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New Life-Style Determinants of Women's Food Shopping Behavior Author(s): Mary Lou Roberts and Lawrence H. Wortzel Source: Journal of Marketing, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Summer, 1979), pp. 28-39Published by: American Marketing AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1250144Accessed: 02-10-2015 03:21 UTC

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MARY LOU ROBERTS & LAWRENCE H. WORTZEL

Women's current high levels of participation in the labor force have focused attention on changing life-styles and consumption patterns. This study uses life-style variables as predictors of food shopping behavior. A set of intervening variables reflecting women's attitudes toward food preparation explains their food shopping behavior better than either a working/nonworking classification or general role orientations.

NEW LIFE-STYLE DETERMINANTS OF WOMEN'S FOOD SHOPPING

BE HAVIOR

IT is virtually impossible to pick up a magazine or newspaper without finding at least one article de-

scribing women's changing attitudes, life-styles, and behavior with respect to their traditional household roles. Since so many of these roles are linked to consumption, any changes in role attitudes or behavior should be of substantial interest to marketers.

This paper presents the results of a study of women's attitudes and behavior related to one of their tradi- tionally important consumption-related roles: food shopping and preparation. The study identifies a range of factors that are linked to food shopping and preparation, and discusses their ramifications for marketing

strategy. It analyzes the effects of variables not considered in previous studies, considering both a broader range and a more specific set of variables than in past work. Since studies on this topic already have been published and since the study we are reporting builds upon and extends previous work, we begin with a brief review of relevant studies of food shopping behavior.

For the sake of convenience, we will refer to attitudinal and behavioral variables considered in previous studies as roles or role preferences. Virtually all of these studies either consider working versus nonworking women as a variable or suggest it be considered. One set of recent studies is based on classifying women broadly as either "Traditional" or "Modern," usually according to their responses to AIO items. These clas- sifications are then related to attitudes and behavior. For example, Bryant (1977) describes women as either "Traditional" or "Expanding Outlook" ("Modern") depending on their attitudes toward topics such as careers and career opportunities. Traditional women

Mary Lou Roberts is Associate Professor of Marketing and Lawrence H. Wortzel is Professor of Marketing at Boston Uni- versity, Boston, MA. The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support provided by the Graduate School of Boston University for the conduct of this project.

28 / Journal of Marketing, Summer 1979 Journal of Marketing Vol. 43 (Summer 1979), 28-39



think mothers should stay at home and that boys and girls today each have the same opportunities; "Expand- ing Outlook" women believe that marriage and career can be combined and that girls' opportunities are very unequal to those offered boys. Reynolds, Crask, and Wells (1977) studied women who preferred traditional versus contemporary marriages. They found dif- ferences in attitudes, patterns of media exposure, and use of cosmetic products between traditional and modern women and between working and nonworking women within each group.

Another group of studies examines the effect of women's basic roles and role preferences on store pa- tronage behavior. One study found that working women were more likely to be store loyal, shop on only one day of the week, shop in the evening, consult advertising for special buys, and take a list to the store (Editor and Publisher 1972). Anderson (1972a) found that liberated women made more food shopping trips than either nonliberated or undecided women. But she also found nonliberated women to be less concerned about convenience and speed of shopping. When her sample was classified into working/nonworking women, working women were found to make fewer shopping trips and to be more brand loyal than their nonworking counterparts (Anderson 1972b). Douglas (1975) found that both working and nonworking women shopped more than once a week, but working women were less likely to patronize neighborhood supermarkets. Husbands of working women were more likely to do major grocery shopping while husbands of nonworking wives were more likely to purchase just a few items.

The effect of life-styles on choice behavior also has been studied. Fry and Siller (1970) analyzed product and brand choice behavior and found that product choice does not vary greatly among women of different social classes. However, Carman (1974) reported that women who rated the importance of the maternal role lower than the average were more brand loyal. He suggested that this finding was a consequence of store loyalty since this same group of women also showed higher store loyalty. Anderson (1971) found that stage in the family life cycle (specifically, the presence of two or more preteenage children) was more closely associated with the purchase of convenience foods than was either SES or income level. One study found that working women are more likely to buy frozen foods than are nonworking women (Editor and Publisher 1972), but another study reported an opposite finding (Anderson 1972b).

