languages like

French, Italian, Dutch, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Persian, Chinese, Hungarian and others

(McIntyre, 2009).

Looking at these periods it is obvious that etymologically the vocabulary of the

English language is not homogeneous. It consists of the native and the borrowed word-stock.

In fact, there are more borrowed words than native ones. Native words make up only 30 % of

the total number of words in the English vocabulary (Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova

1985, 40). The languages whose big number of words English has borrowed are French,

19

Latin, Scandinavian, Greek and many other languages. As a result of these borrowings many

changes of meaning of English word-stock occurred. The process of semantic change is also

referred to as semantic shift and it is going to be discussed in the following section.

20

3. SEMANTIC CHANGE IN ENGLISH

3.1. The Concept of Semantic Change

Many approaches to semantics, the study of meaning, are introduced; for this reason in

the following paragraphs the attempt is made to present a traditional classification of kinds of

semantic changes and more recent tendencies in change of meaning.

In the course of time, changes in the meaning of a word occur and it is an unavoidable

and continuous process (Yu, Ren, 2003). Semantic change is a common phenomenon in all

the languages (e.g. Spanish estar ‘to be’ meant ‘to stand’; Finish raha ‘money- the only

meaning now’ used to mean ‘a fur-bearing animal’ etc.) (Campbell, 2004). In the course of

time, the meaning of many words has changed and the new meaning has been extended based

on the original meaning. As a result of semantic change, not only a new meaning is added to

the certain word, but the meaning also changes (Yu, Ren, 2003). Based on the latter, semantic

change can be explained as the process when the word loses its original meaning and a new or

modified meaning is endowed. The factors, such as the change of people’s living

environment, the society, the progress of technology may contribute to the semantic change

(Yu, Ren, 2003).

As noted by Hudson (2000):

“ ...it is rarely noticeable within one generation, but we are often aware that generations

before and after ours speak differently, preferring forms and rules different from those we

prefer and even having some different ones. Whenever a language at some point in time is

compared with its descendant language even a few hundred years later, the change is

obvious.”

From the latter it follows that the changes of meanings of words can be identified applying

comparative method where meanings or contexts of words in different periods of time are

compared.

The differentiation of synonyms is a result of the semantic change. This is a gradual

process, which is observed in the course of history of any language during which loan words are

very often conformed (Campbell, 2004). For instance, the words time and tide. These words used

to be synonyms; however, in course of time the meaning of tide narrowed to ‘periodically

shifting waters’, while time has a more general sense (Borkowska, Kleparski, 2007). Meaning

change is one of the most obvious facts about meaning of the words and no words are immune

from this process (Riemer, 2010). Thus, it can be concluded, that we live in a constantly

21

changing and fluctuating world and languages are not excluded from this process. Language

instability contributes to the expansion of the vocabulary stock and the modification of

meanings of individual lexical items (Yu, Ren, 2013).

3.2. Causes of Semantic Change

Some causes of semantic change might be distinguished and explained. The latter can

be divided into extra-linguistic and linguistic causes. Extra-linguistic causes refer to the

changes that happened as a result of external factors such as environment, social and historical

reasons (Yu, Ren, 2003). In other words, the latter supports the statement that all the languages

are affected by political, social, cultural, economic and technical change. Extra-linguistic

causes of semantic change are very much connected with the development of the human mind

as it shapes the new reality to satisfy its needs (Yu, Ren, 2003). On the other hand, semantic

causes might be linguistic, e.g. the conflict of synonyms when an exact synonym of a native

word is borrowed from the other language; as a result, one of them may specialize in its

specific meaning (Yu, Ren, 2003).

According to Meillet (1974), it is important to underline social and dialectical factors

in the process of meaning change (Riemer, 2010). The author claims that language is entirely

dependent on the social group, which uses the language for communication. Consequently,

there might be distinguished three causes of semantic change: changes due to historical

causes, changes due to linguistic causes and social stratification (Borkowska, Kleparski,

2007).

Ullmann (1957) introduced two major categories of causes of semantic change:

changes due to linguistic innovation and changes due to linguistic conservatism. Ullmann

(1957) claimed that the tendency is to preserve words in particular uses; meanwhile, the

things to which they refer change in the course of time.

3.3. Classifications of Semantic Change

The presence of many classifications of semantic changes is due to the fact that

different linguists putting their scientific investigations and interests on meaning changes

introduce their classifications based on different frames. Points of view regarding the

22

classification of the semantic changes are scattered through a number of linguistic works and a

joint theory have not been introduced and accepted yet.

Before classifications of meaning change will be overviewed, it is important to

mention the following:

• traditional classifications cannot be applied to all the changes;

• sometimes we can apply two or even more labels to a single change, depending on

which aspect of the change we choose to use as the basis of the classification (Yu,

Ren, 2003).

Some researchers of diachronic semantics employ sociological, axiological or logic

based standpoints; while others employ historical, linguistic or psychological standpoints in

formulation of classifications (Kleparski, 1997). Semantic changes have been looked at from

a variety of angles; however, the most complete classification was suggested by Herman Paul

in his work piece “Prinzipien des Sprachgeschichte”. This classification is based on the

logical principle (Kleparski, 1997). Herman Paul distinguishes two main ways:

1. gradual (specialization and generalization); two momentary conscious

semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy);

2. gradual (elevation/amelioration and degradation/pejoration); momentary

(hyperbole and litote) (Kleparski, 1997).

In the light of numerous standpoints regarding semantic change, the taxonomies that

may be said to have had the biggest impact on the study of historical semantic changes will be

overviewed in the following paragraphs.

The earliest studies of semantic change set up very broad categorization of semantic

changes. Breal (1897) in his work categorized semantic changes into weakening’ and

‘strengthening’ and these labels or categories of change are considered very vague (Riemer,

2010). The main four traditional categories of semantic change are specialization,

generalization, pejoration and amelioration (Riemer, 2010). For this reason this research is

based on these categories of semantic change.

According to Stern (1931), seven types of meaning change were distinguished, such as

substitution, analogy, shortening, nomination, regular transfer, permutation and adequation.

23

In addition, according to Ullmann (1957), a mutual relationship exists between a name and a

sense. The author states that:

“a semantic change will occur whenever a new name becomes attached to a sense and a new

sense to a name” (Ullmann, 1957).

Warren (1992) claims that in case a word is treated as a name and sense (content),

then either the name or the sense of the word can change.

Paul (1880) introduced logico-rhetorical classification of semantic change in his work

and it is one of the earliest attempts to classify historical semantic changes. Based on the

classification proposed by Paul (1880) the following changes of meaning can be

distinguished: widening, narrowing and transfer of meaning.

The process of widening of meaning, (also called broadening or generalization of

meaning), is the reason of the qualitative change of the English word stock. Rayevska (1979,

130) claims that this process is common within the words that have exact denotation (in other

words, specific or exact meaning); however, in the course of time the words loose their

denotative meaning and it extends or undergoes generalization. According to Riemer (2010)

in broadening the tendency is that words meaning changes so that it embraces a wider range

of referents. For example, the adverb very lost the connection with the original meaning

“cruelly” and was subjected to an extreme generalization of meaning (Riemer, 2010).

As noted by Rayevska (1979, 145-147), narrowing of meaning (also called

specialization) is defined as a process when words which regularly were used under one

conditions start to be used in a specific context. Such words attain a narrower meaning;

consequently, these words may be applied only in some of the contexts. According to Riemer

(2010) in narrowing of meaning a word narrows its range of reference; for example, the word

liquor used to refer to any liquid but nowadays it refers to a specific kind of alcohol.

The transfer of meaning is explained as a type of development of meaning (Rayevska,

1979). This process contributes to adoption of a new meaning. The feature of this process is

the connection of the new sense with the old sense of the word (Rayevska, 1979). Kiełtyka

(2006), Grygiel and Kleparski (2007) argue that two more types of semantic changes can be

distinguished: amelioration (elevation) and pejoration (degradation). According to

Rayevska (1979, 149), the process of amelioration takes place when word’s meaning changes

from a position of lower to higher significance. In the literature it is discussed that society is a

factor influencing acquisition of ameliorative or pejorative denotative meaning of words

24

(Riemer, 2010). All the societies change over the course of time, and the word stock, which

was unacceptable, may change its status and gain social favor.

