Critical Thinking...and the Art of SubstantiveWriting, Part IBy Richard Paul and Linda Elder

Writing is essential to learning. One cannot be edticaled and yetunable to comnninicate one's ideas in wriltcn Ibrm. But, learning to writecan occur only through a process of cultivatioti requiring intellectual dis-cipline. .\s with any set of cotiipiex skills, thcte are fundamentals of writ-ing that must be internalized and then applied using one's thinking.

In this and the next few cohtmns, we will focus on the concept ofsubstantive xurillng. We outline what it ineatis to write substantively andprovide suggestions for fostering students' abilities to learti through writ-ing, including sample instructional strategies designed to elicit substan-tive writing (Patil He Klder, 2003).

Introduction for InstructorsMost instructors realize that learning to wt itc is "among the most

important skills a student can learn." But far fewer realize that writing isalso tbe key tu the acquisition of content itself: I he mechanism throughwhich students learn to connect the dots in iheir knowledge. Far too fewrealize that for .siudetits to learn, "they must struggle with the details,wresile with the fac ts, and rework raw information and dimly understoodconcepts into language they can communicate to someone else." In otherwords, "if students air to learn, they must write." All these poinis arcetnphasized in a repoi (issued by the Nalional Commission on Writing inAtnerica's Schools and Colleges (Lewin, 2003) which goes on to say thatwriting is "woefully ignored in most Atnerican schools today" {p. A15).Moreover, according lo tbe same New York Times arlicie, "a 2002 study ofCalifornia college stuclent.s found ihai most freshmen could tiot analyzearguments, synthesi/e infbrnuition, or write papers that were reasonahlytree of language errors" (p, A15).

At present, most students are poor writers, not because ihey are inca-pable uI learning to write well but because they have never been taughtthe loutidations of stihstatitive writing. They lack intellectual discipline aswell as strategies for improving iheir writing. This is true hecause teach-ers often lack a clear theory of the relationship between writinj^ and learn-ing and. on tbe other hand, are concerned with the time involved in grad-ing written work.

By understanding the most basic concepts in crilical thitiking, wefitid a solution to both problems: {a) a theory that links substantive writ-ing and thinkitig with tbe acquisitioti of knowledge, and (h) awareness ofhow to design writing assignments thai do not require one-on-one in-structor-student feedback {Thinkn'.s C.uide Series. 2004).

The development of writing abilities, as well as all other intellectualabilities, occtirs onlv through soutid theory and routine practice. Whensttidents utitlerstand the rclationsliip between learning and writing andare engaged in routine writing practice using the tools of critical think-ing, they are able to learn content at deeper and deeper levels. They gradu-.illy improve their ability to write with clarity and depth. They becomemote skilled in communicating importajit ideas.

Writing for a PurposeSkilled writers do not write blindly but purposely. They have an

agenda, goal, or objective, fheir purpose, togctlu'r witli the nature ofwhat they are writing (and their situation), determines how they write.

Ihcy write in different ways in diffeicnt sititalions for different purposes.There is also a tiearly universal purpose for writing: to say somethingworth saying about something worth saying something about.

In general, then, the purpose of writing is to translate inner mean-ings into ptihlic words; one's ideas and experiences are given written form.Accurately translating intended meanings into written words is an ana-lytic, evaluative, and creative set of acts. Unfortunately, few people areable to select and combine words that, .so combined, convey an intendedmeaning to an audience of leaders.

Of course, if ihc goal of writing is pure pleasmt' and personal amuse-ment, it may nol matter if others do not understand. An individual maysimply enjoy the act of writing itself. This is fine as long as one under-stands that the writing is meant only for personal consumption.

Among tbe various purposes for writing are the following:• for sheer pleasure,• to express a simple idea,• to convey specific technical information,• to convince the reader In accept an important position or argument,• to challenge the reader to consider a new world\ iew, and• to express what we aie learning (or have learned) in a subject.

People write in purstiit of many specific and vaiied agendas. Con-sider how the purposes would vary for the following writers:

• a media advisor writing political campaign literature,• a newspaper editor editing a story to maintain reader interest,• a media (onsultanl writing copy for an advertisement,• a chemist wriling a laboratory report,• a novelist wriling a tiovel.• a poet writing a poem, or• a student wi iting a researdi report.

Clearly, one's purpose in writing itifluences ihc writing skills oneneeds ;md uses. Nevertheless, there are some fundamental writing skillsessential to all in order to develop the arl of stihstantive writing. .-\ndIcarnitig the art of substantive writing has many important implicationsfor personal development as thinkers. For example, it is important in learn-ing how to learn; it is important in coming to understand oneself. It canenable the acquisition of self-insight as well as insight into the many di-mensicms of life.

Substantive WritingTo learn how to write something worth reading, one musi keep two

questions in mind: "Is the subject or idea worth writing about?" and "Whatis there of significance to say about it?" Having recognized possible varia-tions in pui pose, we also recogni/e thai there are core writing tools andskills for writing about anything substantive, for largciing ideas ol depthand significance. These tools and skills are the focus of this series.