Satow and Johnson (1977) classified 1,680 women as either full-time housewives or working women and then subclassified working women as either "Satisfac-

tion Seekers" (career oriented) or "Income Seekers" (working out of necessity). It is not surprising that they found the full-time homemaker to be the most traditional in outlook and most involved in the roles of mother and homemaker. This group was most likely to use a list when shopping for groceries and to economize in the supermarket. The "Satisfaction Seeker" is the most active, liberal, and modern. These women in- dulged in more impulse buying and more meals away from home. The "Income Seeker" is most concerned about nutrition, but reported the highest usage of convenience foods.

Each of these studies has made some contribution to our understanding of the relationships between life- styles and food shopping and preparation behavior. Of the empirical studies, perhaps the most intriguing contribution has been made by Douglas (1975). Her results suggest, for example, that attitudes toward work, role preference, and role behavior are important in understanding food shopping behavior. But even the Douglas study may be missing one important role variable or construct: the manner in which food is prepared in the home. This variable is important, both from a predic- tive and an explanatory viewpoint. Fishbein (1966) argues, and other research has demonstrated (see for example, Aizen and Fishbein 1970; Tuck 1973; Harrell and Bennett 1974; Roberts 1975), that specific attitudes toward an activity (in this case, food preparation styles) are better predictors of behavior (in this case, food shopping) than are more general attitudes (the role orientation variables). At the very least, gaining an understanding of the relationship between more specific role orientations and food shopping behavior should be worthwhile.

A Hypothetical Model of Food Shopping Behavior In reflecting upon the results of previous research, it seemed to us that the expectation of adequately explaining food shopping behavior using generalized life-style variables was unrealistic. Such a model of consumer behavior may have been very useful in the exploratory phase of research at a time in which women's life-styles were changing rapidly. However, such a model omits a group of intervening variables describing the manner in which products are used in the home, which may prove to be very important as changes become more institutionalized. Specifically with regard to food products, we propose the model shown in Figure 1.

The determinants of the way in which women perform their roles may be more complex than their preferences for the traditional, contemporary, or communal marital styles used by Reynolds, Crask, and Wells

Women's Food Shopping Behavior / 29



FIGURE 1 Hierarchy of Effects Model of Food Shopping Goals and Behavior

General Role

Food Food Shopping Orientations , Preparation Goals and vis a vis family

._Styles Behavior and outside world

(1977) and are almost certainly more complex than a working/nonworking classification. A woman's preference for a marital style goes deeper than merely the husband-wife relationship to include relationships with children and the world outside the home. Her perfor- mance of various roles inside the home is certainly determined by her likes and dislikes and (even if she is modern) the likes and dislikes of her family. It may, therefore, take a more complex set of variables to effectively recover the variety of role orientations which occurs among women today. Indeed, the whole thrust of change in women's roles has been in the direction of broader, more multidimensional roles.

One trip to a modern supermarket will convince the thoughtful observer that the foods on display mirror a variety of food preparation modes. Foods may be prepared from scratch, purchased ready-to-eat, or require modest amounts of preparation. While the preference for one mode of preparation with regard to any product or product category may be somewhat related to role orientation ("a good homemaker wouldn't use powdered mashed potatoes"), it may also be situation- specific ("it's all right to use powdered mashed potatoes for family, but not for company").

We hypothesize that a homemaker's preferred food preparation style will be the major determinant of the manner in which she approaches the activities associated with food shopping. We further hypothesize that food preparation styles may be conditional upon role preference since the contemporary role deem- phasizes the importance of many traditional homemaker tasks; hence, the hierarchical model presented in Fig. 1. However, it also is possible that preference for food preparation styles is more indi- vidualistic, i.e., stemming from attitudes toward the activity of cooking and the importance of serving attractive, tasteful, and/or nutritious foods to one's family.

We believe that there are three basic strategies which can be played out in meal preparation and food shopping. They would be manifested by concerns about the price of food, the quality of food and meals, and the time it takes to perform all activities associated with meal preparation and food shopping.

It seems likely that concerns about price and quality will be most closely associated with a traditional role orientation since they reflect traditional household management and family service activities. A concern for time is likely to be prevalent among contemporary women since their expanded roles allow less time for performing traditional tasks.