Briefly speaking, the first traditional typology of semantic changes is the division into

changes, whose result is a more positive meaning known as amelioration and those which

give a more negative meaning known as pejoration (Yu, Ren, 2013). These semantic changes

are related to the change of word’s evaluative force. In case of amelioration, the word changes

so that the word is valued more positively (Riemer, 2010). In contrary, in pejoration a word

takes a derogatory meaning what means that the word is valued more negatively and even

insultingly (Riemer, 2010). The second traditional classification of changes in meaning is in

terms of whether it becomes broader or narrower (Yu, Ren, 2013). In linguistics and other

sciences, several different terms often mean the same due to the different naming by different

scientists. The development of meaning when the meaning changes from concrete to abstract

or from the specific to general is known as generalization, widening or broadening. In this

research the term ‘broadening’ is used. The opposite of generalization of meaning is

specialization (also known as narrowing) (Yu, Ren, 2013). Another dimension on which

certain semantic changes may be classified is whether they result from metaphor or

metonymy. In metaphorical changes of meaning, similarity between one concept and another

concept is perceived and the word for one concept is used to talk about another concept (Yu,

Ren, 2013). On the other hand, metonymy, like metaphor, involves some kind of connection

between concepts; thus in this case no similarity between the concepts exists, but they are

closely linked in the other way (for example, one is part of or contains the other) (Yu, Ren,

2013). In the light of this, the main purpose of this research is to delve into the question of the

following types of semantic changes of meaning known as pejoration, amelioration,

broadening and narrowing of meaning. This reason this research is based on these four

semantic change types because they are traditional categories of semantic change as stated by

Riemer (2010).

All in all, semantic change is a common phenomenon in the languages all around the

world (Yu, Ren, 2013). When a word loses its original meaning, and refers to other things,

this may lead to the semantic change (Yu, Ren, 2013). Even nowadays it is possible to track

semantic changes of words of modern English, which acquired new meanings that has been

extended based on the original meaning (Yu, Ren, 2013). Understanding the types and history

will help to understand how language behaves. Also, it is essential to mention that knowing

the changes of meaning the words underwent will not explain the reasons of the latter.

25

4. ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC CHANGE IN SYNONYMY

In order to achieve the aim of the research and to ensure the success, accuracy and

reliability of the research, the following procedures of the data collection and methods for

processing the data were used.

The analysis is based on the data extracted from Webster’s New Dictionary of

Synonymy (1984) and Online Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonymy. Some synonymic

groups were also taken from the Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus.

Mixed research data was chosen which means that the data present different parts of

speech such as nouns, verbs and adjectives. Only these parts of speech were chosen to be

analyzed as it is easier to track the development of their meaning. The research is based on 23

word groups (8 nouns, 8 verbs and 7 adjectives) which synonyms were taken from the

mentioned sources. The 23 headwords were chosen according to their frequency of

occurrence in the British National corpus. The research paper draws frequency data from

research-based project Word Frequencies in Written and Spoken English: based on the British

National Corpus by Geoffrey Leech, Paul Rayson and Andrew Wilson. The frequency data is

reliable as it is based on the British National Corpus and it is important to note that all

frequencies are per million words. This BNC project was carried out and is managed by an

industrial academic consortium lead by Oxford University Press, of which the other members

are major dictionary publishers Addison-Wesley Longman and Larousse Kingfisher

Chambers. Also, academic research centers at Oxford University Computing Services,

Lancaster University’s Centre for Computer Corpus Research on Language, and the British

Library’s Research and Innovation Centre contributed to this project, so these data can be

trusted. To draw far-reaching results of the origin of 23 synonymic groups, all in all 99 words

were chosen.

After 23 synonymic groups were chosen, lexical information was collected and

studied. Main sources of the data were Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonyms (1984),

Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Furthermore, the

etymological description of the selected synonymic groups was made with the help of Online

Etymology Dictionary.

In this paper different methods were applied for processing the data. The quantitative

method was used in order to investigate the most frequent patterns of semantic change in

synonymy and to establish relationships between semantic changes and such variables as parts

of speech, origin and the period of time. The quantitative calculations are followed by a

detailed qualitative analysis of the selected synonymic groups.

26

4.1. Quantitative analysis

In this section the quantitative analysis is presented. The origin of the selected words

(23 synonymic groups) was analyzed and semantic changes were identified.

The research is based on 23 word groups (8 nouns, 8 verbs, 7 adjectives) which were

drawn from research-based project Word Frequencies in Written and Spoken English: based

on the British National Corpus by Geoffrey Leech, Paul Rayson and Andrew Wilson. The

frequency of occurrence within noun, verb and adjective class in the whole corpus is provided

in Appendix 7. The synonyms of these headwords were taken from Webster’s New Dictionary

of Synonyms (1984) and Online Webster’s Dictionary of Synonyms.

The following chart (see Figure 1) reveals the origin of synonymy of the 23

headwords. It shows that 44% of the synonyms analyzed are of Latin origin; 36% of

Germanic origin which includes Anglo-Saxon, Middle Dutch, Old Norse languages; 9% of

Greek origin; 9% of French origin; 2% of unknown origin.

The findings of previous research revealed that the most frequently used words in

English are of Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) origin and the biggest part of them has synonyms of

Latin origin. Furthermore, the findings illustrated in the chart below show the distribution of

origin of words in English. In might be concluded that words of Latin (44% / 54 words) and

Germanic (36% / 44 words) origin prevail.

Figure 1. Origin of synonymy (122 words)

In this section, Hypothesis 1 and Hypothesis 2 were set. Then, the dependent variables

(broadening, narrowing, pejoration, amelioration, no change) and independent variables (parts

of speech and origins of words) were identified. Both the dependent and independent

Latin44%

Germanic36%

Greek9%

French9%

Unknown2%

27

variables are categorical so a chi-square test is appropriate and was applied to identify the

statistical significance of the findings.

Figure 2 shows that most of the words analyzed underwent broadening of meaning

(71%), 15% of words underwent narrowing of meaning, 9% of words had no change of

meaning, 3% of words underwent pejoration and only 2% of words underwent amelioration.

Figure 2. Semantic changes within synonymic groups

The following section provides an analysis of Hypothesis 1, which is the following:

Hypothesis 1: Semantic change in synonymy is related to the part of speech, which the word

represents.

Hypothesis 1a: Semantic change in synonymy is not related to the part of speech, which the

word represents.

In order to test Hypothesis 1, whether semantic change in synonymy is related to the

part of speech to which the word belongs to, types of changes, which occurred in synonymic

groups within noun, verb and adjective groups were identified. As Table 1 shows, in noun

Broadening71%

Narrowing15%

Pejoration3%

Amelioration2%

Nochange9%

28

group there were found 34 cases of broadening, 3 cases of narrowing, 3 cases of pejoration, 3

cases of no change and 0 cases amelioration. As for verb group: 21 word underwent

broadening of meaning, 12 cases of narrowing, 1 case of pejoration, 1 case of amelioration

and 4 cases of no change of meaning. In adjective group of synonymy 31 case of broadening,

3 cases of narrowing, of cases of pejoration, 2 cases of narrowing and 4 cases of no change of

meaning were found. The findings suggest that in most of the cases words undergo

broadening of meaning. Also, narrowing, pejoration and amelioration are not very frequent

changes; however, synonyms belonging to verb group underwent narrowing of meaning more

frequently (12 cases were identified while nouns and adjectives have only 3 cases of

narrowing of meaning). Furthermore, there is no significant difference in no change of

meaning of synonymy within the parts of speech. Out of 122 words 111 words experienced

particular changes of meaning and 11 words retained their original meanings. Summing up,

the findings suggest that words are more likely to change their meanings rather than stay

stable and preserve their original meanings.

