Pennock MoralDarwinism

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Moral Darwinism Ethical Eviden ce for the Desc ent of

Man

R O B E R T T . P E N N O C K

Department of Philosophy

University of Texas

Austin Texas 78712-1180

U.S.A.

ABS TRA CT: Could an ethical theory ever play a substant ial evidential role in a scient if ic

argument for an empirical hypothesis? In The Descent of Man Darwin includes an

extended discussion of the nature of human moral i ty, and the ethical theory which he

sketches is not simply dev eloped as an interesting ramification of his theory of evolut ion,

but is used as a key part of his evidence for human descent from animal ancestors.

Darwin must rebut the argument that , because of our moral nature, humans are essentially

different in kind from other animals and so had to have had a different origin. I trace his

causal story of how the moral sense could develop out of so cial inst incts by evolut ionary

mechanisms of group selection, and show that the form of Uti l i tar ianism he propo ses

involves a radical reduction of the standard of value to the concept of biolog ical f i tness. I

argue that this causal analysis, although a weakness from a normative standpoint, is a

strength when judged for i ts intended purpose as part of an evidential argument to

confirm the hypothesis of human descent .

Key Words: Charles Darwin, Confirmation, Descent of Man, evidence, evolut ionary

ethics, human evolut ion, Moral Darw inism

T h e i d e a t h a t b i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y m a y b e r e l e v a n t to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e t h ic s i s

t a k e n s e r i o u s l y i n a t l e a s t s o m e q u a r t e r s , b u t c o u l d t h e c o n v e r s e e v e r h o l d ? O f

c o u r s e , e t h i c s m a y g u i d e t h e b e h a v i o r o f s c i e n t is t s as m o r a l a g e n t s, b u t i t s e e m s

prima facie i m p l a u s i b l e t h a t a n e t h i c a l t h e o r y c o u l d e v e r h a v e a n y l e g i t i m a t e

b e a t i n g o n t h e e m p i r i c a l a s p e c ts o f a s p e c i f i c s c i e n t if i c p r o b l e m . D a r w i n s e n t r y

i n t o t h e f i e l d o f m o r a l s p e c u l a t i o n i n p a r ts o f

The Descent of Man and Selection

in Relation to Sex 1p r o v i d e s a n i n t e r e s ti n g c a s e s t u d y o f t h i s i ss u e , f o r i t a p p e a r s

t o b e a p o t e n t i a l c o u n t e r e x a m p l e t o s u c h a j u d g m e n t . V a l u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f a

g e n e r a l s o r t h a v e e n t e r e d s c i e n t if i c d i s c o u r s e i n t h e f o r m o f a e s t h e t ic s , o r

m e t a p h y s i c s , o r p o l i t ic a l i d e o l o g y , b u t t h is D a r w i n i a n c a s e s e e m s t o b e a u n i q u e

i n s t a n c e w h e r e a n e t h i c a l t h e o r y i s u s e d a s p a r t o f a s c i e n t i f i c a r g u m e n t , a n d

used i n a sc i en t i f i ca l l y subs t an t i a l way - t ha t i s, it i s me an t t o be seen as pa r t o f

a n e v i d e n t i a l a r g u m e n t t h a t w i l l h e l p e s t a b l i s h a c o n c l u s i o n r e g a r d i n g e m p i r i c a l

f ac t s abou t t he na tu ra l wor ld .

Biology and Philosophy10: 287-307 , 1995.

© 1995 KluwerAcademic Publishers. Printed n the Netherlands.


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28 8 ROBERT T. PENNOCK

It i s a b i t m is lead ing to ca l l wha t Darwin g ives us in the Descent an e th ica l

t h e o ry , f o r w h a t w e g e t i n t h e ch a p t e r s t h a t in c l u d e m a t e r ia l o n t h e m o ra l s e n s e

i s m o re l i k e a s k e t c h o f a n e t h i c al t h e o ry , a n d i t w i l l re q u i r e s o m e r e c o n s t ru c t i o n

t o s e e h o w t h e e l e m e n t s f i t t o g e t h e r . O n e a i m o f t h i s p a p e r i s t o p i e c e t h o s e

e l e m e n t s i n t o a w h o l e a n d t o s h o w h o w t h e v i e w t h a t e m e rg e s i s o n e t h a t

d e s e rv e s t h e n a m e M o ra l D a rw i n i s m , w i t h al l t h a t t h a t p h ra s e i m p l i es . D a rw i n

a n a l y z e d m o ra l i t y i n a t h o ro u g h l y b i o l o g i c a l m a n n e r , a n d h i s v i e w i s s u rp r i s -

i n g l y r e d u c t i o n i s t a n d r a d i c a l e v e n b y t o d a y ' s s t a n d a rd s . B u t t h e m a i n g o a l o f

the paper i s to e luc ida te the ev iden t ia l work tha t th i s e th ica l theory was sup-

p o s e d t o d o . D a rw i n ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l n a t u r e o f m o ra l i t y d o e s

n o t s i m p l y i l l u s t r a t e a n i n t e r e s t i n g r a m i f i c a t i o n o f t h e t h e o ry o f d e s c e n t w i t h

m o d i f i c a t i o n , b u t , r a t h e r , f u n c t i o n s a s p a r t o f t h e a rg u m e n t fo r t h e t h e o ry ,

s p e c i f i c al l y fo r it s a b i li t y to h a n d l e t h e p ro b l e m o f t h e o r i g i n o f

Hom o sap iens. I

l a y o u t m y i n t e rp r e t a ti o n o f D a rw i n ' s s c ie n t if i c p ro b l e m i n s e c t i o n t w o , a n d

d e s c r i b e t h e e t h i c a l t h e o ry a n d h o w i t f u n c t i o n s e v i d e n t i a l l y a s p a r t o f h i s

s o l u t io n i n s e c t i o n t h r e e. I n s e c t i o n fo u r I e v a l u a t e D a rw i n ' s c o m p a r i s o n o f h i s

theory to Ut i l i t a r i an and Kant ian theor ie s , and in sec t ion f ive I rev iew and

e v a l u a t e t h e t h e o ry i n i ts i n t e n d e d ro l e a s p a r t o f a n e v i d e n t ia l a rg u m e n t fo r t h e

d e s c e n t o f h u m a n b e i n g s f ro m a n i m a l a n c e st o r s.

II

W h e n D a rw i n p r e s e n t e d h i s t h e o ry o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n a n d d e s c e n t w i t h

m o d i f i c a t i o n i n

The Origin o f Species

h e h a d s a id o n l y t h e n t h a t l i g h t w i l l b e

t h ro w n o n t h e o r ig i n o f m a n a n d h is h i s to ry . (D a rw i n 1 9 6 4 (1 8 5 9 ), p . 4 8 8 ) B u t

D a rw i n k e p t e v e ry o n e i n t h e d a rk u n t il 1 8 7 1 , t w e l v e y e a r s a f t e r th e Origin

w h e n h e a t l a s t p u b l i s h e d t h e

Descent

p u t t i n g i n t o p r i n t h i s v i e w s o n h o w

h u m a n s f i t i n t o th e e v o l u t i o n a ry p i c tu r e . H e a i m e d t o s h o w t h a t w e h a d e v o l v e d

f ro m l o w e r a n i m a l f o rm s b y t h e s a m e p ro c e s s e s th a t h a d s h a p e d a n d c o n t i n u e t o

s h a p e t h e r e s t o f n a t u r e ' s c r e a t u r e s. B u t , o n e m i g h t a sk , h a d n o t t h e a rg u m e n t fo r

e v o l u t i o n a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e i n t h e

Origin?

I f a n y t h i n g r e m a i n e d t o b e d o n e ,

s u re l y i t w a s o n l y t o m a k e a c a s e fo r a p a r t ic u l a r pa thw ay o f d e s c e n t . D a rw i n

d o e s s u g g e s t a g e n e a l o g y , b u t c o n t r a ry t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , D a rw i n ' s m a j o r

o b j e c t i v e i n t h e Descent i s n o t t o s h o w h o w w e d e s c e n d e d , b u t r a t h e r that w e

d e s c e n d e d f r o m l o w e r f o r m s .

T h a t t h i s w o u l d r e m a i n a n i s s u e s e e m s o d d t o u s b e c a u s e w e t a k e t h e

c o n c l u s i o n t o b e i m p l i c i t i n t h e Origin w h e re D a rw i n s e t o u t t h e p ro c e s s o f

n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n a n d s h o w e d h o w m o d i f i c a t i o n o f s p e c i e s c o u l d p ro d u c e n e w

s p e c ie s . H e p r e s e n t e d t h e s c h e m a i n a f u l l y g e n e ra li z e d fo rm , s o t h e r e s h o u l d b e

n o n e e d t o r e p e a t t h e a rg u m e n t fo r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s ; w e d o n o t r e q u i r e

s u p p l e m e n t a l i n d e p e n d e n t a rg u m e n t s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t l a d y b u g s a n d w i l d e b e e s t s

e v o l v e d . S o w h y d i d D a rw i n g o t o s u c h p a in s t o s h o w s e p a ra te l y th a t t h e s p e c ie s

Hom o sap iens a l so e v o l v e d ? F ro m o u r c o n t e m p o ra ry p o i n t o f v i e w i t i s e a s y t o

fa i l to app rec ia te wh a t was fo r Darw in , i f no longer fo r us , a s ign i f i can t d i f -


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MORAL DARWINISM 89

f icul ty for the case o f human evolution. Darwin wrote in the int roduct ion to the

Descent that he was go ing to consider, "wheth er man, l ike every other species, is

descended fro m som e pre-exist ing form." (Darwin 1989 (1877), p . 2) The phrase

"l ike every other species" s ignals the source of the problem. One could not take

for granted, after all , that humans truly are l ike every other species. Before he

could get the argum ent about human descent off the ground, before he could

apply all the evidence adduced in the Origin Darwin had to show that to be the

case, for in the mid-nineteenth century i t was the common assumption that

huma ns w ere an obviou s and significant anom aly in the natural world.