Specifically, we have developed the following hypotheses:

H,1: Women who are oriented toward traditional roles or life-styles will exhibit traditional attitudes toward meal preparation and food shopping. A. Traditional women in lower family income

brackets will be concerned about price. B. Traditional women in higher income

brackets will be concerned about quality.

H2: Women who are oriented toward contemporary roles or life-styles will be concerned about saving time regardless of family income.

H3: Specific attitudes toward meal preparation will be better predictors of food shopping goals and behaviors than will more general role orientation variables.

H4: Demographic variables, including women's employment status, will be poor predictors of food shopping goals and behaviors.

If these hypotheses are supported, they will have implications for product assortment and service strate-

30 / Journal of Marketing, Summer 1979



gies in retail food stores and product planning and promotion by food manufacturers.

Research Methodology We tested these hypotheses using a structured questionnaire. The 169 respondents were recruited through several voluntary organizations in Newton, Mas- sachusetts, (a high-income suburb with a good ethnic and religious mix, approximately six miles from Bos- ton) and Milford, Massachusetts, (a rapidly-growing middle-income suburb with a good mix of white and blue-collar families about 30 miles from Boston). Or- ganizations selected provided a range of income, age, ethnic background, and employment status (39% of the 169 were presently employed). Respondents from both suburbs displayed a diversity of role orientations, meal preparation styles, and food shopping goals and behaviors.

The women were requested to participate in group sessions in which the purpose and method of the research were explained and each woman was asked to fill out a questionnaire requiring approximately 45 minutes to complete. Only a selected portion of the data will be presented in this paper.

Variables Used The questionnaire contained the usual demographic measures. In addition, in order to develop measures of role orientations, meal preparation styles, and food shopping goals and behavior, we put together a list of 91 AIO items including 19 role orientation items, 27 in-home meal preparation items, 20 shopping goal items, and 25 shopping behavior items.

Some of the AIO items were obtained from published studies (Reynolds, Wells, and Crask 1977; Ar- nott 1972; Wells 1971). Others were developed by the researchers since no psychographic studies investigated food preparation styles and shopping strategies in suffi- cient depth. The questionnaire was pretested on several small groups of homemakers.

Separate, split-half, varimax factor analyses (n = 84, n = 85) were conducted on each of the four groups of items in order to reduce them to a more parsimoni- ous, statistically independent, and reliable set of constructs. The items which loaded on either or both splits and two reliability tests for each factor are presented in Tables 1 through 4. Burt's coefficient of concordance measures factor stability, with coefficients in the range of .93 to .99 being considered highly stable, and coefficients of .45 and below being rejected as unstable (Harman 1967). Cronbach's alpha measures the inter- nal consistency of the scales, which were computed by using variables which loaded at a .40 level or better on

either or both of the split halves. An alpha of .70 to .98 is considered quite reliable, while values as low as .35 have been found acceptable when used with other measures (Guilford 1975). Face validity also is high because all factors are easily interpretable.

The factor analysis of the role orientation items (Table 1) produced the two standard orientations: Traditional and Contemporary. Items which load on the "Traditional Orientation" reflect male leadership in financial matters and preference for the homemaker, as opposed to a wage-earner, role. Items which load on the "Contemporary Orientation" reflect desire for shared home duties and decision making, for freedom in occupational choice, and some concern with saving time.

Factor analysis of the food preparation-related items produced five factors shown in Table 2. The first, "Joy of Cooking," contains items which deal with good cooking and creating new and unusual dishes. The second factor depicts "The Service Role," reflecting a desire to please one's family by preparing good meals, and a willingness to spend time doing so. We labeled the third factor "Anti-Cooking." Items which load on it indicate a desire for meals that can be prepared quickly and or eaten outside the home to avoid the disliked and time-consuming tasks of cooking and clean-up. Factor four describes a "Sensory Orienta- tion" to foods. Spices, herbs, wines, and sauces are used to prepare a variety of unusual dishes and meals. The fifth factor is called "Food is Fuel" because the two items that load on it represent a pragmatic concern for the healthful, nutritional aspects of food rather than its sensory or creative cookery aspects.

The factor analysis of the shopping goals items (Table 3) produced the three basic constructs hypothesized. The first indicates a "Concern for Time." All the items which load on it reflect a desire to accomplish one's food shopping as quickly as possible. The high loading items in the second factor indicate that saving money and budgeting are important, thus reflecting a "Concern for Price." The third factor contains items which indicate a "Concern for Quality."