Table 1. A table of observed values

Observed Broadening Narrowing Pejoration Amelioration No

change Total

Nouns 34 3 3 0 3 43

Verbs 21 12 1 1 4 39

Adjectives 31 3 0 2 4 40

Total 86 18 4 3 11 122

In order to test hypothesis 1, firstly, observed values were identified (see Table 1),

then expected counts were computed for each category, assuming that the null hypothesis is

true (see Table 2). Thirdly, the requirements for the goodness-of-fit were tested (all expected

counts are bigger than or equal to 1). Furthermore, the critical values and the critical region

were determined (degree of freedom) (see Table 3). Then, the test statistics was computed

according to the formula presented below:

29

Table 2. A table of expected values

Table 3 shows the results of the computation of observed and expected values. Chi-

square total (x2) equals 17.6. In order to determine p-value degree of freedom (df) was

identified according to the following formula: df= (# of chart rows -1) x (#of chart columns -

1). Accordingly, degree of freedom equals 8 (df= (3-1) x (5-1) = 2 x 4 = 8). After chi-square

value and degree of freedom were identified chi-square significance chart (see Appendix 1)

was consulted to determine whether the chi-square statistics obtained is significant at the

p≤0.05 (p≤0.05 stands for the standard p-value required in the humanities and social

sciences). With our chi-square value of 17.6 we go above and beyond this requirement, and

thus statistically significant findings can be claimed. P-Value is 0,024434 so the result is

significant at p≤0,05. The latter findings mean that there is quantitative support for the

experimental hypothesis (Hypothesis 1) that the part of speech, which the word represents,

affects semantic change in synonymy.

Expected Broadening Narrowing Pejoration Ameliorati

on No change Total

Nouns (43x86)/122=

30.3

(43x18)/122=

6.3

(43x4)/122=

1.4

(43x3)/122

=1.1

(43x11)/122=

3.9 43

Verbs (39x86)/122=

27.5

(39x18)/122=

5.8

(39x4)/122=

1.3

(39x3)/122

=1

(39x11)/122=

3.5 39

Adjective

s

(40x86)/122=

28.2

(40x18)/122=

5.9

(40x4)/122=

1.3

(40x3)/122

=1

(40x11)/122=

3.6 40

Total 86 18 4 3 11 122

30

Table 3. Critical values

Category (Obs - Exp)2 Exp

Nouns 5.3

Verbs 8.3

Adjectives 4

Total 17.6

The following section provides an analysis of observed semantic changes within

synonymy in regard to its origin and the analysis of Hypothesis 2, which is the following:

Hypothesis 2: Semantic change in synonymy is related to the origin of the word.

Hypothesis 2a: Semantic change in synonymy is not related to the origin of the word.

In order to test Hypothesis 2, whether semantic change in synonymy is related to the

origin of the word, there were identified types of changes, which occurred in synonymic

groups whose origin is the following: Latin (54 words), Germanic (44 words), French (11

words), Greek (11 words) and Unknown (2 words).

As Table 4 shows and supports statements mentioned in previous paragraphs,

semantic change such as broadening is the most common. The results reveal (see Table 4) that

out of 54 words of Latin origin - 39 words underwent broadening of meaning; the same result

is of the words of Germanic origin where out of 44 words - 29 words underwent broadening

of meaning (the proportion is the same). However, differences in change of meaning of the

rest of words exist. The words of Germanic origin more often undergo narrowing of meaning

(8 words) while words of Latin origin have only 6 cases of narrowing. Also, it is essential to

mention that meaning of Latin words is more stable in comparison to words of Germanic,

Greek, French and unknown origin as there were found 6 words that haven’t changed their

meaning in the course of time; then 3 words haven’t changed their meaning in Germanic

words; and only 1 word of French and Greek origin hasn’t changed its meaning. Finally, the

words of unknown origin underwent broadening and narrowing only.

31

Table 4. A table of observed values

Observed Broadening Narrowing Pejoration Amelioration No

change

Total

Latin 39 6 1 2 6 54

Germanic 29 8 3 1 3 44

Greek 9 1 0 0 1 11

French 8 2 0 0 1 11

Unknown 1 1 0 0 0 2

Total 86 18 4 3 11 122

Also, Table 4 illustrates the most frequently occurring semantic changes within words

of Latin, Germanic, Greek, French and unknown origin. The findings suggest that the most

common semantic change is broadening of meaning (86 words out of 122); as the second

most common semantic change is narrowing of meaning (18 words out of 122); third most

common is no change of meaning (11 words out of 122); then goes pejoration (4 words out of

122) and the least frequent semantic change is amelioration (3 words out of 122).

Further more, after the distribution of semantic changes in words of such origin as

Latin, Germanic, Greek, French and unknown was identified (Table 4). In order to test

Hypothesis 2, expected counts were computed for each category, assuming that the null

hypothesis is true (see Table 5). Then, the requirements for the goodness-of-fit were tested;

however, not all expected counts are bigger than or equal to 1, for this reason the results

might be not exact (despite the fact that there are more than 100 words analyzed) as there was

not enough number of words representing semantic changes as pejoration and amelioration.

Furthermore, the critical values and the critical region were determined (degree of freedom)

(see Table 6). Then, the test statistics was computed according to the formula presented

below:

32

Table 5. A table of expected values

Expecte

d

Broadening Narrowing Pejoration Ameliorati

on

No change Tot

al

Latin (54x86)/122=

38.1

(54x18)/122

=8.0

(54x4)/122=

1.8

(54x3)/122=

1.3

(54x11)/122

=4.9

54

Germa

nic

(44x86)/122=

31.0

(44x18)/122

=6.5

(44x4)/122=

1.4

(44x3)/122=

1.1

(44x11)/122

=4.0

44

Greek (11x86)/122=

7.8

(11x18)/122

=1.6

(11x4)/122=

0.4

(11x3)/122=

0.3

(11x11)/122

=1.0

11

French (11x86)/122=

7.8

(11x18)/122

=1.6

(11x4)/122=

0.4

(11x3)/122=

0.3

(11x11)/122

=1.0

11

Unkno

wn

(2x86)/122=1.

4

(2x18)/122=

0.3

(2x4)/122=0

.1

(2x3)/122=0

.4

(2x11)/122=

0.2

2

Total 86 18 4 3 11 122

Table 6 shows the results of the computation of observed and expected values. Chi-

square total (x2) equals 8.3. In order to determine p-value degree of freedom (df) was

identified according to the following formula: df= (# of chart rows -1) x (#of chart columns -

1). Accordingly, degree of freedom equals 16 (df= (5-1) x (5-1) = 4 x 4 = 16). After chi-

square value and degree of freedom were identified, chi-square significance chart (see

Appendix 1) was consulted to determine whether the chi-square statistics obtained is

significant at the p≤0.05 (p≤0.05 stands for the standard p-value required in the humanities

and social sciences). With the chi-square value of 8.3 we go below the requirement, and thus

statistically not significant findings can be claimed. P-Value is 0,939429 so the result is not

significant at p≤0,05. The latter findings mean that there is no quantitative support for the

experimental hypothesis (Hypothesis 2) that the origin affects semantic change in synonymy.

33

Table 6. Critical values

Category (Obs - Exp)2 Exp

Latin 1.5

Germanic 2.5

Greek 1.1

French 0.8

Unknown 2.4

Total 8.3

As far as the findings of the statistical analysis regarding Hypothesis 2 were not

significant and it might have happened because of not enough number of words representing

semantic changes as pejoration and amelioration; ANOVA test was chosen to additionally test

and compare words of such origin as Latin, Germanic, Greek, French, Unknown in regard to

the semantic changes they undergone as this method is used to determine whether there are

any significant differences between the means of two or more independent groups (in this

case origin).

In order to obtain appropriate test statistic the degree of freedom (df), mean and

standard deviation and other necessary calculations were calculated (see Table 7, Table 8).

Firstly, to count the mean, the simple average of the numbers was calculated. Secondly, to

count all the rest of calculations there were applied formulas presented in Appendix 2.