The Problem of Impressionistic Writingriif impressionistic mind follows associations, wandering from para-

gi-aph to paragraph and drawing no cleaj- distinctions within its thinkingand its writing from moment to moment. Being fragmented, it fragtiientswhat ii writes. Being uncritical, it asstiincs its own point of view to beinsightful and justified and tlierefore not in need of justification relativeto competing poinis of view. Being self-deceived, it fails to see ilself asundisciplined. Being rigid, it does not learn from what it reads, writes, orexperiences.

Whatever ktiowledge the impressionistic mind absorbs is uncriticallyintermixed wiili prejudices, biases, myths, and stereotypes. It lacks insightinto the importance of imderstanding how minds create meaning andhow reflective minds monitor and evaluate as they write. To disciplinewriting, one must go beyond impressionistic thinkitig.

Jotii nal of Developmental Education

Writing ReflectivelyUnlike the impressionistic mind, the reflective mind seeks meaning,

inoiiilors vvlial il writes, ;ind (lraws ii clear distintlion between its think-ing aii<l the lliinking oi iis audiente. The reflective mind, being |)urpose-liil, ndjusl.s wriliiig to spec ifi<; goals. Being integrated, il inlerrelates ideasil is writing with ideas it already commands. Being critical, it assesseswhat it writes for clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth,logic, significance, and fairness. Being open to new ways of thinking, itvalues new ideas and leaiTis from what it writes.

The reflective mind improves its thinking by tliinking (icflcclively)about it. Likewise, it improves its writing by thinking (reflectively) aboutwriting. It moves back and forth between writing and thinking about howit is writing, ll moves forward a bil and then loops back upon ilself tocheck on its own operations. It tliecks its tracks. It makes good its gioiind.It rises above it.self and exercises oversight, Tbis applies to the reflectivemind while writing (or reading or listening or making decisions).

The foundation for this ability is knowledge ol' how the mind fuiic-ticjiis when writing well. For example, if 1 know (or di.scover) lliat whal 1am writing is dilllcult foi' utliers lo understand, I iiiteniionally explaineach key sentence more thoroughly and give more examples and illustra-tions, I look at what I am writing from the readers' point of view. If Irealize that my potential readers are likely lo be un.synipathelic to myviewpoint. I try to help them connect primary beliefs they already hold toptimary beliefs in my viewpoint, 1 sliow them that I understand iheirperspective.

The reflective mind creates an inner dialogue with itself, assess-ing what it is wi iting while it is writing:• Have I stated my main point clearly?• Have I explained my main point adequately?• Have I given my leaders examples from my own experience

that connect important ideas to their experience?• Have I included metaphors or analogies that illustrate for the

reader what I am saying?

Writing a SentenceWithin a piece of written work, every sentence should stand in a

clear relationship to other sentences. Each sentence, and indeed everyword of every .sentence, should sup])ort the purpose of the written piece.An important part of writing with discipline is connecting sentences tothe broader context within which tbey are located, .seeing how they fitwithin the whole. For every sentence written, then, the author can ask:• How does this sentence connect with the other in the paragraph?• How does tbis sentence relate t(t the organizing idea of this text as a

whole?

Writing to LearnEvery writing experience pro\ ides a potential learning experience.

Writing is a systeniaiic process for learning e.ssential meanings. Whenwriting to become a good writer, one learns by explaining things to oth-ers. In fact, self-teaching through writing is one of the most powerfulstrategies for learning. Wben core ideas—ideas of substance—arc cognitivelycultivated hy developing them on papei, ihey become ideas the writer canuse productively in life. At the same time, to learn well, one must writewell. One learns to write well not by writing many things badly but a fewthings well.

The few things that require good writing arc substantive pieces, para-graphs and papers containing important ideas. It is qtiite possible to edu-cate oneself entirely through writing if one has the intellectual skills towork through itnportant texts, enter conflicting viewpoints, internalize

The National Tutoring Association's14th Annual Conference

April 8-12th, 2006Costa Mesa, California

NationalTutoring Association

Catch The Wave:Traditions & Trends in Tutori

For further information call (863) 529-5206or visit our website at www.ntatutor.org

important ideas learned, and apply those ideas to one's life. Alternatively,one cannot be an educated person without consistently learning throughwriting. Why? Because education is a lifelong process. Without continu-ally integrating new ideas into those already established in an individual'sthinking, ideas become stagnant and rigid.

ConclusionII is imperative for students to understand llie integral relationship

between writing and learning, to understand that one cannot be a skilledthinker ami a poor xvriter. It is therefore important that sttidents connectthe devclopnienl of intellectual discipline through w'riting with the abilityto learn at deeper and deepei' levels. In the next few columns, we willprovide further insights necessary to understanding the relationshipsbetween deep thinking, deep learning, and skilled writing.

ReferencesLewin. T (2003, April 26), Wtiting in schools is found both dismal and

neglected. The Mew York Tii/m. p, A15.Paul, R,, &: Elder, L. (2003), How lo write a paragraph: The art of substantive

iin-iiing. Dillion Beach, CA: The Foundation for Critical Thinking.Thinker's guide series. (2004), Retrieved June 16. 2005, from http://w'ww,

criticalihinking,org/resources/tgs/

Riihurd Paul is diwctur und Linda Elder is executive director of research <jfprofessional development of ihe Center for Critical Thinking at Sonoma StateUniversity, Rnhnnt Park, CA 94928. ^

Volume '29, Number 1, Fall 2005 41