Table 4 presents the results of the factor analysis of the food shopping variables. The first factor contains items which describe list-making behavior prior to actual food shopping. Items loading on the second factor describe activities designed to save money while shopping, such as purchase of specials and use of coupons. The items loading most heavily on the third factor describe careful attention to point of sale information such as labels and unit prices.

Results This section will first present and discuss bivariate relationships between demographic variables and the




factors presented in Tables 1-4, and between the factors themselves. Next, it will present and discuss the results

TABLE 1 Factor Analysis of Role Orientation Items

Traditional Contemporary Orientation Orientation

Splits Splits A B A B

A woman should not expect to go to the same places or have the same freedom of action as a man. .61 .27

Having a job outside the home is an important satisfaction in a woman's life. .35 .63

I wouldn't take a job unless we needed the money. .42 .85

The best way of life for me would be a traditional marriage with the husband assuming the responsibility for providing for the family and the wife running the house and taking care of the children. .52 .68

I want my husband to help me with housework. .59 .21

Women should subordinate their career to home duties to a greater extent than men. .52 .43

A woman should not let children interfere with her career. .08 .57

My husband's opinions are very important in determining whether or not I would work. .62 .34

The word "obey" should be removed from the marriage service. .69 .59

Managing a household can be a rewarding career. .29 .71

The husband should be regarded as the legal representative of the family in matters of law. .66 .69

I never seem to have enough time to get things done. .23 .57

The best way of life for me would be some arrangement other than marriage - staying single, living with a group of people, etc. .07 .69

Motherhood is the ideal "career" for most women. .58 .76

Girls should be trained to be homemakers and boys for an occupation suited to their talents. .77 .66

The best way of life for me would be a marriage where both husband and wife work and share homemaking and child care responsibilities. .65 .72

In order to get everything done, I have to operate on a very careful schedule. .14 .59

It is all right for women to work, but men will always be the basic bread winners. .77 .78

Her sex should not disqualify a woman from any occupation. .50 .71

% of Explained Variance .38 .54 .31 .28 Burt's Coefficient .84 .62 Cronbach's Alpha .84 .54




of a multiple correlation using demographics, role orientations, and food preparation styles as independent variables. These data are based on the 131 respondents who completed all of the demographic questions.

Both tables and text will be presented for the mul- tivariate analysis. The bivariate analysis is based on Pearson correlation coefficients. Only those variable pairs with correlation coefficients significant at or be-

TABLE 2 Factor Analysis of Food Preparation Items

Joy of The Service Sensory Food Cooking Role Anti-Cooking Orientation is Fuel Splits Splits Splits Splits Splits

A B A B A B A B A B

At home we usually eat quickly prepared meals rather than more carefully prepared dishes of various flavors. -.72 -.22

When I give a dinner party I feel my guests will judge me by the food I serve. .25 .52

A wife who is not a good cook owes it to her husband to work at improving her cooking. .09 .41

Cooking is very creative. .42 .64 I am disappointed in myself when dinner

is a flop. .29 .69 I worry about my family's nutrition. .58 -.03 I feel good when I spend a lot of time

making dinner for my family. .41 .34 -.25 -.44 I like to serve unusual dinners. .26 .47 .53 .54 Dishes cooked in wine or sauces appeal to me. .15 .63 I am an excellent cook. .65 .65 I have better ways to spend my time than

in grocery shopping and cooking. -.47 -.08 .34 .69 It is the wife's responsibility to keep

her family healthy by serving nutritious meals. .47 .08

Winning my family's praise for my cooking is important to me. .58 .59

The main reason we eat out is that it saves cooking and cleaning up time. .63 .60

The main value of food should be in its nourishment rather than in its taste or flavor. .75 .85

In planning menus, the food preferences of other family members should be more important than the wife's. .51 .30

I prefer meals that can be prepared quickly. .54 .70

I like to read magazine articles that offer new food ideas and recipes. .20 .53

I like spices and herbs in or on my food. .43 .77 I love to cook. .73 .75 It is more important to choose foods with

the proper amount of calories, minerals, and vitamins than foods which can be enjoyed for their various tastes. .55 .62

% of Explained Variance .39 .36 .13 .19 .10 .13 .08 .09 .07 .08 Burt's Coefficient .79 .58 .82 .68 .70 Cronbach's Alpha .77 .80 .73 .57 .67