Table 7. Descriptives

Group N (Number of

subjects) Mean Standard Deviation

Latin 54 10.8 15.9279

Germanic 44 8.8 11.5844

Greek 11 2.2 3.8340

French 11 2.2 3.3466

Unknown 2 0.4 0.5477

34

The table below (Table 8) presents the output of the ANOVA analysis and whether

there is a statistically significant difference between semantic changes in words representing

origins such as Latin, Germanic, Greek, French and unknown. As Table 8 shows, the

significance level is 0.108 (p=0.108), which is above 0.05; therefore, there is no statistically

significant difference in undergone semantic changes of words belonging to different origin.

Table 8. ANOVA test results

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups

Within Groups

Total

1,291.538

19,475.815

20,767.353

4

117

121

322.885

166.460 1.940 0.108

In previous chapters it was proved with the help of statistical methods like Chi-Square

and ANOVA that the findings of the statistical analysis regarding Hypothesis 2 were not

significant. As far as one of the theories of these results is the possibility of not enough

number of cases of semantic changes such as pejoration and amelioration, consequently,

categories of origin were reconsidered (categorized into Germanic and Non-Germanic) what

increased the number of cases in each category of semantic changes. Furthermore, Hypothesis

3 was raised and Chi-Square test was applied to test it:

Hypothesis 3: Semantic change in synonymy is related to Germanic or Non-Germanic

origin of the word.

Hypothesis 3a: Semantic change in synonymy is not related to Germanic or Non-

Germanic origin of the word.

Furthermore, after the distribution of semantic changes in words of such origin as

Germanic and Non-Germanic was identified (Table 9). In order to test Hypothesis 3, expected

counts were computed for each category, assuming that the null hypothesis is true (see Table

10). Then, the requirements for the goodness-of-fit were tested; all expected counts are bigger

than or equal to 1, for this reason the results are reliable. Furthermore, the critical values and

the critical region were determined (degree of freedom) (see Table 11). Then, the test

statistics was computed according to the formula presented below:

35

Table 9. Table of observed values

Observed Broadening Narrowing Pejoration Amelioration No

change

Total

Germanic 29 8 3 1 3 44

Non-

Germanic

57 10 1 2 8 78

Total 86 18 4 3 11 122

Table 10 shows the results of the computation of observed and expected values. Chi-

square total (x2) equals 3.9. In order to determine p-value degree of freedom (df) was

identified according to the following formula: df= (# of chart rows -1) x (#of chart columns -

1). Accordingly, degree of freedom equals 4 (df= (2-1) x (5-1) = 1 x 4 = 4). After chi-square

value and degree of freedom were identified, chi-square significance chart (see Appendix 1)

was consulted to determine whether the chi-square statistics obtained is significant at the

p≤0.05 (p≤0.05 stands for the standard p-value required in the humanities and social

sciences).

Table 10. Table of expected values

Expecte

d Broadening Narrowing Pejoration

Amelioratio

n No change

Tot

al

German

ic

(44x86)/122

=31

(44x18)/122=6

.5

(44x4)/122=

1.4

(44x3)/122=

1.1

(44x11)/122

=4 44

Non-

German

ic

(78x86)/122

=55

(79x18)/122=1

1.7

(78x4)/122=

2.6

(78x3)/122=

1.9

(78x11)/122

=7 78

Total 86 18 4 3 11 122

36

Since the P-value (0.419709) is less than the significance level (0.05), the null

hypothesis or so called Hypothesis 3a cannot be rejected. Thus, it can be concluded that no

relationship exists between semantic changes and words belonging to Germanic and Non-

Germanic origin group.

Table 11. Critical values

Category (Obs - Exp)2 Exp

Germanic 2.45

Non-Germanic 1.4

Total 3.85~3.9

In the following section, Hypothesis 4 was set. Then, the dependent variables

(broadening, narrowing, pejoration, amelioration, no change) and independent variables (the

period of time: Old English, Middle English, Modern English) were identified. Both the

dependent and independent variables are categorical so ANOVA test is appropriate and was

applied to identify the statistical significance of the findings and differences of distribution of

changes within three periods of time.

The chart below (see Figure 3) illustrates the period of time when the words analyzed

started functioning in the English language. According to the chart, 23% of words (28 words)

came to English in the period of Old English; 25% (31 word) of words started functioning in

the English language in the period of Modern English and 52% of words (63 words) started

functioning in the English language in the period of Middle English. Based on the results

presented, it can be stated that a considerable number of words, more than a half, was

borrowed to English during the period of Middle English.

37

Figure 3. The period of time

Hypothesis 4: The semantic change in synonymy is related to the period of time when

the word started functioning in English Language.

Hypothesis 4: The semantic change in synonymy is not related to the period of time

when the word started functioning in English Language.

ANOVA test was chosen to test and compare words of such origin as Latin, Germanic,

Greek, French, Unknown in regard to the semantic changes they undergone and the period of

time when they started functioning in English language (Old English, Middle English,

Modern English) as this method is used to determine whether there are any significant

differences between the means of two or more independent groups (in this case the period of

time is considered).

In order to obtain appropriate test statistic the degree of freedom (df), mean and

standard deviation and other necessary calculations were calculated (see Table 12, Table 13).

Firstly, to count the mean, the simple average of the numbers was calculated. Secondly, to

count all the rest of calculations there were applied formulas presented in Appendix 2.

OldEnglish23%

MiddleEnglish52%

ModernEnglish25%

38

Table 12. Descriptives

The table below (see Table 13) presents the output of the ANOVA analysis and

whether there is a statistically significant difference between semantic changes in words

which started to function in English language in different period of time. As Table 13 shows,

the significance level is 0.025 (p=0.025), which is below 0.05; therefore, there is statistically

significant difference in undergone semantic changes of words and period of time (Old

English, Middle English, Modern English) when they started to function in English language.

Table 13. ANOVA test results

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups

Within Groups

Total

1,448.995

22,733.648

24,182.643

2

119

121

724.498

191.039

3.792 0.025

The data collected showed that the prevailing type of semantic change is broadening.

Moreover, the words that started functioning in the period of Middle English underwent the

biggest number and variety of changes of meaning.

Group N (Number of

subjects)

Mean Standard Deviation

Old English 28 5.6 10.35857

Middle English 63 12.6 17.28583

Modern English 31 5.8 6.6106

39

4.2. Qualitative analysis

In this section, a qualitative analysis of synonymic groups is carried out. Due to the

special limitations of this type of work and the previously conducted research by Puncevič

(2014) there are selected different aspects to be analyzed.

As far as in the previous research the origin and historical development of meaning of

7 randomly chosen words was analyzed; it would be valuable to reveal whether type of

semantic change depends of the time when the word came into the English language.

Consequently, in order to investigate this statement synonymic groups that undergone the

biggest variety of semantic changes are analyzed in the following chapters.

4.2.1. Semantic changes of OFFER, READ and their synonyms

The verb OFFER means to give someone the opportunity to accept or take something;

to say that you are willing to do sth; or, to make something available: to provide or supply

something (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The word has its roots in Latin language.

Latin offerre had the following meaning: "to present, bestow, bring before" (in Late Latin "to

present in worship"), The Latin word was borrowed by Germanic languages: Old Frisian offria,

Middle Dutch offeren, Old Norse offra. Its equivalent in Old English was ofrian, which had the

meaning "to offer, show, exhibit, sacrifice, bring an oblation" (Online Etymology Dictionary).

Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development, the headword underwent the broadening

of meaning.

The synonyms of OFFER: tender, proffer, present and give are comparable when they

mean to offer. The verb tender, stresses formality if the act of offering; often, it means “to

present for acceptance’, or “to offer in payment” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). Tender

is derived from Middle French word tender, which in 11th century meant "to offer, hold forth".

However, the word originated from Latin tendere, which meant "to stretch, extend". The first

known use of the word was registered in 1540s and the meaning of the word was "to offer

formally" (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its

development, the word underwent the narrowing of meaning.