This is not to say that people thought themselves not to be animals, but that

they cons idered themselves to be very special animals - animals with a dif-

ference. When Linnaeus put together his revolut ionary taxonomy of the plant

and animal kingdoms in 1735, he placed humans among the primates, in the

genus Homo but he gave no species designation and no identifying characteris-

t ics, only the Delphic injunction Nosce te ipsum - Know thyself (Linnaeus

1907 (1735)). Philosophers and theologians in the seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries frequently discussed the question of whether animals had souls, with

much of the discussion taking for granted the dualist ic posit ion that Descartes

had pu t forth which held that animals w ere jus t machines and lacked the

exclusively human mind. Ev en those who departed from the Cartes ian view and

allowed that animals might have a lesser degree of soul would then go on to

debate what other facul ty i t might be that made humans dist inct. T he influence

of Chris t iani ty , which held a "r igid dichotomy between men and animals"

(Oldroyd 1980, p. 2) no doubt accounts in large part for this stubborn assump-

tion. Oldro yd cites passages to this effect from Au gustine and Th omas Aquinas,

among others , concluding that "we have ample evidence of the long pre-

Darwinian tradit ion that saw man and animals as essentially distinct ." (Oldroyd

1980, p. 4) The view was sti l l prevalent when Darwin was writ ing. During the

latter half of the eighteenth century and into the nineteenth, natural philosophe rs

did not hesitate to mix science and religion, referring to each in support of the

other; for example, Wil l iam Paley and others frequent ly ci ted the wonderful

complexity and adaptedness of natural organisms as the basis of often elaborate

arguments from design for the exis tence of a benevolent Creator . The desi re to

learn something of God's plan as revealed in the construct ion of the world

expl ici t ly mot ivated the work of many invest igators - Linnaeus and C uvier to

nam e just tw o - and the clergyman-naturalis t was a com mon figure in scienti f ic

circles. 2 Charles Lyell , w hose gradualist geological theo ry was instrumental in

shaping Darwin's picture of the world, and who did not hesitate to reject

received Christian doctrine when it contradicted his observations, agreed

comp letely wi th the not ion that humans were moral ly and intel lectually unique

(Lye ll 1990 (1830), pp. 153-6 ) and i t is fairly clear that he conclud es they had to

have been of miraculous origin) Even i f one were to ignore the dubious

inference to miraculous origin, the presumption that humans, because of their

special faculties, are of an essentially different kind than the lower animals

effect ively blocks appl icat ion to the human case of the arguments offe red for


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e v o l u t i o n i n t h e Orig in . H u m a n s d o s e e m d i f f e re n t f r o m o t h e r a n i m a ls i n m a n y

w a y s , s u c h a s i n t h e h i g h e r f u n c ti o n s o f r e a so n , l a n g u a g e , a p p re c i a ti o n o f

b e a u t y , a n d , e s p e c i a l ly , t h e m o ra l s e n se . I f D a rw i n c o u l d n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e s e

a p p a re n t l y c l e a r d i s a n a lo g i e s t h e n h i s t h e o ry c o u l d b e t a k e n t o b e i n a p p l i c a b le t o

t h e h u m a n c a s e .

S u c h w a s t h e c o n c l u s i o n d r a w n b y A l f r e d R u s s e l l W a l l a c e , f o r e x a m p l e , w h o

h a d a r r i v e d a t t h e t h e o ry o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y a n d w h o w a s i n

o t h e r w a y s m o re D a rw i n i a n t h a n D a rw i n . W a l l a c e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e e v o l u t i o n a ry

m e c h a n i s m s t h a t s h a p e d t h e r e st o f t h e b i o lo g i c a l w o r l d c o u l d n o t e x p l a i n s o m e

charac te r i s t i c human fea tures such as ha i r l e s sness and , e spec ia l ly , our in te l l ec -

t u a l a n d m o ra l n a t u r e (K o t t l e r 1 9 7 4 , p p . 1 5 0 -5 1 ) . W a l l a c e i s a s o m e w h a t

u n u s u a l c a s e t o b e s u r e, f o r h e d i d n o t d o u b t t h a t h u m a n s w e re a n i m a ls n o r t h a t

t h e y h a d d e s c e n d e d f ro m l o w e r fo rm s , b u t t h o u g h t t h a t t h e n o n - t e l e o l o g i c a l

a c t i o n o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d a t a c ru c i a l p o i n t i n h u m a n

e v o l u t i o n b y d i r e c t g o a l -o r ie n t e d g u i d a n c e o f h i g h e r s p i ri tu a l b e i n g s . T h e re i s n o

n e e d h e re t o d i s c u s s W a l l a c e s i n t er e s t in s p ir i tu a l is m , w h i c h m a y h a v e

m o t i v a t e d h is o d d v i e w ; t h e s i g n i fi c a n t p o i n t i s t h a t s o m e o n e w h o w a s a n e x p e r t

i n t h e f i e l d a n d w h o h a d a s m u c h a p e r s o n a l s t a k e i n t h e t h e o ry o f n a t u r a l

s e l e c t io n a s D a rw i n h i m s e l f, a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e r e w e re s i g n if i c a n t d i ff e r e n c e s in

k i n d b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d t h e l o w e r an i m a l s t h at s e e m e d t o b e u n a c c o u n t a b l e o n

t h e t h e o ry o f e v o l u t i o n . T o t a k e a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , S t . G e o rg e M i v a r t , w h o

a g re e d w i t h D a rw i n o n t h e p h y s i c a l s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d l o w e r

a n i m a l s , t h o u g h t t h a t o u r m e n t a l p o w e r s w e re o f a t y p e n o t t o b e fo u n d i n t h e

l o w e r a n i m a l s . F u r t h e rm o re , h e c l a i m e d , a d i f f e r e n c e i n k i n d i m p l i e d a d i f -

f e r e n c e i n o r i g i n . (M i v a r t 1 8 8 9 , p . 5 ) T h i s w a s e x a c t l y th e i n f e r e n c e t h a t D a rw i n

h a d t o a v o i d . B e fo re h e c o u l d t a l k a b o u t h o w h u m a n s e v o l v e d ( i . e . , t h e i r

p a t h w a y o f d e s c e n t) h e h a d t o s h o w t h a t t h e y e v o l v e d , a n d t o d o t h a t h e h a d t o

s h o w t h a t h u m a n s w e re n o t d i f f e r e n t i n a n e s s e n t ia l w a y f ro m t h e l o w e r a n i m a l s.

F o r t h a t r e a s o n , I t h i n k i t is a p p ro p r i a t e to c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e k e y a rg u m e n t i n t h e

D e s c e n t i s an a rgum ent fo r c la s s inc lus ion - tha t is , fo r p lac ing hu man s unam -

b i g u o u s l y i n t h e c l a ss o f a n im a l s s o t h a t D a rw i n s t h e o ry c o u l d b e s e e n t o a p p l y .

T o m a k e h i s c a s e fo r t h e d e s c e n t o f m a n , D a rw i n h a d t o s h o w t h a t th e a p p a re n t

u n i q u e n e s s o f h u m a n i n t el l ec t u a l an d m o ra l f a c u l ti e s w a s j u s t t h a t - a p p a re n t

o n l y . H e h a d t o s h o w t h a t H o m o s a p i en s w a s j u s t a n o t h e r s p e c ie s .

W e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t s c i en t is ts h a d l o n g r e c o g n i z e d t h e p h y s i c a l s imilar i t ies

b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d t h e l o w e r a n i m a l s; t h a t t h e s k e l e ta l s t ru c t u re , f o r e x a m p l e ,

o f h u m a n s w a s s t r a i g h tfo rw a rd l y h o m o l o g o u s w i t h t h a t o f m o n k e y s , b a t s a n d

s e a l s w a s n o t a b o n e o f c o n t e n t i o n . N o r w a s t h e r e c o n t ro v e r s y a b o u t t h e o t h e r

c o m m o n h o m o l o g o u s s tru c t u re s th a t D a rw i n a d d u c e d i n th e o p e n i n g c h a p t e r s o f

t h e D e s c e n t such as musc les , b lood-vesse l s , in te rna l v i sce ra , and even the b ra in

and i t s fo lds and f i s sures (Darwin 1989 (1877) p . 6 ) . The s imi la r i t i e s in embry-

o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t w e re w i d e l y k n o w n a m o n g s c i e n ti st s , a s w e re t h e

r u d i m e n t a r y o rg a n s f o u n d i n h u m a n s . E v e r y o n e c o u l d a d m i t th a t h u m a n s w e r e

an imal - l i ke ; s u c h p h y s i c a l c o m m o n a l i t i e s t h e m s e l v e s w e re n o t d i s p u t e d , j u s t

the i r in te rpre ta t ion in f igh t o f the d i s s imi la r it i e s. Da rw in pu t fo rw ard these fac t s


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MORAL DARWINISM 291

a n d o t h e r s a s h is p o s i t i v e e v i d e n c e f o r th e d e s c e n t o f m a n f r o m a n i m a l a n c e s -

t o r s . H a v i n g a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e t h e o r y o f d e s c e n t w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n i n t h e

Origin t o m a k e h i s a r g u m e n t f o r h u m a n d e s c e n t D a r w i n a d d u c e s ju s t t h o s e s o r ts

o f f a c t s t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d a n d e x p e c t e d b y t h e c a u s a l m e c h a n i s m s o f t h e t h e o r y .

He no t es t ha t humans exh ib i t i nd iv idua l va r i a t i on , t ha t t he va r i a t i on i s i nhe r i t ed

a n d t h a t i t i s g o v e r n e d b y t h e s a m e g e n e r a l la w s a s i n a n im a l s . T h e h u m a n r a c e s

a r e c i t e d a s e x a m p l e s o f in c i p i e n t s p e c i e s , a n d t h e ir g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s tr i b u ti o n i s

s h o w n t o f o l lo w a p a t te r n s i m i l a r t o th a t o f a n i m a l s . A l so , D a r w i n p o i n t s o u t t h a t

h u m a n s a n d s o m e o t h e r a n i m a l s c a n t r a n s m i t t o o n e a n o t h e r c o m m o n d i s e a s e s ,

a n d t h a t m a n y o f t h e s a m e p a r a s it e s in f e s t t h e m ( D a r w i n 1 9 8 9 ( 1 87 7 ) , p p . 7 - 8 ) .

