46
Molekulare Diagnostik 1 Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch PCR (polymerase chain reaction) Definition: Ist ein in vitro Verfahren zur selektiven Anreicherung von Nukleinsäure-Bereichen definierter Länge und definierter Sequenz aus einem Gemisch von Nukleinsäure-Molekülen

PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

  • Upload
    others

  • View
    3

  • Download
    0

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

1Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

PCR(polymerase chain reaction)

Definition:Ist ein in vitro Verfahren zur selektiven Anreicherung von Nukleinsäure-Bereichen definierter Länge und definierter Sequenz aus einem Gemisch von Nukleinsäure-Molekülen

Page 2: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

2Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

PCR-History• Erfunden 1983 von Dr. Kary Mullis• Er erhielt 10 Jahre später den Nobelpreis für

Chemie• Seit 1992 tausende Zitate in Publikationen • PCR hat extrem viele Anwendungsgebiete

(Vaterschaftstest, Gerichtsmedizin, Krankheitsnachweise, Sequenzierung…..)

Page 3: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

3Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Prinzip PCR• Welche Nukleinsäuresequenz soll

amplifiziert werden?• Welche DNA wird als Vorlage-Template

verwendet (Genomische, cDNA…)

• Primer setzen und suchen (Kriterien)• Temperaturprogramm wählen• DNA aus PCR Gemisch isolieren• Weiterverwendung der isolierten DNA

Page 4: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

4Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Primer setzen und suchen

• Primer im Randbereich der zu amplifizierenden Sequenz setzen (5´- 3´Amplifikation)

• Komplementär zu je einem Strang• Parameter:

– Primerlänge– Ampliconlänge– Schmelztemperatur (Verhältnis G:C zu A:T beachten!!)– 3‘ clamp– Primerdimere vermeiden

Page 5: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

5Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

PCR-Gemisch

• Template DNA (100 ng cDNA, 500 ng genomische DNA)

• Primer (10 µmolar)• DNA-Polymerase Taq (Bakt Thermus aquaticus)• dNTPs (Nukleosidtriphosphate)• PCR-Puffer• dd H2O• Optionale Zusätze: MgCl2, DMSO

Page 6: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

6Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Temperatur- und Zeitprogramm• Denaturieren zum Einzelstrang (94°C, 30 sec)• Anhybridisieren der Primer (Annealing, 30 sec)

kommt auf die Schmelztemperatur der Primer an:je höher die Temperatur umso spezifischer das PCR-Produkt

• Amplifizieren mittels DNA-Polymersase (72°C, 2-4 min)kommt auf Größe des Produkts an!!mittels hitzestabiler Taq-Polymerase(proof reading oder nicht?)

Page 7: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

7Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Page 8: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

8Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Kontrolle und Isolierung der DNA aus PCR Gemisch

• Gelelektrophorese:– Wie groß ist das erwartete PCR-Produkt?– Welches Agarosegel verwendet man (meist 0,7-2%)?– Ist nur ein Produkt sichtbar oder mehrere?

bei vielen Banden unspezifische PCR– Ausschneiden der spezifischen DNA-Bande aus dem

Gel– Isolieren der DNA aus dem Gelstückchen (Kit)– Sequenzierung

Page 9: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

9Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Laufrichtung DNA auf Agarosegel

Page 10: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

10Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Agarosegel zur Auftrennung des PCR-Gemisches

Page 11: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

11Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Agarosegel zur Auftrennung des PCR-Gemisches

Page 12: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

12Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Einsatzmöglichkeiten der PCR• Amplifikation von DNA Bereichen• cDNA-Klonierung und cDNA-Genbanken• Herstellung von cDNA-chips • DNA-Foot- & Fingerprinting• DNA und RNA (cDNA)-Sequenzierung• Isolierung, Markierung und Mutagenisierung von DNA-

Fragmenten• Diagnostik:

– Gen-Diagnostik (genetische Erkrankungen)– Krebsdiagnostik: genomische Translokationen– Diagnostik infektiöser Krankheiten

Page 13: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

13Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

REAL TIME PCR(= quantitative PCR (qPCR))

• Real time PCR systems• Fluorescence chemistry• Analysis

Page 14: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

14Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real-time PCR for gene expression analysis

2a. excitation filters

2b. emission filters

1. halogen tungsten lamp

4. sample plate

3. intensifier

5. CCD chip

Allows real time monitoring of PCR amplification products by use of fluorescenceFirst step: Reverse transcription of RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA)Mainly semi-quantitative measurement (qPCR)Highly sensitiveUsed in research lab and clinical diagnostic labs

Real time-PCR systems

Page 15: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

15Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR systems

Page 16: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

16Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR systems

Page 17: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

17Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR systems

Page 18: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

18Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR systems

Page 19: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

19Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Importance of primers in PCR