The verb proffer, carries the meaning very close to the one of the head word. Proffer

means “to offer or give (something) to somebody or to present for acceptance (Merriam-

Webster Online Dictionary). The verb proffer was derived to English in late 13th century with

40

a meaning: "to offer" from Anglo-French profrier. The verb has its roots in Latin offerre

carrying the meaning "to offer" (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of

meaning and its development, the word underwent the amelioration of meaning.

The verb present, carries the meaning “to give something to someone in a formal way

or in a ceremony or to make (something) available to be used or considered (Merriam-Webster

Online Dictionary). The verb was borrowed from Old French presenter and meant "to make a

formal presentation of; give as a gift or award; bestow". In 1300s the meaning "to introduce

(someone or something) formally or ceremonially" came into the language. Also from late 14

century the verb gained the meanings such as " to exhibit (something), offer for inspection,

display"; also, in law context the meaning broadened to "to make a formal complaint or charge

of wrongdoing" (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its

development, the word underwent the broadening of meaning.

The verb give, often means “to offer to the action of another”. The verb possesses a

big range of meanings (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The verb give, is derived from

Proto-Germanic geban (its cognates in other Germanic languages are the following: Old Frisian

jeva, Middle Dutch gheven, Dutch geven, Old High German geban, German geben, Gothic

giban), and it meant "to take, hold, have, give". In course of time the verb transformed into

yiven in Middle English, but changed to guttural "g" by influence of Old Norse gefa which

meant "to give". Old English equivalent for the verb give - giefan (West Saxon) meant "to

give, bestow, deliver to another; allot, grant; commit, devote, entrust" (Online Etymology

Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development, the headword underwent

the broadening of meaning.

The verb READ means to look at and understand the meaning of letters, words,

symbols etc.; or to read the words of the book, magazine etc; and to speak aloud the words of

something written (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The verb read is derived from Proto-

Germanic redan (the words cognates in Old Norse was raða, Old Frisian reda, Dutch raden,

Old High German ratan, German raten) and meant "to advise, counsel, guess". It is important

to mention that words from this root in most modern Germanic languages still have the

meaning "to counsel, advise". Old English equivalent for read - rædan (West Saxon), redan

41

(Anglian) meant "to advise, counsel, persuade; discuss, deliberate; rule, guide; arrange, equip;

forebode; read, explain; learn by reading; put in order". The transference to "understand the

meaning of written symbols" is unique to Old English and (perhaps under English influence) to

Old Norse raða. Most languages use a word rooted in the idea of "gather up" as their word for

"read" (such as French lire, from Latin legere) (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the

aspect of meaning and its development, the headword underwent the narrowing of meaning.

The synonyms of the verb READ: scan, skim and peruse are compatible when they

mean to look at, look over or read (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The verb scan

stresses quick reading process (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The verb scan originates

from Late Latin scandere which meant "to scan verse" and originally, in classical Latin the

meaning was "to climb, rise, mount". In late 14 century the meaning "to mark off verse in

metric feet" was recorded. Sense of "look at closely, examine minutely (as one does when

counting metrical feet in poetry)" was recorded for the first time in 1540s. While, the sense of

"look over quickly, skim" is attested for the first time in 1926 (Online Etymology Dictionary).

Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development, the word scan underwent the narrowing

of meaning.

The verb skim carries the meaning “to look over or read something very quickly so

that to find the main ideas” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The verb skim has its roots

in Germanic source (Old High German scum). In early 15 century the meaning "to clear (a

liquid) from matter floating on the surface, lift the scum from" was recorded which was

borrowed from Old French escumer, which meant "remove scum". The meaning "to throw (a

stone) so as to skip across the surface of (water) is from 1610s; while, the meaning "to move

lightly and rapidly over the surface of" is from 1650s. Finally, the meaning "to glance over

carelessly" was recorded in 1799 (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of

meaning and its development, the word underwent the broadening of meaning.

The verb peruse, carries the meaning “to read something in an informal or relaxed way

or to examine or read something in a very careful way” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary).

Peruse is from Middle English (per- meant "completely" + use). The meaning "to read

carefully" is first recorded in 1530s, but this could be a separate formation. The meaning "read

casually" is from 19th century (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of

meaning and its development, the word underwent the narrowing of meaning.

42

4.2.2. Semantic changes of LARGE, GREAT and their synonyms

The adjective LARGE has its roots in Latin. Latin equivalent for large- largus meant

"abundant, copious, plentiful; bountiful, liberal in giving". The word was borrowed from Old

French large which carried the meaning "broad, wide; generous, bounteous" and borrowed the

meaning "great in expanse". The main modern meanings such as "extensive; big in overall

size" emerged only in 14th century. An older sense of "liberated, free from restraining

influence" is still preserved in at large (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect

of meaning and its development, the headword underwent the broadening of meaning.

The synonyms of the adjective LARGE: big and great are comparable as all of them

have a meaning of “large in size”. Large means “great in size or amount or not limited in

importance, range etc.”; while, the adjective big means “large in size; large in number or

amount; or, involving many people or things”. Big has obscure origin probably Germanic (Old

Norse – bugge meant “great man”). The adjective emerged in northern Englands dialect in

1300s and meant "powerful, strong". Moreover, in Old English there was used a word micel

which was used in many of the same senses. The meaning that of "of great size" is from late

14th century; while, the meaning of "grown up" is attested from 1550s. Finally, the sense of

"important" is from 1570s (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning

and its development, the word big underwent the broadening of meaning.

The adjective great, carries the meaning “ notably large in size” or “large in number or

measure” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). Great was derived from West Germanic

grautaz which meant "coarse, thick" (the cognates of the word are the following: Old Saxon

grot, Old Frisian grat, Dutch groot, German groß and the ment "great"). In Old English great

carried the meaning "big, tall, thick, stout, massive; coarse". It took over much of the sense of

Middle English mickle, and itself now is largely superseded by big and large (except in

reference to non-material things). Also formerly with a verb form, Old English greatian meant

"to become enlarged," in Middle English greaten meant "to become larger, increase, grow;

become visibly pregnant," which became archaic after 17th century (Online Etymology

Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development, the word great underwent

the process of amelioration of meaning.

The adjective GREAT has roots in Old High German. Formerly, the verb form in Old

English greatian meant "to become enlarged" and in Middle English greaten meant "to become

larger, increase, grow; become visibly pregnant" which became archaic after 17th century. In

the sense of "excellent, wonderful" great is attested from 1848. Throughout the history the

43

usage of the adjective broadened and it was used as Great White Way "Broadway in New York

City" from 1901, in reference to brilliant street illumination. Then the Great Lakes of North

America were so called from 1747 (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of

meaning and its development, the headword underwent the broadening of meaning.

The synonyms of the adjective GREAT: cool, fantastic, fabulous, terrific and briliant

are comparable as all of them have a meaning of “very good”. The adjective great has additional

meanings such as notably large in size; large in number or measure, predominant; markedly

superior in character or quality (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary).

The synonym of the headword cool, has its main meaning moderately cold and

informal meaning (slang) is very good, excellent, fashionable or hip (Merriam-Webster Online

Dictionary). The adjective cool is originated from Proto-Germanic koluz and its cognates in

Middle Dutch coel, Dutch koel, Old High German kuoli, German kühl meant "cool"; in Old

Norse kala meant "be cold". Old English col had the meaning "not warm" (not as severe as

cold); moreover, when speaking about persons it had the meaning "unperturbed,

undemonstrative". Since 1728 the word was applied to large sums of money to give emphasis

to amount; while, the meaning "calmly audacious" is from 1825. As far as slang meaning is

concerned and which is synonymous to the headwords of this synonymic group, it is from 1933

(originally African-American vernacular). The very modern use as a general term of approval

is from late 1940s, probably from bop talk and originally in reference to a style of jazz. It is

said to have been popularized in jazz circles by tenor saxophonist Lester Young (Online

Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development, the word cool

underwent the broadening of meaning.