B u t o t h e r n a t u r a l is t s c h o s e t o i n t e r p r e t su c h p a t t e r n s a s i n d i c a ti n g t h a t G o d h a d

c r e a t e d s p e c i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i d e a l p l a n s o f a f e w g e n e r a l k i n d s . D a r w i n

c a l l e d t h is a l t e rn a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s n o s c ie n t if i c e x p l a n a t i o n ( D a r w i n 1 9 8 9

(1877) , p . 24) , bu t t he r eason ing beh ind i t i s c l ea r , a s M ivar t po in t ed ou t ; i f one

b e l i e v e s t h a t t w o t h i n g s a r e c o m p l e t e l y d i f fe r e n t in k i n d , t h e n t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f

g r a d u a l e v o l u t i o n o f o n e i n t o t h e o t h e r i s r u l e d o ut . ( T h e q u a l i fi e r c o m p l e t e l y

i s c r i t i c a l h e r e , f o r M i v a r t ' s a r g u m e n t r e l i e s o n a n o t i o n o f k i n d s t h a t i s m u c h

s t r o n g e r t h a n o u r o r d i n a r y o n e ( M i v a r t 1 8 8 9 , p . 5 & 1 3 ) . F o r h i s a r g u m e n t t o

w o r k , t h e d i f f e r e n c e m u s t b e l i k e t h a t b e t w e e n t h e t r o u b l e s o m e p h i l o s o p h i c a l

d u a l it ie s , s u c h a s b e i n g a n d n o n - b e i n g , m i n d a n d b o d y , o r c o n t i n g e n t b e i n g a n d

n e c e s s a r y b e i n g , r a t h e r th a n t h e m o r e o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n c e s o f k i n d s u c h a s

b e t w e e n s o f a s a n d c h a i r s , c h il d a n d a d u lt , o r w i n t e r a n d s p r i n g .) T h e i d e a o f t h e

i n d e p e n d e n t c r e a t i o n o f v a r i a t io n s o n a t h e m e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f it s n i c e ly w i t h

C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s f o u n d e d i n t h e b o o k o f G e n e s i s , a n d s u c h r e l ig i o u s c o n s i d e r a -

t i ons , a s p rev ious ly no t ed , were s t i l l a power fu l fo rce a t t h i s t ime . So even

t h o u g h o b s e r v e d p h y s i c a l s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e

t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n a r e p o w e r f u l p o s i t i v e e v i d e n c e f o r D a r w i n ' s c o n c l u s i o n ,

t h e y m a y b e t h o u g h t u n a v a i l i n g u n l e s s t h e p u r p o r t e d a n o m a l i e s c a n b e d e a l t w i t h

s o t h a t t h e th e o r y w i l l a p p l y t o h u m a n s l i k e e v e r y o t h e r s p e c i e s . I t i s f o r th i s

r e a s o n t h a t th e q u e s t io n o f h u m a n d e s c e n t t u r ns o n t h e s t a tu s o f o u r i n t e ll e c tu a l

a n d m o r a l f a c u l t ie s , a n d e v e n t u a l l y o n a t h e o r y o f e t h ic s .

B e f o r e l o o k i n g i n d e t a i l a t D a r w i n ' s a r g u m e n t s r e g a r d i n g m o r a l i t y a n d t h e

m o r a l s e n s e , i t w i l l b e i n s t r u c t i v e t o e x a m i n e h i s g e n e r a l m e t h o d f o r d e a l i n g

w i t h t h e p u r p o r t e d d i s a n a l o g i e s . D a r w i n a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e f o r c e o f t h e d i f-

f i c u lt i e s a n d s u g g e s t e d h i s a n s w e r t o t h e m i n t h e f o ll o w i n g p a s s a g e :

If no organic b eing excepting m an had possessed any mental power, or i f his powers

had b een o f a wholly different nature from those o f the lower animals, then we should

ne ve r hav e been able to convince ourselves that our high faculties had bee n gradually

developed. But it can be shown that there is no fundamental difference of this kind.

(Darwin 1989 (1877), p. 65)

C l e a r l y , D a r w i n i s a n t i c i p a t i n g h e r e t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e s t r o n g n o t i o n o f k i n d s

t h a t w o u l d w o r r y M i v a r t a n d o th e r s . I f t h e d i ff e r e n c e s a re o f a w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t

n a t u r e t h e n a n e v o l u t i o n a r y s t o r y i s i n t ro u b l e . T h e d i f f ic u l t y w o u l d d i s a p p e a r

i f o n e c o u l d s h o w t h a t t h e s e w e r e n o t f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e [ s ], b u t t h a t t h e y


6/21


g r a d e d i n t o o n e a n o t h e r i n g r a d u a l i n c r e m e n t s . D a r w i n ' s g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y ,

t he re fore , i s t o a rgue t ha t apparen t d i f f e r ences i n kind are ac tua l l y j us t d i f -

f e r e n c e s i n

degree .

H e s h o w s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t a m o n g h u m a n s a g i v e n t r a i t

v a r i e s g r e a t l y i n d e g r e e f r o m i n d i v i d u a l t o i n d i v i d u a l a n d f r o m c u l t u r e t o

cu l t u re , and a rgues t ha t t h i s shows the poss ib i l i t y o f t r a i t s a r i s i ng one f rom

a n o t h e r ; t h e r e i s a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n p e o p l e w h o u s e f e w a b s t r a c t t e r m s

a n d g e n i u s e s li k e N e w t o n b u t d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h is k i n d . . , a r e c o n n e c t e d b y t h e

f i n e s t g r a d a ti o n s . T h e r e f o r e i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e y m i g h t p a s s a n d b e d e v e l o p e d

i n to e a c h o t h e r ( D a r w i n 1 9 8 9 (1 8 7 7 ) , p . 6 6) . M o s t o f te n h e w il l t h e n a d d u c e

e v i d e n c e t o s h o w t h a t a n i m a l s p o s s e s s t h e s e t r a i t s i n a r u d i m e n t a r y b u t s t i l l

r e c o g n i z a b l e f o r m , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e l o w e s t h u m a n f o r m s , b u t

o c c a s i o n a l l y h e w i l l s h o w h o w s o m e h u m a n t r a it s m a y b e r e d u c i b l e to tr a it s th a t

a n i m a l s h a v e . W e g e t a n e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t o f w h a t D a r w i n i s d o i n g i n t h e

f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e , w h i c h f o l l o w s h i s a n a l y s i s o f m a n y o f t h e p u r p o r t e d

d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d o t h e r a n im a l s :

Th e difference in m ind between m an and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is

on e of degree and not o f kind. W e hav e seen that the senses and intuitions, the v arious

emotions and faculties, such as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason,

&c., of which m an boasts, m ay be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in a well-

developed condition, in the lower animals. They are also capable of some inherited

imp rovem ent . . . At what age does the new-born infant possess the pow er of

abstraction, or become self-conscious, and reflect on its own existence? We cannot

answer; nor can we answer in regard to the ascending organic scale. (Darwin 1989

(1877), p. 125-6)

D a r w i n ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l a n g u a g e ( D a r w i n 1 9 8 9 ( 1 8 7 7 ), p p .

8 4 - 9 1 ) w i l l s e r v e a s a q u i c k , c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e o f h is a p p r o a c h . H e c i te s

i n s t a n c e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g a n i m a l s i n t h e ir u s e o f i n a rt i cu l a t e c r ie s , a n d

n o t e s t h a t h u m a n s m a k e u s e o f t h e s a m e s o r t s o f c r i e s , g e s t u r e s a n d f a c i a l

e x p r e s s i o n s w h e n e x p r e s s i n g s i m p l e f e e li n g s . (D a r w i n m a d e a d e ta i l e d e x a m i n a -

t i o n o f t h is t o p i c w h i c h h e p u b l i s h e d a s T h e E x p r e ss i o n o f th e E mo t i o n s i n M a n

a n d A n i m a l s

i n 1 8 7 2 , b e t w e e n t h e f ir s t a n d s e c o n d e d i t i o n s o f t h e

Descent .

A n

a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d a r t i c u l a t e s o u n d s i s n o t u n i q u e t o h u m a n s ; d o g s c a n

u n d e r s t a n d m a n y s e n t e n c e s i n a m a n n e r s i m i l a r t o i n f a n t s . N o r i s a n a b i l i t y t o

u t t e r a r t icu l a t e sou nds un ique , fo r pa r ro t s a l so can do t h i s , ev en i n approp r i a t e

w a y s w i t h in g i v e n c o n t e x ts . ( D a r w i n i s w o r k i n g w i t h in a H u m e a n f r a m e w o r k o f

a s s o c i a t i o n o f i d e a s , a n d h e t a k e s t h e f a c t t h a t a n i m a l s c a n c o n n e c t d e f i n i t e

s o u n d s w i t h d e f i n i t e i d e a s a s a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e i r m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s m i g h t

w o r k t h e s a m e w a y . ) H e n o t e s t h a t p h i l o l o g i s t s a g r e e t h a t l a n g u a g e d e v e l o p e d

s l o w l y a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y b y m a n y s t e p s , a n d g o e s o n t o g i v e a s p e c u l a t i v e

D a r w i n i a n h i s t o r y , t o u s e P h i l ip K i t c h e r ' s n o ti o n (1 9 8 5 , p p . 1 3 2 - 3 ) , o f h o w

l a n g u a g e a n d t h e v o c a l a p p a r a t u s m i g h t h a v e e v o l v e d th r o u g h n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n .