• specific• high efficiency• no primer-dimers• Ideally should not give a DNA signal

– cross exon/exon boundary

EXON 1 EXON 2INTRON 2 DNA

EXON 1 EXON 2 RNA

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 20: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

20Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Fluorescence chemistry for real-time PCRSybrGreen intercalating dye:TaqManTM probe uses FRET

(Flueorescent resonance energy transfer):

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 21: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

21Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

TaqManBiomaterials

21Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr. Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 22: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

22Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 23: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

23Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 24: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

24Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 25: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

25Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 26: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

26Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 27: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

27Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 28: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

28Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Passive dye

TaqMan reporter

TaqMan reporter

TaqMan quencher

Page 29: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

29Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 30: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

30Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 31: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

31Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR chemistries

Page 32: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

32Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Real time-PCR analysis

Page 33: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

33Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

0

200000000

400000000

600000000

800000000

1000000000

1200000000

1400000000

1600000000

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

PCR CYCLE NUMBERA

MO

UN

T O

F D

NA

110

1001000

10000100000

100000010000000

1000000001000000000

10000000000

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

PCR CYCLE NUMBER

AM

OU

NT

OF

DN

A

CYCLE NUMBER AMOUNT OF DNA0 11 22 43 84 165 326 647 1288 2569 512

10 1,02411 2,04812 4,09613 8,19214 16,38415 32,76816 65,53617 131,07218 262,14419 524,28820 1,048,57621 2,097,15222 4,194,30423 8,388,60824 16,777,21625 33,554,43226 67,108,86427 134,217,72828 268,435,45629 536,870,91230 1,073,741,82431 1,400,000,00032 1,500,000,00033 1,550,000,00034 1,580,000,000

Plotting PCR in real-time

Real time-PCR analysis

Page 34: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

34Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

34

Reference genes

• same copy number in all cells• expressed in all cells• medium copy number advantageous

– correction more accurate• reasonably large intron• no pseudogene• no alternate splicing in region you want

to PCR

Page 35: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

35Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Importance of controls

• negative control (no DNA)– checks reagents for contamination

• no reverse transcriptase control– detects if signal from contaminating DNA

• positive control– checks that reagents and primers work– especially importance if trying to show

absence of expression of a gene

Page 36: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

36Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Amplification curve to determine realtive expression values

Output: relative fold-change(for semiquantitative qPCR)

Real time-PCR analysis

Page 37: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

37Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Melting curve as quality control for SybrGreen assays

Real time-PCR analysis

Page 38: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

38Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Diagnostic use of real-time PCR

• Quantitatively measurment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)• Detection of Thalassemia, hemophilia, sickle cell anemia & favism by

real time PCR• Cystic fibrosis• Phenyl ketonuria• Use in forensic medicine• Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis by Analysis of Fetal DNA in Maternal

Plasma• Detection and Quantitation of Circulating Plasmodium falciparum DNA• Effect of antimicrobial peptides on host cells• …

Page 39: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

39Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Pros and cons of real-time PCR

• Pros– Simple– Low cost– Good sensitivity– High dynamic range

• Cons– Big reaction volumina– Dependence on reference genes– Limited specificity (especially with

SybrGreen)– No absolute quantification!!!

Limited use for detection of allelic imbalances, Limited use for detection of allelic imbalances, exact copy number variations and rare mutationsexact copy number variations and rare mutations

Page 40: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

40Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Digital PCR

Emulsion Array Chip

Page 41: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

41Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Digital PCR - Principle

•Sample partitioning via limited dilution•Detection via fluorescent probes•Read out: positive or negative reaction (0 or 1)•Absolute quantification by counting of positive reactions

Page 42: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

42Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Emulsion-based system(QX100 Droplet Digital PCR, Biorad)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qwma-1Ek-Y4

Page 43: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

43Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ltLsAosmY0

Array-based system(OpenArray Digital PCR, Life Technologies)

Page 44: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

44Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

Array-based Capillary System(Biomark DigitalArray, Fluidigm)

http://vimeo.com/14655746

Page 45: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

45Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

dPCR facilitates detection and dPCR facilitates detection and quantification of...quantification of...

•• Rare mutationsRare mutations•• Copy number variationsCopy number variations•• Karyotypic events (cytogenetics)Karyotypic events (cytogenetics)•• LowLow--level pathogenslevel pathogens•• Gene expression in single cellsGene expression in single cells•• Clonal amplification of nucleic acidsClonal amplification of nucleic acids

Page 46: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - Bioinformatics Graz · pcr cycle number amount of dna 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000 0 5 10 15 20 25

Molekulare Diagnostik

46Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, TU Graz / Austria Dr.Andreas Prokesch

The PCR songhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zxr-52KwKo&feature=related