The adjective fantastic carries the meaning extremely good; very strange, unusual on

unlikely; extremely high or great (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). Fantastic originated

from Late Latin phantasticus, which meant "imaginary" and even earlier from Greek

phantastikos which carried the meaning of " being able to imagine" and was derived from

phantazein having the meaning " to make visible" (Online Etymology Dictionary). The

meaning "existing only in imagination" is recorded in English in late 14th century and was

borrowed from Middle French fantastique. The meaning of "wonderful, marvelous" was

recorded in 1938. In addition, in Medieval Latin the word was also used as a noun and meant "a

lunatic"; while, Shakespeare and his contemporaries had it in Italian form fantastico "one who

acts ridiculously" (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its

development, the word fantastic underwent the broadening of meaning.

44

The adjective fabulous carries the meaning very good; very large in amount or size;

not real/told about in a story (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The adjective fabulous has

Latin roots. Latin word fabulosus an equivalent for fabulous meant "celebrated in fable"; also,

it had the meaning "rich in myths" and was derived from a noun fabula carrying the meaning

"story, tale" (Online Etymology Dictionary). The meaning was broadened widely as for

instance the meaning "mythical, legendary" appeared in English in early 15th century.

Furthermore, the meaning "pertaining to fable" is present in English from 1550s. Also, the

sense of "incredible" was first recorded in 16th century; hence, "enormous, immense, amazing"

was trivialized in 1950s to "marvelous, terrific" (Online Etymology Dictionary). In addition,

fabulous and fantastic are also used by the youth to express high commendation (it is a modern

usage)(Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development,

the word fabulous underwent the broadening of meaning.

The adjective terrific carries the meaning extremely good; or causing a feeling of

surprise or wonder (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). Terrific has Latin roots. Latin

equivalent terrificus meant "causing terror or fear, frightful" and was derived from the verb

terrere "fill with fear" (Online Etymology Dictionary). The meaning "frightening" was

recorded in 1660s; while another meaning of "very great, severe" appeared in 1809. As far as

the sense of "excellent" is concerned, this colloquial meaning appeared in 1888 only (Online

Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development, the word

terrific underwent the process of amelioration of meaning.

The adjective brilliant carries the meaning very bright; very impressive or successful;

extremely intelligent and in British English there is a meaning very good/excellent (Merriam-

Webster Online Dictionary). Brilliant is originated from Latin beryllus which meant "beryl,

precious stone"; or perhaps from Vulgar Latin word berillare that meant "to shine like a beryl".

The adjective was borrowed to English from French brilliant, which meant "sparkling, shining"

in 1680s (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its

development, the word brilliant underwent the process of broadening of meaning.

45

4.2.3. Semantic changes of WORLD, TIME and their synonyms

The noun WORLD is has its Proto-Germanic roots. In Old English the equivalent of

the term world - woruld, worold meant "human existence, the affairs of life", "a long period of

time" as well as "the human race, mankind, humanity" (Online Etymology Dictionary). This

word was peculiar to Germanic languages. Its cognates in other languages were: in Old Saxon

werold, in Old Frisian warld, in Dutch wereld, in Old Norse verold, in Old High German

weralt and in German Welt (Online Etymology Dictionary). The literal meaning of these words

was "age of a man" (Online Etymology Dictionary). Later, the meaning "life on earth, this

world " extended to "the known world" and in 1200 it extended to "the physical world in the

broadest sense, the universe" (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning

and its development, the headword underwent the broadening of meaning.

The synonyms of the noun WORLD: earth, macrocosm, universe and cosmos are

comparable as all of them have a meaning of “a system of created things”. The noun world has

additional meanings such as ‘the earthly state of human existence’, ‘the earth with its

inhabitants and all things upon it’, ‘the earth with its inhabitants and all things upon it’ etc

(Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary).

The noun earth carries the meaning of ‘the planet on which we live’, ‘land as opposed

to the sea, the air etc.’ or ‘the material in which plants grow’ (Merriam-Webster Online

Dictionary). The noun earth has Proto-Germanic roots and its Old English equivalent is eorþe,

which meant "ground, soil, dirt, dry land; country, district" (Online Etymology Dictionary).

Moreover, this noun was used along with middangeard for "the (material) world, the abode of

man" opposed to the heavens or the underworld (Online Etymology Dictionary). The noun’s

cognates are: Old Frisian erthe which meant "earth", Old Saxon ertha, Old Norse jörð, Middle

Dutch eerde, Dutch aarde, Old High German erda, German Erde, Gothic airþa, which meant

"earth, ground" (Online Etymology Dictionary). The meaning, where the earth started being

understood as ‘a planet’, is from 1400 (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of

meaning and its development, the word earth underwent the broadening of meaning.

The noun macrocosm carries the meaning of ‘ a large system (such as the entore

universe) that contains many smaller systems’ (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The noun

macrocosm is originated from Greek (Online Etymology Dictionary). From Greek the noun

was borrowed to Latin and from Medieval Latin it was borrowed to Old French macrocosme in

46

1300 (Online Etymology Dictionary). The first known use of the noun in English was found in

1600 with the meaning: "the great world - the universe” (Online Etymology Dictionary).

Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development, the word macrocosm underwent no

changes of meaning.

The noun universe carries the meaning of ‘all of space and everything in it including

stars, planets, galaxies, etc.’, ‘an area of space or a world that is similar to but separate from the

one that we live in’ and a more broad meaning of ‘the people, places, experiences, etc., that are

associated with a particular person, place, or thing’ (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The

noun has its Latin roots. Latin equivalent of the noun universum meant "all things, everybody,

all people, the whole world"; moreover, noun use of neuter of adjective universus meant "all

together, all in one, whole, entire, relating to all" (Online Etymology Dictionary). The noun

was borrowed directly from Old French univers in 1200 and in English was recorded in 1580s

with the meaning "the whole world, cosmos, the totality of existing things" (Online Etymology

Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development, the word universe

underwent the broadening of meaning.

The noun cosmos carries the meaning of ‘the universe especially when it is understood

as an ordered system’ (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The noun cosmos has Greek

roots. Greek kosmos meant "order, good order, orderly arrangement"; also, the word had other

main meanings such as: the verb kosmein meant "to dispose, prepare" but especially "to order

and arrange (troops for battle), to set (an army) in array", "to establish (a government or

regime)" and "to deck, adorn, equip, dress (especially of women) (Online Etymology

Dictionary). Furthermore, the noun kosmos had an essential secondary meaning of "ornaments

of a woman's dress, decoration" (Online Etymology Dictionary). The noun is thought to be

firstly applied time by Pythagoras in the sense "the universe". The very first known use of the

noun in the English language is dated in 1596 (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the

aspect of meaning and its development, the word cosmos underwent the process of narrowing

of meaning.

The noun TIME is has its Proto-Germanic roots. The equivalent of the noun time in

Old English was tima, which meant "limited space of time" (Online Etymology Dictionary).

The cognates of the noun were the following: Old Norse timi, which meant "time, proper time"

47

and Swedish time meant "an hour” (Online Etymology Dictionary). The broad meaning of

"time as an indefinite continuous duration" is recorded from late 14th century (Online

Etymology Dictionary). On the other hand, extended meanings of the word such as "occasion",

"the right time", "leisure" or times (as a verb) "multiplied by" developed in Old English and

Middle English (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its

development, the headword underwent the process of broadening of meaning.

The synonyms of the noun TIME: opportunity, occasion, chance and break are

comparable as all of them have a meaning of “a particular measurable period” (Merriam-

Webster Online Dictionary). The noun time has numerous additional meanings such ‘the thing

that is measured as seconds, minutes, hours, days, years, etc.’, ‘a particular minute or hour

shown by a clock’, ‘the time in a particular area or part of the world’ etc. (Merriam-Webster

Online Dictionary).

The noun opportunity carries the meaning ‘an amount of time or a situation in which

something can be done’ (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The noun opportunity has

Latin roots. The noun was borrowed to the English language in 14th century from Old French

opportunite, which was earlier borrowed directly from Latin opportunitatem, which meant

"fitness, convenience, suitableness, favorable time" (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at

the aspect of meaning and its development, the word opportunity underwent no change of

meaning and preserved its original meaning.