W e m i g h t s m i l e a t t h e n a lv e t6 o f s o m e o f D a r w i n ' s p a r t ic u l a r e x a m p l e s , o r

c r i n g e a t h i s c h a u v i n i s ti c a s s e s s m e n t s , f o r e x a m p l e , o f a p p r e c i a t i o n o f b e a u t y , 4

b u t t o u n d e r c u t t h e c l a i m o f r a d i c a l d i f fe r e n c e i n k in d , h i s g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h i s

r i g h t o n t ar g et . H o w d o e s h e a p p l y i t t o th e p r o b l e m o f h u m a n m o r a l i t y ?


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MORALDARWINISM 293

III

Darwin devotes a full chapter, together with sections of others, in the escent to

an extended discussion of the moral sense. He acknowledges immediately that

we cannot properly attribute morality to the lower animals, so, although he

follows the general strategy outlined above, the tactic of showing rudimentary

counterparts to the human trait in the animal kingdom is not open to him.

Instead he must use a reductionist approach that, when spun out, forms the basis

of what could have become a full-blown ethical theory. The kernel of the

position is put forward in the bold hypothesis:

...that any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the parental

and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense or

conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well, or nearly as well

developed, as in man (Darwin 1989 (1877), p. 98).

The moral sense is thus an emergent property based upon social instincts and

expressed once a threshold level of intelligence is reached. But there is a

complicated story behind this pithy formulation and we need to understand its

details before we can appreciate the moral implications of Darwin's claim.

By social instincts Darwin means those instincts that lead animals to take

pleasure in each other's company and to feel some bond of sympathy with

one another. Animals which herd or flock or which associate in troops or

groups, as well as the social insects, exhibit these traits. Consistent with his

strategy, Darwin means by pleasure and sympathy what we normally mean

by these words when we apply them to humans, though in a lesser degree.

Everyone would admit that dogs can feel pleasure, but Darwin goes further and

says that it is possible that even ants feel a kind of low-grade pleasure. In his

typical fashion, Darwin provides dozens of examples to show that sympathy

exists and how it functions among animals in like manner as it does among

ourselves. Instincts, according to Darwin, are inherited habit[s] (1989 (1877),

p. 75) and have a fixed and untaught character (1989 (1877), p. 67). Most

important, they can develop by means of the basic evolutionary mechanisms. He

writes that the development o f social instincts,

... may be attributed in part to habit, but chiefly to natural selection. With those

animals that were benefited by living in close association, the individuals which took

the greatest pleasure in society would best escape various dangers, whilst those that

cared least for their comrades, and lived solitary, would perish in greater numbers

(Darwin 1989 (1877), p. 105).

Likewise, intelligence is a variable property and can undergo change in the

processes of descent with modification. It is a more complex trait though, and

Darwin has in mind some specific intellectual abilities, namely, memory,

imagination and language, that are relevant for the development of the moral

sense.

The story of that development goes as follows. Animals endowed with the

social instincts feel a certain commonality and sympathy with their fellows, that


8/21


l e a d s t h e m t o t e n d t o p e r f o r m v a r i o u s s e r v i c e s f o r e a c h o t h e r. 5 T h e s e m a y b e

d e f i n i te s e r v i c e s , su c h a s m u t u a l g r o o m i n g , b u t m a y b e c o m e , i n t h e h i g h e r s o c i a l

a n i m a l s , a w i s h t o a i d in g e n e r a l w a y s . ( W h a t D a r w i n i s d e s c r i b i n g i s v e r y l i k e

r e c i p r o c a l a l t r u i s m . D a r w i n c o m e s r e m a r k a b l y c l o s e t o t h i s s o c i o b i o l o g i c a l

v i e w , t h o u g h , n a t u ra l ly , h e h a s n o i n k l in g o f t h e g e n e t i c f a c to r s , f o r h e o b s e r v e s

t h a t s y m p a t h y a n d t h e d e s i r e t o a i d d o n o t e x t e n d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y , b u t o n l y

to

those ind iv iduals o f the same assoc ia t ion . The soc i a l i ns t i nc t s , t hough l e s s

p o w e r f u l i n t h e s h o r t ru n , a r e m o r e v i v i d a n d e n d u r i n g t h a n o t h e r in s t in c t s l i k e

t h a t o f h u n g e r . I n c r e a s e d i n t e l l i g e n c e i m p r o v e s m e m o r y a n d i m a g i n a t i o n ,

b r i n g i n g i m a g e s o f p a s t a c t io n s a n d m o t i v e s c o n s t a n t ly t o m i n d , a n d w i t h t h e m

t h e d i s s a t i s f a c t io n o r e v e n m i s e r y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u n s a t i s fi e d i n st in c t s.

T h e s e f e e l i n g s w i l l b e c o m e t h e v o i c e o f c o n s c i e n c e . T h e i d e a t h a t t h e c o n -

s c i e n c e i s a n o u t g r o w t h o f i n s ti n c ts a n d i n t e l li g e n c e s e e m s t o h a v e f i rs t o c c u r r e d

t o D a r w i n o n O c t o b e r 3, 1 8 38 , a s n o t e d o n t h e s e c o n d p a g e o f h i s N

N o t e b o o k , a n d h e i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z e d i t a s a c a p i t a l v i e w ( B a r r e t t 19 74 ,

p p . 6 9 - 7 0 ) . C a r e m u s t b e t a k e n o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n s c i e n c e a n d t h e

m o r a l s e ns e . T h e m o r a l s e n s e t e ll s u s w h a t t o d o , w h i l e c o n s c i e n c e r e p r o v e s

us i f w e d i sobe y [ the m ora l sense ] (Darw in 1989 (1877) , p . 116). Th i s is t he

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m o r a l p r e s c r i p t i o n s a n d t h e m o t i v a t i o n t o f o l l o w t h o s e

p r e s c r i p t i o n s , b u t D a r w i n i s n o t a l w a y s p r e c i s e a b o u t t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , a n d

s o m e t i m e s s e e m s t o s a y t h a t t h e m o r a l s e n s e i s a l s o a m o t i v e . I n t e l l i g e n c e a l s o

b r i n g s w i t h i t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s o p h i s t ic a t e d la n g u a g e t h a t a l lo w s c o m m u n i c a -

t i o n o f n e e d s a n d d e s i r e s a n d o f a p p r o v a l o r d i s a p p r o v a l w h e n t h e y a r e o r a r e n o t

m e t . S i n c e t h e s o c i a l i n s t i n c t s c a u s e t h e a p p r o b a t i o n o f f e l l o w s t o b e h i g h l y

v a l u e d , a n d b e c a u s e r e a s o n a n d f o r e s i g h t n o w a l l o w t h e w e i g h i n g o f t h e

c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p o s s i b l e c o u r s e s o f a c ti o n , th e o r g a n i s m i s a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t

i t shou ld no t , and indeed o u g h t n o t , b e s w a y e d e v e n b y s t r o n g d e s i r e f o r

t r a n s i t o r y p l e a s u r e o r a g a i n s t t r a n s i t o r y p a i n f r o m c h o o s i n g t h a t a c t i o n

d e m a n d e d b y i n s t in c t i v e s y m p a t h y . T h i s f e e l in g o f t h e o u g h t i s t h e m o r a l

i m p e r a t i v e . S y m p a t h y i s t h u s t h e f o u n d a t i o n - s t o n e ( D a r w i n 1 9 8 9 (1 8 7 7 ) , p .

1 0 0 ) n o t o n l y o f t h e s o c i a l i n s t i n c t s b u t a l s o o f m o r a l i t y . I t i s b e c a u s e o f

i n s t i n c t i v e s y m p a t h y t h a t w e f e e l a n o t h e r ' s p l e a s u r e s a n d p a i n s a s o u r o w n a n d

a r e t h u s a r e l e d t o f e e l t h e m o r a l i m p e r a t i v e t o t r y t o e n h a n c e t h e f o r m e r a n d

r e l i e v e t h e l a tt e r. W i t h t h e a d d i t io n o f r e a s o n t o g u i d e a n d r e f i n e o u r c h o i c e s a n d

b e h a v i o r s , i t is e a s y t o s e e h o w w e m i g h t e v e n t u a l l y e x p r e s s th i s i m p e r a t i v e a s a

r u l e t h a t w o u l d b e p h r a s e d i n f a m i l i a r t e r m s ; D a r w i n w r i t e s , w i t h a p p a r e n t l y

c o m p l e t e c o n f id e n c e ,

. . . the social instincts . . . with the aid of active intellectual powers and the effects of

habit, naturally lead to the golden rule, As ye would that m en should do to you, do ye

to them likewise ; and this lies at the foundation o f morality. (Darwin 1989 (1877), p.

126)

T h e b e a s t is b e c o m e m o r a l.

I t s e e m s c l e a r t h a t D a r w i n t h o u g h t t h a t d r a w i n g t h e l i n k t o t h e G o l d e n R u l e

w a s t h e m o s t e f f e c ti v e m e a n s o f s h o w i n g t h a t w h a t w e b e l i e v e to b e t h e e s s e n c e


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MORAL DARWINISM 29 5

o f m o ra l i t y c o u l d i n d e e d h a v e a r i s e n f ro m a n i m a l i ns t in c t s. B u t h e w e n t f u r t h e r

a n d w o rk e d t o s h o w t h a t h is c o n s t ru a l w a s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h n o t o n l y th e G o l d e n

R u l e , b u t a l s o t h e b e st e t h i c al th e o r i e s o f h i s d a y - t h o s e o f Im m a n u a l K a n t a n d

John S tua r t Mi l l .