TABLE 3 Factor Analysis of Shopping Goal Items

Concern Concern Concern for Time for Price for Quality

Splits Splits Splits A B A B A B

Food shopping takes up too much of my time. .69 .69

I dislike food shopping very much. .71 .82

In buying food for my family, price is no object. -.34 -.80

I'm very fussy about the food I buy. .79 .46

The quicker I get my food shopping done the better. .45 .85

I have better ways to spend my time than in grocery shopping and cooking. .52 .63 .44 -.04

I buy only the best of food for my family. .75 .76

In food shopping I try to save money whenever I can. .53 .50

I feel I am very competent at selecting food to buy. .05 .67

I carefully budget my food expenditures. .64 .47

% of Explained Variance .21 .27 .11 .19 .27 .15 Burt's Coefficient .92 .73 .64 Cronbach's Alpha .74 .62 .59

yond the .05 level will be discussed.

Relationships Between Demographic Variables and Psychographic Factors As expected, "Traditional Orientation" women are older, have been married longer, have larger house- holds with teenagers present, and tend not to have small children. They tend not to have worked in the past and do not plan to do so in the future. They tend to be lower in income and have husbands of lower occupational status. Fewer demographics correlate with a "Contem- porary Orientation" which is independent of age, and comprised of women who are more likely to be working now and even more likely to plan to work in the future.

Significant correlations between the food preparation style factors and demographics also appeared, but strongly with only one or two styles. The "Joy of Cooking" factor is independent, and "Sensory Orien- tation" is almost independent of demographics. The pattern of correlations with the "Service Role" was strikingly similar to that observed between the traditional orientation and demographics. The "Food is Fuel" factor also correlated with nonworking wives and with higher incomes, but with lower status husband's occupations.

There were few correlations between the demographics and shopping goals and behaviors. The "Con- cern for Time" factor was demographically independent, while the "Concern for Price" factor correlated only with lower occupational status of the husband, lower family income, and older respondents. Correla- tions with the "Concern for Quality" reflected older respondents and those with no plans for future employment.

The "Preplanning" factor correlated with the presence of teenagers and with the absence of children under age six in the household. "Price Minimization" correlated with relatively low family income and older respondents. The "Empirical" factor correlated only with income.

The number of significant correlations decreased as the analysis progressed from the role orientation factors to the food preparation styles and on to shopping goals and behaviors. Attitudes toward women's roles were related to numerous variables which encompass family life cycle stages: occupational history, plans, and status; family income; and age-related variables. No one demographic variable was strong enough to predict role orientation. There was instead a complex inter- mingling of influences which affected women's role




orientations. The demographic effects were less strong with regard to food shopping (i.e., outside the home)

TABLE 4 Factor Analysis of Shopping Behavior Items

Price Preplanning Minimization Empirical

Splits Splits Splits A B A B A B

I keep a running list of certain things such as staples, adding an item to the list when we run low on it. .41 .62

I watch for the lowest possible prices when I shop. .49 .64

I use a list when shopping for food. .84 .87

I buy the highest quality food available. .06 .51

I compare labels to select the most nutritious food. .65 .64

I notice when products I buy regularly change in price. .38 .61

Before I go to do a big food shopping, I make a list of everything we need. .85 .86

I shop for specials in food. .53 .76

If the store has very long lines that day I leave without buying anything. .44 .07

If a product isn't wholesome I won't buy it. .53 .40

I keep a running list of everything we need, adding an item to the list when we run low on it. .61 .77

Before I go to do a big food shopping, I make a list of certain things, such as staples, that we need. .76 .86

I use the unit price information in stores in order to select the most economical brands. .48 .44

I use the coupons I receive in the mail or get from the newspapers. .89 .60

I watch for ads in the newspaper for store specials and plan to take advantage of them when I go shopping. .87 .60

I make a shopping list to guide my food purchases. .78 .77

I purchase products in the supermarket that I hadn't planned to buy before I came to the store. .43 -.16

I compare labels to decide which brand to buy. .48 .81

I prefer to buy imported and gourmet products. .12 -.44

I look for new and different products to serve my family. .06 .43

% of Explained Variance .43 .48 .27 .20 .15 .18 Burt's Coefficient .96 .73 .73 Cronbach's Alpha .87 .74 .68




strategies and behaviors (H4).