The noun occasion carries the meaning of ‘a special event or time’; also ‘a particular

time when something happens’ or ‘a chance or opportunity: a situation that allows something to

happen’ (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The noun occasion has Latin roots. Latin

occasionem carried the meaning of "opportunity, appropriate time" and in Late Latin it meant

"cause" (Online Etymology Dictionary). The sense of "opportunity; grounds for action, state of

affairs that makes something else possible; a happening, occurrence" was recorded in English

in late 14th century and was derived from Old French ochaison, ocasion meaning "cause,

reason, excuse, pretext; opportunity" (Online Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of

meaning and its development, the word occasion underwent the process of broadening of

meaning.

The noun chance carries the meaning of ‘an opportunity to do something: an amount

of time or a situation in which something can be done’ or ‘the possibility that something will

48

happen’ (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The noun chance has Latin roots. In Vulgar

Latin the word cadentia (adjective) had the meaning of "that falls out" and the term was used in

dice (Online Etymology Dictionary). The word was derived from the present participle of

cadere, which meant - "to fall" (Online Etymology Dictionary). The word appeared in the

English language in 1300 with the meaning of "something that takes place, what happens, an

occurrence" (Online Etymology Dictionary). The noun was borrowed from Old French

cheance, which meant "accident, chance, fortune, luck, situation, the falling of dice" (Online

Etymology Dictionary). In English the word's such notions as: "opportunity" and "randomness"

are very old but more popular than the word's original notion of "mere occurrence" (Online

Etymology Dictionary). Looking at the aspect of meaning and its development, the word

chance underwent the process of broadening of meaning.

The noun break carries the meaning of ‘a period of time when an activity stops’ or ‘an

accidental event’ etc. (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary). The noun break is originated

from Proto-Germanic. Originally, the term belonged to other part of speech – a verb. It’s Old

English equivalent brecan had the meaning "to break, shatter, burst; injure, violate, destroy,

curtail; break into, rush into; burst forth, spring out; subdue, tame" (Online Etymology

Dictionary). The term’s cognates: Old Frisian breka, Dutch breken, Old High German brehhan,

German brechen, Gothic brikan, had the meaning "to break" and new meanings appeared in the

period of Old English (Online Etymology Dictionary). As a noun (with the meaning of "act of

breaking,") the word appeared in English in 1300 and it was derived from the verb break. The

meaning of "short interval between spells of work" (originally between lessons at school) is

from 1861 (Online Etymology Dictionary). By 1911, the meaning of "stroke of luck" was

attested. Then in 1914, the meaning "stroke of mercy" was attested; moreover, musical

meaning "improvised passage, solo" is attested from 1920s (Online Etymology Dictionary). As

far as the aspect of meaning and its development are concerned, the word break underwent the

broadening of meaning.

4.2.4. Patterns of formation of meaning

In the following section, an attempt is made to establish the patterns of formation of

meaning within synonymic groups. In addition, the results of the previous research on

patterns of formation of synonyms were used to reveal the processes happening in the

language.

49

The table below (see Table 14) presents the distribution of semantic changes such as

broadening of meaning, narrowing of meaning, amelioration, pejoration and no change within

the period of time when the words started functioning in the English language.

Table 14. Distribution of semantic changes in Old, Middle and Modern English

Broadening Narrowing Amelioration Pejoration No

change

Period of

time

Number of

changes

24 3 1 0 0 Old

English

28

43 9 1 3 7 Middle

English

63

17 6 1 1 4 Modern

English

31

As the table above shows (see Table 14), broadening is the most prevailing semantic

change and it supports previously found finding. In addition, the total number of semantic

changes was counted in each period of time. It was revealed that in regard to the period of

time (Old English, Middle English, Modern English), it could be stated that words in the

period of Middle English underwent the biggest variety of changes compared to Old English

and Modern English words. In the period of Middle English the prevailing semantic change is

broadening of meaning (43 words); 9 words underwent the process of narrowing of meaning;

the third most common semantic change is no change of meaning (7 words preserved their

meaning); pejoration was identified in 3 words and 1 case of amelioration was found. As far

as Modern English is concerned, the prevailing semantic change is broadening of meaning (17

words); 6 words underwent the process of narrowing of meaning; the third most common

semantic change is no change of meaning (4 words preserved their meaning); pejoration and

amelioration were identified in 1 word each. In the case of the words that started functioning

in the period of Old English, the results show that broadening of meaning is as well the most

common semantic change (24 words); 3 words underwent the process of narrowing of

meaning; the third most common semantic change is amelioration (1 word); while no cases of

pejoration or no change were found). Summing up, the most common semantic change in

each period is broadening of meaning. The second the most frequently found semantic change

50

is narrowing of meaning. Also, the longer a word functions in the language, more changes in

meaning it undergoes.

Furthermore, each word of the synonymic group was attributed a period of time when

they came into English and an attempt was made to identify the most common patterns in

regard to the period of time. The patterns are illustrated below:

Figure 4. Patterns of formation of synonymic groups in regard to the period of time

The patterns presented above, show that the most prevailing tendency is that words

within synonymic group came to English in different periods of time. 13 synonymic groups

are made of synonyms that came to English in Old English, Middle English and Modern

English; 7 synonymic groups are formed of words that came in the period of Old English and

Middle English; and 3 synonymic groups are formed of words that came to English in the

period of Middle English and Modern English. Moreover, no synonymic groups were found

that are formed of words that came into the English language in the period of Old English and

Modern English; and no synonymic groups were found that are formed of the words that

came into English at the same period of time. Summing up, it can be stated that synonymic

groups cannot be formed of words that started functioning in English in the same period of

time. Also, the words that started functioning in Old English and Modern English are not

likely to form synonymic groups.

In my bachelor degree research the patterns of formation of synonymic groups in

English were established. As far as the findings of the research were significant and more

extensive investigations were necessary in order to formulate a more detailed picture of the

patterns of formation of synonyms, the present research attempted to contribute to the

previous findings and add a new aspect of formation of meaning of words within synonymic

13synonymicgroups

ModernEnglish

MiddleEnglish

OldEnglish

7synonymicgroups

OldEnglish

MiddleEnglish

3synonymicgroups

ModernEnglish

MiddleEnglish

51

groups. The patterns of formation of meaning within synonymic groups were established,

based on the patterns of formation of synonymic groups in English that were revealed in the

previous research (see Appendix 4,5,6). In order to establish the patterns of formation of

meaning within synonymic groups semantic changes were counted in synonymic groups that

are formed of words coming from 3 sources, 2 sources or 1 source. Then the average of each

category was counted and the tendency revealed.

The data revealed that some of the synonymic groups are formed of 3 sources that are

the following.

4 synonymic groups were identified which belong to the pattern below. The

headwords of these synonymic groups are to buy, to offer, time and power. There data showed

that words within 2 synonymic groups underwent 3 types of semantic change (Bx2; Nx2;

Nox1; Mx1), words within 1 synonymic group underwent 2 types of semantic change (B; No)

and in one synonymic group its words underwent only 1 semantic change (B).

Latin + Germanic + French

Based on the pattern below 4 synonymic groups were found. The headwords of these

synonymic groups are to think, man, small and problem. There data showed that words within

2 synonymic groups underwent 3 types of semantic change (Bx2; Nx2; Nox1; Px1), words

within 2 synonymic group underwent 2 types of semantic change (Bx2; Nx1; Px1).

Latin + French + Greek

Based on the pattern below 3 synonymic groups were found. The headwords of these

synonymic groups are old, great and world. There data showed that words within 1

synonymic group underwent 3 types of semantic change (Bx1; Nx1; Nox1) and words within

2 synonymic groups underwent 2 types of semantic change (Bx2; Nox1; Mx1).