I f w e m u s t g i v e D a rw i n a r e a d y -m a d e e t h i c a l l a b e l t h e n i t i s c e r t a i n l y

U t i l i t a ri a n . H e e n d o r s e d M i l l ' s G re a t e s t H a p p i n e s s P r i n c ip l e , w h i c h s t a te s th a t

a c t i o n s a r e r i g h t i n p ro p o r t i o n a s t h e y t e n d to p ro m o t e h a p p i n e s s; w ro n g a s t h e y

tend to p ro du ce the reve rse o f happ iness , (Mi l l 1957 , p . 10) wi th happiness

c a s h e d o u t a s p le a s u re a n d a b s e n c e o f p a in . B u t h e s o u g h t to i m p ro v e u p o n t h e

t h e o ry , o f f e r i n g a n a m e n d e d v e r s i o n t h a t w o u l d b e t t e r a n s w e r t h e In t u i t i o n i s t s

tha t Mi l l was cha l leng ing . Acc ord in g to Mi l l , the mo ra l facu l ty i s no t inna te ,

b u t a c q u i r e d , ( 1 9 5 7 , p . 3 9 ) b u t D a rw i n , n a t u r a l ly e n o u g h , t h o u g h t t h is s h o u l d

b e c o r r e c t e d g i v e n h i s a c c o u n t o f i ts d e v e l o p m e n t f ro m t h e s o c ia l i n s ti n c ts . 6

F u r t h e rm o re , t h e G re a t e s t H a p p i n e s s P r i n c i p l e s h o u l d n o t b e s e e n a s a m o t i v e ,

b u t r a t h e r a s a s t a n d a rd o f c o n d u c t . 7 F ina l ly , and th i s i s the c ruc ia l mov e ,

Darwin sugges t s a change in the Ut i l i t a r i an pr inc ip le so tha t the a im i s no t the

grea tes t happiness bu t ra the r the g rea tes t general good unders tood in a spec ia l

sense . I t i s on th i s po in t tha t we see a t l a s t wha t i s t ru ly Darwin ian in th i s

c o n c e p t i o n o f m o ra l i t y , f o r D a rw i n h a s a f u l l - b l o o d e d a n d u n c o m p ro m i s i n g

b i o l o g i c a l n o t i o n o f w h a t c o n s t i t u te s g e n e ra l g o o d . T o a p p re c i a te t h e fu l l f o r c e

of th i s conce pt ion , i t is wo r th quo t ing h i s de f in i t ion d i rec t ly :

The term, general good, may be defined as the rearing of the greatest number of

individuals in full vigour and health, with all their faculties perfect, under the

conditions to which they are subjected. (Darwin 1989 (1877), p. 121)8

T h u s , t h e m o ra l s t a n d a rd i s n o t t o b e h a p p i n e s s b u t r a t h e r r e p ro d u c t i v e s u c c e ss ,

o r , i n b i o l o g i c a l t e rm i n o l o g y , r e p ro d u c t i v e f i t ne s s. 9 M a k e t h e r e p l a c e m e n t i n

M i l l ' s f o rm u l a q u o t e d a b o v e a n d w e n o w g e t a c t i o n s ar e r i g h t i n p ro p o r t i o n a s

t h e y t e n d t o p ro m o t e r e p ro d u c t i v e f i t n e s s ; w ro n g a s t h e y t e n d t o p ro d u c e t h e

r e v e r s e o f re p ro d u c t i v e f i tn e s s . S o , in s t e a d o f a c t in g t o m a x i m i z e t h e a m o u n t o f

p l e a s u re , o n D a rw i n ' s f o rm u l a t i o n o n e s h o u l d a c t t o m a x i m i z e t h e n u m b e r o f

v igo rous of fspr ing . 10

O t h e r c o m m e n t a t o rs o f D a r w i n ' s d i sc u s si o n o f m o r a li t y h a v e o v e r l o o k e d t h is

r e d u c t i v e r e d e f i n i t i o n o f g e n e ra l g o o d w h i c h li n k s t h e u t i li ta r ia n st a n d a rd o f

mora l i ty to reproduc t ive f i tnes s . Murphy (1982 , p . 86) pas ses over th i s s ig -

n i f i c a n t d e f i n i t i o n a l m o s t w i t h o u t c o m m e n t . R i c h a rd s m e n t i o n s t h a t t h e

d e f i n i t i o n i s c o u c h e d a c c o rd i n g t o t h e c r i te r i a e n d o r s e d b y n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n

(1 9 8 7 , p . 2 1 8 ) , b u t f a il s t o m a k e t h e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e c o n c e p t o f f it n e ss , o r t o

d ra w o u t t h e r a d i c a l i m p l i c a ti o n s o f c o u p l i n g m o ra l i t y to i t. O n e s i g n i fi c a n t

c o ro l l a ry o f D a rw i n ' s v i e w i s a s p e c ia l k i n d o f e t h i c a l r e l a ti v i sm ; a l t h o u g h t h e

o v e r - a r c h i n g p r i n c i p l e o f u t i l i t y p r e s u m a b l y i s a b s o l u t e , a n d t h o u g h w i t h i n a

g i v e n s o c i a l s y s t e m c e r t a i n a c t i o n s w o u l d b e c o n t r a ry t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f

n o rm s t h a t i t h a d d e v e l o p e d e v o l u t i o n a r il y , w h e t h e r a n y g i v e n a c t i o n is m o ra l o r

i m m o ra l i s n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e r e l e v a n t p a t h w a y o f d e s c e n t . T h i s r e s u l t

d i d n o t d i st u rb D a rw i n ; i n d e e d , h e s e e m e d q u i te p l e a s e d w i t h i t, s i n c e h e t h o u g h t


10/21


i t s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s t h e o r y b y i n c r e a s i n g i t s e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r . D i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s

h a v e d i f f e r e n t e t h i c a l n o r m s a n d a m o r a l a b s o l u t i s t e i t h e r h a s t o t r y t o e x p l a i n

a w a y t h is f a c t o r e ls e c o n c e d e t h a t th e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e a r e im m o r a l ; o n

D a r w i n ' s t h e o r y s u c h d i f fe r e n c e s a r e to b e e x p e c t e d . T h a t d i f f e r e n t r a c e s s h o u l d

h a v e d i f f e r e n t m o r a l co d e s , w r o t e D a r w i n i n h i s n o t e b o o k s , is n o m o r e

w o n d e r f u l t h a n d o g s s h o u l d h a v e d i f fe r e n t i n s ti n c ts ( D a r w i n . M N o t e b o o k

p p . 7 5 - 6 . I n ( B a r r e t t 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 9 ). T h i s p o i n t w i l l b e i m p o r t a n t i n a s s e s s i n g

D a r w i n ' s m o d e l o f h u m a n e v o l ut io n i n c o m p a r i s o n t o ri va l m o d e l s .

W e f i n d f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t th i s r e l at i v is t ic b i o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t io n

a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e se n t s D a r w i n ' s v i e w i n th e f o l l o w i n g t h o u g h t e x p e r i m e n t t a k e n

f r o m t h e

Descent

w h i c h a l s o s e r v e s t o h i g h l i g h t t h e t r u l y r a d i c a l n a t u r e o f

D a r w i n ' s p r o g r a m .

If men we re reared under precisely the sam e condi tions as hive-bees, there can hardly

be a d oub t that our unm arr ied females w ould, l ike the worker-bees, th ink i t a sacred

du ty to kill their brothers, and m others w ould strive to kill their fertile d aug hters; and

no on e wo uld think of interfering. Nevertheless, the bee, o r any other social animal,

would ga in in our supposed case som e fee ling o f f igh t o r wrong , o r a consc ience . For

each individual wo uld have an inward sense of possessing cer ta in s tronger or mo re

enduring inst incts , and other less s t rong or enduring; so that there would of ten be a

strugg le as to which impu lse shou ld be follow ed and satisfaction, dissatisfaction, or

even mise ry wo uld be fe l t, as past impressions were co mp ared dur ing their incessant

passag e through the mind. I n th is case an inwa rd mo nitor would tel l the animal that i t

wou ld have been be t te r to have fo l lowed the one impulse ra the r than the o the r. The

one course ou gh t to have been fo l lowed , and the o the r no t; the one w ould have been

fight and the other w rong . . . (Darw in 1989 (1877) , pp. 99-10 0) .

T o a d a p t a w e l l - k n o w n p h r a s e , t h e p ic t u r e t h a t e m e r g e s i s o n e o f m o r a l i t y r e d i n

t o o t h a n d c l a w .

T o t el l t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y s t o r y, t h e n , o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p a r t ic u l a r s y s t e m s

o f n o r m s w o u l d b e l i k e te l li n g t h e s t o ry o f h o w a n y s p e c i e s a c h i e v e s a n i c h e i n

t h e w o r l d . O n e c o u l d d e s c r i b e t h e p r o c e s s i n t e r m s o f i n d i v i d u a l s e l e c t i o n , b u t

f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e m o r a l s e n s e D a r w i n m a k e s u s e o f a p r o c e s s o f g r o u p

s e l e c t io n , s o l e t u s t e ll t h e s t o r y i n t h o s e t e r m s . A g i v e n a s s o c i a t i o n o f o r -

g a n i s m s , b y v i r t u e o f it s s o c i a l i n s ti n c t s w o r k i n g i n a g i v e n s e tt in g , d e v e l o p s a

s e t o f m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c ia l b e h a v i o r s . A s a n e x a m p l e , D a r w i n r e p o r t s a c a s e o f

t h e r e s c u e o f a y o u n g m o n k e y b e i n g a t t a c k e d b y a n e a g le . I t cr i ed l o u d l y f o r

a s s is t a nc e , u p o n w h i c h t h e o th e r m e m b e r s o f t h e t r oo p , w i t h m u c h u p r o a r ,

r u s h e d t o t h e r e s c u e , s u r r o u n d e d t h e e a g l e , a n d p u l l e d o u t s o m a n y f e a t h e r s , t h a t

h e n o l o n g e r th o u g h t o f h i s p r e y , b u t o n l y h o w t o e s c a p e ( D a r w i n 1 9 8 9 ( 18 7 7 ) ,

p . 1 0 1 - 2 ) . G r o u p s o f a n i m a l s w i t h s u c h b e h a v i o r a l t r a it s w i l l f a r e b e t t e r u n d e r

a d v e r s e c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h u s w i ll s t a n d a b e tt e r c h a n c e o f h a v i n g m o r e o f f s p r i n g

s u r v i v e t h a n th o s e w h i c h d o n o t . R e m e m b e r , a s w e ll , t h a t D a r w i n s a w n o t th e

l e a s t i n h e r e n t i m p r o b a b i l i t y i n t h e i d e a t h a t t h is s o r t o f v i r t u o u s t e n d e n c [ y ]

w a s i n h e r i t a b l e ( D a r w i n 1 9 8 9 ( 1 8 7 7 ) , p . 1 2 3 ) . S o t h u s , i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h th e

e l e m e n t s a n d w i t h o n e a n o th e r , t h e g r o u p s p r o d u c e m o r e o r f e w e r o f f s p r in g t h a t

s u r v i v e a n d i n h e r i t t h o s e b e h a v i o r s . I f o r g a n i s m s w i t h s u c h q u a l i ti e s w e r e t h e n

t o r e a c h t h e t h r e sh o l d l e v e l o f in t e ll ig e n c e , b e c o m i n g m o r a l b e i n g s , t h e y w o u l d


11/21


b e l i e v e t o b e m o r a l w h a t e v e r p e c u li a r s e t o f n o r m s h a d a l lo w e d t h e m t o a c h i e v e

t h e i r r e p r o d u c t i v e s u c c e s s . O n e c a n n o t h e l p b u t a d m i r e D a r w i n ' s d a r i n g i n

p r o p o s i n g s u c h a c o n c e p t i o n o f m o r a l i t y , a n d g i v i n g i t t h e n a m e " M o r a l

D a r w i n i s m " s e e m s c o m p l e t e l y fi tt in g .