Relationships Between Sets of Psychographic Factors We calculated correlations between the Role Orienta- tion and the Food Preparation Style factors and found "Traditional Orientation" was highly correlated with the "Service Role," negatively correlated with "Anti-Cooking," and positively correlated with "Food is Fuel," strongly suggesting an orientation toward the dutiful roles of "wife and mother." The respondents who are oriented toward traditional roles, then, do not seem to cook for pleasure. Instead, they cook because they have a sense of responsibility to provide satisfying and nutritious meals for their families.

"Contemporary Orientation" correlated positively with both the "Anti-Cooking" and the "Joy of Cook- ing" factors. This result appears clearly contradictory, but there is an interpretation that resolves the contradic- tion. Reynolds, Crask, and Wells (1977) present strong evidence that women's attitudes toward their basic roles have undergone, and probably still are undergo- ing, rapid and drastic change. In such a pei-iod, the other attitudes (specifically in this case, attitudes toward food and preparation) that are linked to the basic, rapidly changing role attitude, could be quite varied and/or could change less rapidly. The result would then be that within the group which has a general orientation toward the contemporary role there is room for a variety of attitudes toward the specific activity of food preparation. In any event, it is likely that the contemporary woman would interpret these results by explaining that the contemporary orientation liberates women from the obligation of cooking. Once freed from that obligation, women may then choose to enjoy or not to enjoy the activity.

"Traditional Orientation" was most highly correlated with "Concern for Quality," had a small correlation with "Price Minimization," and a negative correlation with "Concern for Time." This indicates that the traditional woman wants to provide high quality food for her family at a reasonable cost, with little concern about the shopping and meal preparation time required.

The "Contemporary Orientation" showed a positive correlation with "Concern for Time" and "Empir- ical" shopping behavior. This reflects the use of primarily point-of-purchase information in an attempt to save time.

There were also correlations between the Food Preparation Style and Shopping Strategy and Behavior factors. "Joy of Cooking" was positively correlated with "Concern for Quality," which is reasonable since good cooking and quality ingredients go hand-in-hand.

The "Service Role" was positively correlated with "Concern for Quality" and negatively correlated with "Preplanning" and "Concern for Time." The high level of quality-consciousness and the lack of concern about time expended fit with the traditionalist nature of this service orientation. The negative correlation with "Preplanning" suggests that the type of organization inherent in list making behavior may not be a necessary aspect of the "Service Role.''"Anti-Cooking" had a high positive correlation with "Concern for Time" and a high negative correlation with "Concern for Qual- ity." Negative, although less high, correlations also were found with "Price Minimization," "Empirical Shopping Behavior," and "Concern for Price." Ap- parently, "Anti-Cooking" attitudes lead to rejection of virtually any cooking-related activities which promise to be time-consuming. The "Sensory Orientation" shows a positive correlation with "Concern for Qual- ity" and "Empirical" behavior. This implies that a desire for aesthetically pleasing food would cause a homemaker to examine products carefully before purchase in order to verify quality. The "Food is Fuel" factor is uncorrelated with shopping strategies and behaviors.

Multiple Correlation Results In order to completely test H3 and H4, a multiple correlation analysis was conducted using a split-half technique to validate the results. Each of the six Shop- ping Goals and Behaviors, in turn, was used as the dependent variable. Independent variables were en- tered in hierarchical fashion-first, the five Food Prep- aration Style factors, then, the two Role Orientation factors, and finally, the set of demographic variables used in the bivariate analysis. For each of these analyses, Table 5 presents the R2 for the set of Food Preparation Style factors, followed by the incremental R2 produced by the addition of, first, the Role Orienta- tion factors and then the demographics. Coefficients for the variables which were significant in the final equation also are presented.