Latin + Germanic + Greek

Also, the data revealed that some of the synonymic groups are formed of 2 sources

that are the following:

52

Latin + Germanic/French/Greek/Unknown

10 synonymic groups matching this pattern of formation of synonyms were identified.

The headwords of these synonymic groups are to read, to say, new, large, important, good,

people, child, to become and school. There data showed that words within 1 synonymic group

underwent 4 types of semantic change (Bx1; Nx1; Nox1; Px1). The words within 6

synonymic groups underwent 2 types of semantic change (Bx6; Nx4; Nox1; Mx1) and the

words within 3 synonymic groups underwent 1 type of semantic change (Bx3).

In addition, the data revealed that some of the synonymic groups are formed of 1

source Latin or Germanic. The headword of the synonymic group, which constituent parts are

of Germanic origin only, is to look. The data showed that words within this synonymic group

underwent 4 types of semantic change (Bx1; Nx1; Nox1; Px1). The headword of the

synonymic group, which constituent parts are of Latin origin only, is to use. The data showed

that words within this synonymic group underwent 3 types of semantic change (Bx1; Nx1;

Nox1).

All in all, the words within synonymic group that match to the pattern of 3 sources

underwent 25 changes. The words within synonymic group that match to the pattern of 2

sources underwent 19 changes. The words within synonymic group that match to the pattern

of 1 source underwent 7 changes. Next, the averages were counted. The average number of

changes that the synonymic groups formed of 3 sources underwent is 2,26; what means that 2

changes on average. The average number of changes that the synonymic groups formed of 2

sources underwent is 1,8; what means that 1 change on average. Finally, the average number

of changes that the synonymic groups formed of 1 source underwent is 3,5; what means that 3

changes on average. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the words within

synonymic group that came from the same source underwent the biggest number of changes

of meaning. The least number of changes underwent synonymic groups that were formed of

words that came from 2 sources (1 semantic change).

53

CONCLUSIONS

• In the English vocabulary, Broadening of meaning is the most common semantic

change, which words undergo within synonymic groups.

• Semantic changes of English words within synonymic groups are related to the

changes of their grammatical characteristics. A tendency of nominalization of

verbs and adjectives is observed, which shows that grammatical and semantic

changes are interrelated. However, to account for the relationship, a separate

investigation is needed.

• No significant relationship is observed between semantic changes of English

words within synonymic groups and their origin. However, some patterns can be

established, the most common being LATIN + FRENCH or GERMANIC or

GREEK; LATIN + FRENCH + GREEK and LATIN + GERMANIC + FRENCH.

Also, it was noticed that words within synonymic group that are originated from

the same source undergo the biggest variety of changes.

• However, semantic changes of English words within synonymic groups are related

to the historical period of time when the words (borrowings) joined in the English

vocabulary. Regarding the period of time, it is observed that the biggest inflow of

the vocabulary took place in the period of Middle English and the words, which

entered English in that period, underwent the greatest variety of types of semantic

change.

• English synonymic groups are formed of words that started functioning in English

in different periods of time. It is rather non-typical for a synonymic group to be

built out of words that came to the language at the same period of time. It is

uncommon either for a synonymic group to consist of words that came to the

English language in Old English and Modern English only.

• Although some findings of this research are significant, more extensive

investigations are necessary. It seems to be essential to analyze more synonymic

groups and repeat the application of quantitative methods, in order to get a more

detailed and more precise picture of the patterns of formation of meaning of words

within synonymic groups as well as the patterns of formation of synonyms.

54

SUMMARY

ANGLŲ KALBOS SINONIMŲ REIKŠMIŲ KAITOS DĖSNINGUMAI

Kamilia Puncevič

Baigiamojo darbo tikslas yra ištirti anglų kalbos sinonimų reikšmių kitimus ir

nustatyti, ar jie vyksta dėsningai. Tikslui pasiekti iškelti šie uždaviniai: (1) atskleisti

pasirinktų sinonimų kilmę; (2) nustatyti tiriamų sinonimų semantinius kitimus; ir (3) įvertinti

veiksnius, lemiančius sinonimų reikšmių kaitą. Tyrimui buvo taikomi kiekybinis ir kokybinis

metodai. Buvo atlikta 23 dažniausiai pasitaikančių rašytinėje ir šnekamojoje anglų kalboje

žodžių ir jų sinonimų reikšmių analizė.

Analizės rezultatai parodė, kad anglų kalbos sinonimų reikšmės linkusios

platėti/bendrėti. Taip pat rezultatai patvirtina, kad anglų kalboje semantiniai kitimai sinonimų

grupėse yra susiję su žodžių gramatinėmis savybėmis. Kitaip tariant, kalbai vystantis

gramatiniai ir semantiniai kitimai žodyje vyksta vienu metu. Be reikšmės bendrėjimo buvo

pastebėta veiksmažodžių ir būdvardžių daiktavardėjimo tendencija. Gramatinės ir semantinės

žodžių kaitos ryšiui paaiškinti, deja, reikėtų papildomo tyrimo.

Buvo stengiamasi nustatyti sinonimų grupių reikšmių kaitos dėsningumus, siejant

kitimus su istoriniais kalbos vystymosi periodais ir rezultatai parodė, kad anglų kalbos

sinonimų grupės yra sudarytos iš žodžių, kurie į kalbą atėjo skirtingu istoriniu laikotarpiu.

Anglų kalbai visai nebūdingos sinoniminės grupės, sudarytos iš žodžių, kurie į kalbą atėjo tuo

pačiu istoriniu periodu arba iš žodžių, kurie pradėti vartoti tik senosios anglų kalbos

laikotarpiu ir modernios anglų kalbos laikotarpiu. Statistiniai skaičiavimai (Chi-square,

ANOVA) taip pat patvirtina, kad sinonimų semantiniai kitimai anglų kalboje priklauso nuo

laikotarpio, kada žodį imta vartoti anglų kalboje. Kalbant apie žodžių reikšmės raidą,

dauguma išanalizuotų žodžių patyrė tam tikrų semantinių pokyčių. Svarbu yra paminėti, kad

semantiniai kitimai anglų kalbos sinonimų grupėse nėra susiję su jų kilme.

Taigi, remiantis gautais rezultatais galima daryti išvadas, kad sinonimų reikšmės anglų

kalboje yra linkusios bendrėti arba platėti. Anglų kalbos sinonimų grupių reikšmės kitimai

priklauso nuo laiko, kada žodžiai atėjo į anglų kalbą. Be to, sinonimų grupės žodžių reikšmių

kitimai nėra priklausomi nuo žodžių kilmės. Žodžių daiktavardėjimo procesas yra

reikšmingas anglų kalbos istorinėje raidoje ir susijęs su semantiniais žodžių kitimais.

Tyrimo rezultatai gali būti naudojami tolesniems moksliniams tyrimams. Išanalizavus

daugiau sinonimų grupių, tikėtina, kad būtų atskleistų daugiau priklausomybės ryšių ir

veiksnių, lemiančių sinonimų reikšmių kitimus.

55

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1

59

APPENDIX 2

Copyright © 2016 The Pennsylvania State University

https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat200/node/67

60

APPENDIX 3

61

62

63

APPENDIX 4

Patterns of formation of 14 synonymic groups, which were formed of 3 sources

Latin Germanic FrenchSynonymicgroupof3sources

Latin French GreekSynonymicgroupof3sources

Latin Germanic GreekSynonymicgroupof3sources

64

APPENDIX5

Pattern of formation of synonymic groups, which were formed of 2 sources

Latin

Germanic/French/Greek/

unknown

Synonymic group of 2

sources

65

APPENDIX 6

Pattern of formation of synonymic groups, which were formed of 1 source

Latin

Latin

Synonymic group of 1

source

Germanic

Germanic

Synonymic group of 1

source

66

APPENDIX 7

Frequency of occurrence in written and spoken English

man school child people world time power problem

1003

526710

1256

600

1833

385565

tooffer tobuy tobecome

toread touse tosay tothink tolook

293 264675

284

1071

3344

15201151

great new old small good large important

635

1154

648 518

1276

471 392