IV

B u t n o w w e n e e d t o a s k w h e t h e r t h is is a s a t is f a c t o r y e t h ic a l t h e o r y a n d w h e t h e r

i t c a p t u r e s w h a t w e m e a n w h e n w e s a y t h a t h u m a n s a r e m o r a l b e i n g s . T h e

a n s w e r t o b o t h o f t h o s e q u e s t i o n s i s a l m o s t c e r t ai n l y n e g a t iv e . D a r w i n ' s t h e o r y ,

b r i ll i a n tl y s t i m u l a t i n g t h o u g h i t m a y b e , i s w a n t i n g i n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s .

We no t ed t ha t t hough Darwin i s ce r t a in ly a Ut i l i t a r i an , h i s i s a U t i l i t a r i an i sm

w i t h a t w i s t. A s s u c h , i t is s u b j e c t t o th e s a m e s o r t o f p r o b l e m s t h a t f a c e a n y

U t i l i t a r i a n t h e o r y , a s w e l l a s a d d i t i o n a l o n e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e e m e n d a t i o n s

D a r w i n m a d e . B u t b e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e p r o b l e m s i n d e t a i l , l e t u s b r i e f l y

c o n s i d e r t h e o t h e r e t h i c a l t h e o r y w h o s e n a m e D a r w i n c a l l s u p o n - t h a t o f

I m m a n u a l K a n t . W h a t d o e s D a r w i n s a y a b o u t K a n t ?

A n o r g a n i s m t h a t h a d s c a l e d t h e m o r a l h e i g h t s i n t h e w a y d e s c r i b e d , D a r w i n

w r o t e , " m i g h t th e n d e c l a r e . .. I a m t h e s u p r e m e j u d g e o f m y o w n c o n d u c t , a n d in

t h e w o r d s o f K a n t , I w i ll n o t i n m y o w n p e r s o n v i o l a t e t h e d ig n i t y o f h u m a n i t y "

( D a r w i n 1 9 8 9 ( 1 8 7 7 ), p . t 1 0 ) . D a r w i n ' s e x p r e s s i o n m a y b e m e l o d r a m a t i c , b u t

h e a p p a r e n t l y d i d e x p e c t t h e r e a d e r t o t a k e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s e r i o u s l y . H e s e e m e d

t o t h i n k t h a t h is b i o l o g i c a l r e d u c t io n o f m o r a l i t y n o t o n l y m e s h e d w i t h t h e

K a n t i a n n o t i o n , b u t e v e n p r o v i d e d a n a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s ti o n o f th e o r i g in o f t h e

a l l - i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t i n t h e K a n t i a n e t h i c a l s y s t e m , t h a t " w o n d r o u s t h o u g h t " -

d u t y . T h i s i s t h e p a s s a g e t h a t a s k s t h a t q u e s t i o n , w h i c h D a r w i n q u o t e s f r o m

K a n t ' s

Metaphysics of Morals

Duty W ondrous thought, that workest neither by fond insinuation, flattery, nor by

any threat, but me rely by holding u p thy naked law in the soul, and so extorting for

thyself always reverence, if not always obedience; before whom all appetites are

dumb, however secretly they rebel; whence thy original? (Darwin quoting Kant at

(Darwin 1989 (1877), p. 97))

W e m a y f i n d t h e a n s w e r t o t h a t q u e r y , D a r w i n o f f e r e d , i n t h e s o c i a l i n s t i n c t s .

A d d t o t h e s e g r o u p f e e l i n g s a s u f f i c ie n t d e g r e e o f i n te l li g e n c e a n d o n e g e t s

m o r a l b e i n g s w i t h a s e n s e o f d u t y s h a p e d b y t h e n a tu r a l c ir c u m s t a n c e s a n d

m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e o r g a n i s m s h a d e v o l v e d . W r o t e D a r w i n , " [ t ] h e i m p e r i o u s

w o r d ought s e e m s m e r e l y t o im p l y t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a r u l e

o f c o n d u c t , h o w e v e r i t m a y h a v e o r i g i n a t e d " ( D a r w i n 1 98 9 ( 1 8 7 7 ), p . 1 16 ).

T h e r e i s n o t n e c e s s a r i ly j u s t o n e r i g h t r u le o f c o n d u c t s i n c e d i f f e r e n t e v o l u t i o n -

a r y p a t h w a y s w i l l h a v e l e d t o d i f f e r e n t s tr a t e g ie s f o r m a x i m i z i n g f it n e s s.

I t is d i f f ic u l t to k n o w w h a t t o m a k e o f s u c h s t a te m e n t s , f o r t h e y a r e K a n t i a n i n

o n l y t h e m o s t t e n u o u s f a s h i o n . E x c e p t f o r a g r e e i n g t h a t m o r a l i t y r e q u i r e s a

p r e r e q u i s i t e l e v e l o f r at i o n a li ty , a n d o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f


12/21

2 9 8

R O B E R T T P E N N O C K

d u t y , D a rw i n ' s a n d K a n t ' s a n a l y s e s o f m o ra l i ty d o n o t j i b e a t a ll , a n d K a n t

h i m s e l f w o u l d h a v e b e e n a p p a l l e d t o f i n d h i s n a m e l i n k e d w i t h s u c h a v i e w a s

D a rw i n ' s . F o r K a n t , o u r k n o w l e d g e o f d u t y , t h a t i s, o f m o ra l l a w , p ro v i d e d t h e

k e y l i n k i n a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a rg u m e n t fo r f r e e w i l l , t h e n e c e s s i t y o f G o d ' s

e x i s t e n c e a n d i m m o r t a l i t y , a n d i t w o u l d h a v e f a i l e d t o s e rv e t h i s f u n c t i o n i f

r e i n t e rp r e t e d i n D a rw i n ' s n a t u r a l i z e d f a s h i o n . F u r t h e rm o re , D a rw i n ' s c a u s a l

e x p l a n a t i o n o f m o ra l b e h a v i o r a s b e i n g ro o t e d i n s o c i a l i n s ti n c ts i s q u i te a t o d d s

w i t h K a n t ' s v i e w t h a t m o ra l fe e l in g s a r e p ro d u c e d s o l e l y b y r e a s o n . A c c o rd -

i n g to K a n t , b e h a v i o r m o t i v a t ed b y a h e t e r o n o m o u s m i x t u r e o f r e a s o n an d

s e n t im e n t , a s i n t h e m a n n e r d e s c r i b e d b y D a rw i n , i s d e c i d e d l y not mora l .

S o , D a rw i n c a n ' t r i d e o n K a n t ' s c o a t t a i l s . B u t c o u l d h i s t h e o ry s t a n d o n i t s

o w n m e r i t s ? J e ff r i e M u rp h y , i n h i s Evolution M orali ty and the M eaning o f Li fe

o f f e r s a c r it iq u e o f D a r w i n ' s t h e o r y as th o u g h i t w e r e o n e o f a n a n o n y m o u s

s c h o l a r w h o s e a r ti c le o n e h a s b e e n a s s ig n e d t o r e f e r e e fo r p o s s i b l e p u b l i c a t io n i n

a c o n t e m p o ra ry j o u rn a l a n d c o n c l u d e s t h a t, t h e c a s e fo r a c c e p t a n c e ' a s i s ' w i l l

b e d o u b t fu l ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 7 9 ) . H e a rg u e s th a t D a rw i n ' s c o n c e p t o f m o ra l i ty is t o o

l i m i t e d i n th a t i t m a k e s n o p ro v i s i o n fo r w h a t w e t a k e to b e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f

e th ics , name ly jus t i ce , o r , a s he pu t s it , the de f ense of the ind iv idua l aga ins t the

c l a i m s o f t h e g ro u p (1 9 8 2 , p . 8 6 -7 ) . T h i s is c e r ta i n l y a p ro b l e m , b u t , c o n t ra ry

t o M u rp h y , w h o a t tr i b u te s i t t o D a rw i n ' s e v o l u t i o n a ry m o ra l it y , I t e n d t o t h i n k

t h a t i t i s a p ro b l e m fo r D a rw i n ' s t h e o ry s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t is a p ro b l e m fo r any

u t i li ta r i an t h e o ry a n d n o t b e c a u s e o f s o m e p e c u l i a r i ty o f h i s. I f s o , t h e n D a rw i n ' s

v i e w m a y a v a i l i t s e l f o f s t a n d a rd u t i l i t a r i a n d e f e n s e s , w h i c h m a y y e t p ro v e

w o r t h y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , I t h i n k w e c a n a g re e w i t h M u rp h y ' s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t ,

c o n s i d e re d o n i t s m e r i t s a s a n e t h i c a l t h e o ry , M o ra l D a rw i n i s m c o n t a i n s

s ign i f i can t f l aws .