It should be pointed out that the results of these analyses are not in all cases stable enough to be conclu- sive. The patterns in the amount of variance explained by each of the three sets of variables are quite similar for each analysis, although the actual R's sometimes dif- fer. The betas for variables which are significant in the final equation, however, lack stability in some in- stances. At the very least, the results do seem to point the way toward further research which should be useful in helping specify determinants of women's food shopping behavior. On the other hand, someone with strong priors could consider these results actionable. It also should be noted that simple, stepwise regressions on the




TABLE 5 Summary of Results of Regression Analyses

Dependent Variables Independent Variables

Food Preparation Role Demo- Final Regression Equation Styles Orientation Graphics Variables* Regression

Split A/Split B Split A/Split B Split A/Split B Coefficients R2 R2(ncremental R2) R2(lncremental R2) Split A/Split B

Concern .23/.46 .26/.49 .40/.56 Anti-Cooking .40/.68 for (.03/.03) (.14/.07) Contemporary Orien. .14/.29 Time

Concern .17/.06 .21/.13 .37/.37 Food is Fuel .35/-.34 for (.04/.07) (.16/.24) Family Income .69/.27 Price

Concern .32/.44 .34/.47 .43/.62 Anti-Cooking -.48/-.52 for (.02/.03) (.09/.15) Presence of Teenagers .09/.31 Quality

Pre- .11/.12 .13/.22 .33/.52 The Service Role -.26/-.64 planning (.02/.10) (.20/.30) Anti-Cooking -.07/-.31

Family Income .37/-.11 Presently Employed -.40/.45 Presence of Teenagers .03/.33 Respondent's Age -.27/-.59

Price .20/.16 .21/.22 .48/.42 "Joy of Cooking" -.40/.03 Minimization (.01/.05) (.27/.20) Anti-Cooking .13/-.44

Sensory Orientation .69/-.34 Family Income .40/.21

Empirical .27/.15 .29/.24 .58/.39 (.02/.09) (.29/.15)

Sensory Orientation .77/.17 Food is Fuel .28/.14 Traditional Orien. -.39/.32 Presence of Teenagers -.40/. 10 Presence of Children

Under 6 years -.36/-.19 Presently Employed -.78/-.04 Family Income .32/.17

*Variables in the final equation are those with sig. < .05 (F=4.0) Durbin-Watson for Split A Ranges from 1.6 to 2.1 Durbin-Watson for Split B Ranges from 1.9 to 2.4

two subsamples showed somewhat more stability, but were rejected in favor of the hierarchical approach which provides a better test of our hypotheses. All analyses had acceptably low levels of multicollinearity.

An examination of the individual equations in Table 5 indicates that the Food Preparation Style factors did account for the largest portion of explained variance in only two of the six equations-'"Concern for Time" and "Concern for Quality." This is reasonable when one considers the nature of the dependent variables themselves and the fact that the "Anti-Cooking" factor had the largest betas in both equations. These two

Shopping Goal factors, then, appear to have their basis in life-styles. A "Concern for Quality" when shopping for food stems primarily from the pleasure derived in preparing good meals while "Concern for Time" stems from a negative attitude toward meal preparation, coupled with an orientation toward expanded roles for women.

At the other extreme, in the "Concern for Price" and "Price Minimization" equations, the demographic variables contributed as much or more of the explained variance than did all the life-style factors. While both the "Concern for Price" goal and the "Price Minimiza-




tion" behavior appear to be best explained by lower family income, the instability of the life-style variables makes it obvious that there may be subsegments or price sensitive shoppers that were not fully defined by this data. This suggests two hypotheses. First, there are two dimensions of price-sensitive shopping: concern for lowest possible food bill, and concern for receiving the best value for one's money. This hypothesis is substantiated by a .52 correlation between "Concern for Price" and "Price Minimization." While this correlation is relatively high, the two factors are clearly not direct substitutes. The second hypothesis, suggested by the opposite signs of all life-style factors in both equations, is that within each price-sensitive group there are at least two subgroups. One also is concerned about the nutritional and aesthetic aspects of meals while the other is not.

Demographics also make a large contribution to the explained variance in the "Preplanning" and the "Em- pirical" equations. The results for "Preplanning" suggest the hypothesis that this behavior is most com- mon among older respondents. Further research might find it useful to ask whether this subgroup does many things "the same way my mother did" and whether they are highly organized in their approach to a variety of household tasks. With regard to the "Empirical" behavior, it seems reasonable to suspect that this practice may be followed for a multiplicity of reasons, thus producing more than one subgroup of empirical shoppers. Some may prefer to judge the aesthetics and quality of food products at the point of purchase, others may rely on observation to stimulate menu ideas while still others may act empirically for price-oriented reasons. More detailed information is clearly needed in this area.