On e w ay o f t e s ting an e th ica l theory , insofa r a s such th ings a re t e stab le , i s to

l o o k a t i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d s e e h o w t h e y c o m p a re w i t h o u r s t r o n g m o ra l

in tu i tions . T he n ow -c las s ic i l lus t ra tion o f the hea l thy pa t i en t , in the h osp i ta l fo r a

ro u t i n e c h e c k -u p , b e i n g c u t u p t o p ro v i d e n e e d e d b o d y p a r t s f o r f i v e d y i n g

p a t i e n t s d o w n t h e h a l l i s c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d a s a t e l l i n g c o u n t e r - e x a m p l e

aga ins t s imple u t i l i t a r i an e th ica l sys tems . Darwin ' s h ive -bee thought -exper i -

ment , s een in th i s l igh t , i s a powerfu l a rgument

against

h i s t h e o ry . T h o u g h w e

c a n c o n c e i v e o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n w h i c h i t m i g h t b e j u d g e d e t h i c a l ly j u s t i fi a b l e

t o k i l l a n o t h e r p e rs o n , w e r e b e l a t t h e n o ti o n t h at , e v e n i f w e w e re e v o l v e d f ro m

h i v e -b e e s , a m o t h e r o u g h t t o k i l l h e r f er t i le d a u g h t e rs . C o u l d w e e v e r c o u n -

t e n a n c e a s a g e n e ra l m o ra l r u l e t h a t a s i s t e r s h o u l d m u rd e r h e r b ro t h e r s ? I f

Darwin ' s theory en ta i l s such conc lus ions , and the re i s l i t t l e doubt tha t i t does ,

t h e n t h e t h e o ry l o o k s

p r i m a f a c i e

u n a c c e p t a b le . M u rp h y g ra nt s t h e r e l a ti v i s m o f

t h e h i v e -b e e e x a m p l e w i t h a p a s si n g r e f e r e n c e to H . L . A . H a r t ' s i d e a t h a t th e

m o ra l n o t i o n s o f h a rm a n d e v e n t h e c o m m a n d m e n t n o t t o k i ll w o u l d b e q u i t e

d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t t h e y n o w a r e w e re w e b o rn , s a y , w i t h h a rd e x o s k e l e t o n s

(Murphy 1982 , p . 85) . Th is i s ce r ta in ly the r igh t sor t o f t ack to t ake to t ry to

d e fe n d D a rw i n o n t h i s i s s u e , b u t i t w o u l d r e q u i r e a t h o ro u g h l y d e v e l o p e d

a rg u m e n t t o m a k e u s g i v e u p t h e s t r o n g m o ra l i n t u it io n s w e h a v e r e g a rd i n g t h e


13/21

MOR L D RWINISM 99

i n j u s t i c e o f s u c h k i l l i n g . N e i t h e r M u rp h y n o r D a rw i n a t t e m p t s s u c h a n a rg u -

m e n t .

N e x t , w e w o u l d w a n t t o a s k w h e t h e r D a r w i n c a n a v o i d c o m m i t t i n g t h e s o -

c a l l e d N a t u ra l i st i c F a l l a c y , w h i c h i n v o l v e s t r y i n g t o d e r i v e a n o u g h t f ro m a n

i s . M u rp h y th i n k s t h a t D a rw i n d o e s a v o i d it; h e c la i m s t h a t D a rw i n m a k e s n o

a t t e m p t t o d e r i v e o r r a t i o n a l l y p ro v e [ s u b s t a n t i v e m o ra l p r i n c i p l e s ] f r o m t h e

fac t s o f b io log y (1982 , p . 63) . Th is i s true on ly i f we take th is in the s t r i c te s t

s e n s e , b e c a u s e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , D a rw i n

does

give us a subs tan t ive mora l

p r i n c i p l e i n h i s c l a i m t h a t t h e n o rm s t h a t r e s u l t f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r e v o l u t i o n a ry

p a t h w a y a r e m o ra l , a n d w h e n h e e q u a t e s g e n e ra l g o o d w i t h r e p ro d u c t i v e fi t n e s s

a n d p u t s th i s i n t o M i l l 's p r i n c i p l e o f u t i li ty . A s a n e x a m p l e o f h o w D a rw i n m a y

h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t t h is c o n c e p t i o n c o u l d l e ad t o a p a r t i c u l a r m o ra l r u l e , c o n s i d e r

h i s c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t t h e i m m o ra l i t y o f a b n o rm a l s e x u a l p r a c t ic e s s u c h a s

h o m o s e x u a l i t y . D a rw i n h a d b e e n s t ru c k b y t h i s s t r i c t u r e w h e n h e w a s f i r s t

m u l l i n g o v e r h i s t h e o ry , a n d w ro t e i n h is e a r l y n o t e b o o k s t h a t i t m u s t a r i s e

b e c a u s e i n s ti n c ts to w o m e n is n o t f o l l o w e d (D a rw i n , N N o t e b o o k p . 9 9 i n

(Bar re t t 1974 , p . 88) ) . Fur the rmore , sure ly the h ive -bee presc r ip t ions count a s a t

l e a s t s p e c u la t i v e d e r iv a t i o n s f ro m t h e f a c t s o f b i o l o g y . S o m e p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e

a t t e m p t e d t o s h o w t h a t a l l s u c h d e r i v a t i o n s n e e d n o t b e f a l l a c i o u s , b u t D a rw i n

h a s n o t g i v e n u s a n a r g u m e n t t o s h o w w h y h i s w o u l d d e s e r v e a n e x e m p t i o n J 2

F u r t h e rm o re , D a rw i n i g n o re s t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f r e c o n c i l i n g h i s m o d e l o f

b i o l o g i c a l d e t e rm i n a t i o n o f m o ra l s e n s e a n d c o n s c i e n c e w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f f r e e

w i l l , w h i c h p h i l o s o p h e r s a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t a s a l o g i c a l l y n e c e s s a ry

c o n d i t i o n fo r a n y ro b u s t n o t i o n o f m o ra l a c ti o n . (W e m u s t s a y a l m o s t i n o rd e r

t o r e c o g n i z e t h e C o m p a t i b i li s t p o s i ti o n , b u t e x c e p t f o r t hi s c a m p i t i s s t a n d a rd l y

t a k e n as a l o g i c a l r u l e t h a t o u g h t i m p l i e s c a n . ) I n h i s n o t e b o o k s h e o p i n e d

f r e e w i l l & c h a n c e a r e s y n o n y m o u s . S h a k e t e n t h o u s a n d g r a i n s o f sa n d t o g e t h e r

& o n e w i l l b e u p p e rm o s t , s o i n t h o u g h t s , o n e w i l l r i s e a c c o rd i n g t o l a w

(Darw in , M N ote bo ok p . 31 in (Bar re t t 1974 , p . 11)) . Da rw in does no t expres s

th i s p robabi l i s t i c de te rmin i sm qui te a s exp l ic i t ly in the Descent but i t i s an

o b v i o u s c o ro l l a ry o f th e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t o ry h e g i v e s t h e r e , a n d i t w o u l d r e q u i r e

c o n s i d e ra b l e w o rk t o s h o w w h y t h i s a s p e ct o f t h e t h e o ry d o e s n o t u n d e rm i n e

D a rw i n ' s c l a i m t h a t h i s v i e w i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h c o m m o n e t h i c a l v i e w s . A s a n

a l t ern a t iv e , o n e c o u l d i n t e rp re t D a rw i n ' s v i e w h e re a s b e i n g i n d e t e rm i n is t ic , b u t

t o s a y t h a t a c t io n s a r e t h e r e s u l t o f m e re c h a n c e i n th a t s e n s e w o u l d u n d e rm i n e

m o ra l i ty i n a w a y t h a t i s e q u a l l y a t o d d s w i t h t h e c o m m o n v i e w o f m o ra l c h o i c e .

T h i s l a s t p o i n t r e l a te s t o a m o re g e n e ra l a n d e v e n m o re s i g n i f ic a n t p ro b l e m -

w h e t h e r o n e c a n m a k e t h e t r a n si t io n f ro m t h e c a u s a l a c c o u n t o f th e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f t h e m o ra l s e n s e t o a n o rm a t i v e e t h i c s, w h e t h e r i t b e t h e G o l d e n R u l e o r t h e

U t i l i t a r i a n n o rm a t i v e s t a n d a rd w i t h r e p ro d u c t i v e f i t n e s s i n t h e k e y p o s i t i o n . A

s i g n i f i c a n t t h e o re t i c a l g a p e x i s t s b e t w e e n s h o w i n g w h y w e f e e l w e o u g h t t o d o

X a n d s h o w i n g w h y w e o u g h t t o d o X , a n d , a t m o s t , D a r w i n h a s s h o w n o n l y th e

fo rm e r . W e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d D a rw i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n m o ra l s e n s e a n d

consc ience , and h i s sugges t ion tha t we rega rd the u t i l i t a r i an pr inc ip le a s a

s t a n d a rd t h a n a s a m o t i v e , s o h e o b v i o u s l y k n e w t h a t th e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e , b u t


14/21


e i t h e r h e d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e p r o b l e m o f m a k i n g t h e t ra n s i ti o n o r h e d i d n o t

k n o w h o w t o g o a b o u t t a c k l i n g i t . I n a n y c a s e , D a r w i n p r o v i d e s n o m e t a - e t h i c a l

s t o r y to j u s t i f y t h e c o n n e c t i o n h e m a k e s .