But it does appear clear from the results of the multiple correlation that the food preparation styles contribute more to an explanation of general shopping patterns than do role orientations. It also is evident that the origins of women's food shopping behaviors are much more complex than the conceptualizations used by this or previous research. Larger samples and more in-depth questioning will be necessary to clarify issues raised by these data. Further life-style-oriented research should be able to specify general shopping patterns and offer considerable insight into choices between various product categories and perhaps into choices between clearly positioned brands within product categories.

It is also clear from these results that a significant amount of the variance in food shopping goals and behaviors remains unexplained. It could be that our food preparation styles did not cover the full range of possibilities. However, a careful examination of the

factors indicates that positive versus negative attitudes as well as sensory versus pragmatic and family- centered versus somewhat individually-centered approaches were uncovered. A second explanation might be that shopping goals and behaviors are embedded in patterns of family influence, decision making, and task assumption or sharing, and therefore can be explained only by a thorough investigation of family structure and behavior as it relates to meal preparation and food shopping. This seems to be especially worthy of further study along with a third hypothesis that shopping goals and behaviors are determined, in part, by situations. One has different goals and behaviors when shopping for food destined for pick-up meals than when shopping for food destined for Sunday or company dinners.

Conclusions The results of this study carry previous work at least one significant step further. The earliest of the recent studies on this topic demonstrated that the wife's employment status affected her food shopping behavior (Editor and Publisher 1972). Subsequent studies indi- cated that attitudinal constructs such as role or career orientations were more important than employment status. Our study finds neither employment nor role nor career orientation has much effect on food shopping behavior. However, food preparation interests strongly effect reported shopping goals and behaviors.

Because our study population is small and re- stricted, it is possible to dismiss the results we have reported on grounds of a statistical aberration, a bias of one sort or another, or as of limited generalizability. However, it is inescapable that the results do make sense. A working wife with children at home is no longer a rare phenomenon; over 50% of married women whose husbands are present and who have one or more children at home under age 18 were working in 1975, and 34% of such women with a child at home under age 6 were working. Moreover, the concept of the working wife is accepted even by women who would not choose paid employment outside the home for themselves. In a national study conducted in 1975 (Bryant 1977), a majority of women interviewed agreed that a woman could combine motherhood and a career. Given such high rates of participation in the labor market and the even higher rates of acceptance of this participation, it is reasonable to conclude that both the concept and the practice of working while being a wife and mother are becoming both institutionalized and integrated into many women's daily lives. Women are simply learning to manage their shopping and food preparation activities in accordance with their desires, rather than their job demands.




We have observed an increasing tendency to recognize and advertise specifically either to working wives, or to housewives. The working wife may be approached with a time-saving appeal while the housewife may be approached as though she were automati- cally nutrition conscious. While the distinctive recognition the advertiser gives to each of these two roles and the concomitant assumed food preparation orientation might be welcome reinforcement to the woman who strongly thinks of herself as occupying one role or the other, such role recognition may make less sense if the goal is to market food, or to encourage a visit to a specific food store. It may be far better to appeal instead to the food preparation style most appropriate to a desired product or store position. For instance, a specific section of the store devoted to quickly-prepared foods would be attractive to the "Anti-Cooking" woman, especially if it is coupled with quick checkout services. Advertising appeals should be independent of the woman's work orientation. That is, instead of specifically showing a working woman in a time-saving situation, recognize that the contemporary woman has multiple demands on her limited time whether or not she is employed.

In making such appeals it might be useful to re- member that the food preparation styles used in this analysis were not completely independent of demographics. While we found no evidence of an "employment gap," we did find evidence of a generation gap. Age was a strong predictor of a traditional food preparation orientation and therefore advertising so oriented should be specifically directed at older women, if used. For instance, the relationships of age and a traditional orientation toward quality meals as a part of the homemaker's service to her family may prove to be useful in increasing the impact of advertising, especially through appropriate visual cues.

But most importantly, it seems clearly evident from these data that a unidimensional view of women's roles and related behavior can lead to insignificant correlations and/or unwarranted conclusions. Whether a woman is employed outside the home or not, she is likely to hold a multidimensional view of her world and her various roles. A carefully reasoned approach to the study of women's specific role choices seems much more likely to uncover the many facets of attitudes and behavior in today's markets than does a simple analysis based on working versus nonworking wives.

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