T h i s d o e s n o m o r e t h a n s u g g e s t s o m e p o s s i b le c ri ti c is m s o f D a r w i n ' s v i e w o f

m o r a l i t y ; t h e r e a r e , o f c o u r s e , c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t s t h a t c o u l d b e o f f e r e d , a n d

d e b a t e c o u l d p r o f i t a b l y c o n t i n u e f o r s o m e t i m e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w e n e e d n o t

p u r s u e t h i s l i n e a n y f u r t h e r h e r e f o r t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t o d o s o w o u l d r e q u i r e

t h a t w e g o w e l l b e y o n d w h a t w e h a v e i n t h e t e x t a s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n D a r w i n ' s

r e s p o n s e s w o u l d l e a d . F o r e x a m p l e , a d o p t i n g a n E m o t i v i s t m e t a - e t h i c a l v i e w

( h o l d i n g t h a t m o r a l j u d g m e n t s a r e n o t s t a t e m e n t s t h a t c o u l d b e t r u e o r f a ls e , b u t

r a t h e r a r e s i m p l y expressions o f e m o t i o n ) m i g h t v e r y w e l l s o l v e m a n y o f t h e

p r o b l e m s , b u t w o u l d D a r w i n h a v e a c c e p t e d it ? S u c h p o s s ib i l it ie s h a v e i n d e p e n d -

e n t i n t e r e s t a n d i t i s a f r u i t f u l a n d w o r t h w h i l e e x e r c i s e t o t a k e D a r w i n ' s p r o t o -

e t h i c a l th e o r y a n d e v a l u a t e p o s s i b l e e l a b o r a ti o n s o f i t a s M u r p h y , R i c h a r d s a n d

o t h e r s h a v e d o n e . B u t i f o u r i n t e re s t is D a r w i n ' s o w n t h e o r y , t h e n i t i s n o t p r o p e r

t o e v a l u a t e i t, h la M u r p h y , a s t h o u g h i t w e r e a n a r t ic l e s u b m i t t e d t o a c o n t e m -

p o r a r y j o u r n a l o f e t h ic s , f o r to d o s o w o u l d b e t o j u d g e i t f o r a t a s k q u i te

d i f f e r e n t f r o m i t s in t e n d e d a p p l ic a t io n . T h i s i s t h e s e c o n d , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t ,

r e a s o n t h a t w e d o n o t h a v e t o s e e k a f u l l e l a b o r a ti o n . D a r w i n d i d n o t nee t o g o

a n y f u r t h e r th a n h e w e n t . T h e t h e o r y , f l im s y a s it m a y b e , is p e r f e c t l y a d e q u a t e

f o r th e p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h D a r w i n r e q u i r e d i t i n h is a r g u m e n t f o r h u m a n d e s c e n t .

S e e n a s a r e p l y t o a n e v i d e n t i a l c h a l l e n g e , M o r a l D a r w i n i s m t u r n s o u t t o b e a

s o p h i s t i c a t e d s c i e n t i f i c a r g u m e n t i n s t e a d o f a f a s c i n a t i n g b u t s o m e w h a t n a i v e

e th i ca l t heory .

V

E v e n i f i t w e r e t o fa l t e r i n t h e e th i c a l ar e n a , D a r w i n ' s s t o r y o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f t h e m o r a l s e n s e w o u l d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f a i l i n i t s s c i e n t i f i c t a s k b e c a u s e t h e

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t r e la t e t o q u e s t io n s o f e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e a r e q u i te d i f f e r e n t

f r o m t h o s e w e h a v e ju s t s e e n n e e d t o b e t a k en i n to a c c o u n t t o d e f e n d a n o r m a -

t i v e t h e o r y o f e t h i c s . I n d e e d , a s w i l l b e c o m e c l e a r , w h a t m a y b e a w e a k n e s s i n

t h e l a t t e r m a y b e a s t r e n g t h i n t h e f o r m e r . T o c o n f i r m a n e m p i r i c a l h y p o t h e s i s

o n e m u s t a d d u c e f a c t s t h a t a r e e v i d e n t i a ll y r e l e v a n t - t h e y m u s t b e r e l a t e d t o th e

h y p o t h e s i s i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e w a y s o a s t o p r o v i d e p o s i t i v e s u p p o r t . A d d i t i o n -

a l l y , o n e m u s t e v a l u a t e t h e d e g r e e o f e v i d e n t i a l s u p p o r t i n c o m p a r i s o n t o

a l t e rna t i ve hyp otheses . L e t us cons ide r t hese i n tu rn .

C o n f i r m a t i o n t h e o r i s ts c o n t i n u e t o i n v e s t i g a t e th e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t d e t e r m i n e s

e v i d e n t i a l r e l e v a n c e - f o r e x a m p l e , is i t a s p e c i a l s o r t o f l o g i c a l re l a t io n b e t w e e n

t h e o r y s t a t e m e n t s a n d e v i d e n c e s t a t e m e n t s ? i s i t a p r o b a b i l i s t i c r e l a t i o n ? o r a

k i n d o f e x p l a n a t o r y r e l a t io n ? - b u t t h i s is n o t t h e p l a c e t o c o n t in u e t h e t h e o r e ti -

c a l d e b a t e . I h a v e p r o p o s e d t h a t e v i d e n t i a l re l e v a n c e i s b e s t e x p l i c a t e d i n t e r m s

o f c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s , w h i c h c a n l i c e n s e c o n f i r m a t o r y a n d e x p l a n a t o r y i n f e r e n c e s

( P e n n o c k 1 9 9 1 ), a n d , a l t h o u g h D a r w i n ' s a r g u m e n t p r o b a b l y c o u l d b e r a t io n a l l y


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MORAL DARWINISM 301

reconstructed to fi t the famil iar mode ls of conf irmation such as Hypo thet ico-

Deduct ivism or Bayesianism, I th ink the causal approach provides the most

natural reading of Da rwi n 's o wn evident ial arguments . Doren Rec ker (Recker

1987) has argued that Darwin 's

Origin o f Species

is bet ter unders tood as an

extended causal argument than as i t has been interpreted in terms of o ther

conf irma tion theories . Though I d isagree with aspects of Re cke r 's app roach

(Pennock 1991, p. 231-4), I think the general l ine is correct, and hold that the

escent fol lows the same evident ial pat tern . Darwin does not typical ly of fer

deduct ive or probabi l is t ic l inks to es tabl ish the relevance of h is data, but rather ,

as we have seen, g ives an argument in which al l the s teps expl ici t ly make l inks

f rom the causal assumptions of h is model and facts about the wor ld to the

observed ef fects that are the data. His sketch of a reduct ionis t moral theory,

together with the causal s tory of how the moral sense could have ar isen, gave

one way to dissolve the apparent anomaly of human moral i ty by connect ing i t

and the natural wor ld f rom both ends. He showed how the moral sense might

have developed by degrees in a way com mensura te wi th the causa l mechan isms

of evolut ionary theory, and that those mechanisms could have produced a moral

system that f i t with , and perhaps even improved upon, the best phi losophical

unders tanding of moral i ty . Put another way, Darwin showed how the causal

mechanisms of evolut ionary theory could explain human moral sense in exact ly

the sam e wa y they could explain the physical at tr ibutes of o ther animals . Notice

that i t is jus t o n th is point that the weak ness o f Da rwi n 's ethical theory as a

norm ative theory - that he fails to provide a transit ion f rom the causal to the

norm ative - turns out to be a s t rength when viewed in i ts ro le as par t of the

evident ial argum ent , for here we are required to s tay at the causal level. For th is

purpose Darwin does no t need to show why we ough t to fo l low some mora l

theory in the s t rong norm ative sense, but only why we could bel ieve we oug ht to

do so. Thus, seen as par t of the evident ial argument , Darwin 's reduct ionis t

s t rategy faces none of the quest ions that raise potent ial problems for i t as a

norm ative ethical theory. As a conseque nce of showing that hum an m oral i ty was

no t an inexp l icab le anomaly , Darwin ' s model a l lowed human be ings to be

place d unam biguou sly in the class of animals - in the same causal type - so that

evolut ionary theory and the many other l ines of evidence for i t that had

previously been given in the Origin could be seen to apply to them. Homo

sapiens is l ike every other species and so must have evolved in the same

manner . This is the em pir ical conclusion that Darwin was af ter.

I do not mean to suggest that no one could have legi t imately dif fered with

Darwin 's s tory of the development of moral i ty . I t would beg the quest ion to

dismiss Da rw in 's argum ent by s imply insis ting that animals could not have even

the elements f ro m which moral i ty could develop, but we mu st admit that Darwin

only provided a sketch of a causal pathway and there remained plenty of room

for doubt and disagreement . While the causal s tory es tabl ishes the relevance of

the data to the hypothesis ( i .e . , of human moral i ty as posi t ive evidence for the

theory of descent) , the argument for human descent rel ies f inal ly on assessing

the relat ive degree of suppor t g iven by the data, and th is requires weighing of


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302 ROBERTT.PENNOCK

t h e m e r i ts o f a l t e rn a ti v e h y p o t h e s e s . T h i s i s t h e s e c o n d s t a g e o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f

e v i d e n c e . H u m a n m o ra l i t y a p p e a re d a s a n a p p a re n t l y a n o m a l o u s d a t u m i n a n

o t h e rw i s e f a i r l y c l e a r p a t t e rn o f d a t a . T h e m a n y p h y s i c a l h o m o l o g i e s t h a t

D a rw i n c i t e d b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d t h e l o w e r a n i m a l s p ro v i d e t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f

s a m e -c l a s s i n c l u s i o n ( a n d t h e r e b y t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f d e s c e n t ) w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y

h i g h d e g re e o f c o n f i rm a t i o n , a n d t h a t s u c h f a c t s a r e o f t h e s o r t t h a t w o u l d

c a u s a l l y fo l l o w f ro m t h e e v o l u t i o n a ry th e o ry a l so l e n d s c o n f i rm a t o ry s u p po r t .

A n d n o w D a rw i n ' s e t h i c a l r e d u c t i o n s h o w s t h a t h u m a n m o ra l i t y i s no t an

inexpl icab le anomaly , and tha t , to the con t ra ry , i t f i t s eas i ly in to the causa l

m o d e l , p ro v i d i n g a d d i t io n a l s u p p o r t f o r th e h y p o t h e s i s o f h u m a n d e s c e n t. H o w

d o e s t h i s m o d e l o f h u m a n e v o l u t i o n c o m p a re t o t h e a l te rn a t iv e s ? T h e a l t e rn a-

t ives , o f course , were someth ing l ike Chr i s t i an spec ia l c rea t ion , Lye l l ' s

mi rac u lou s o r ig in , o r W al lac e ' s sp i r it gu ida nce - in shor t, someth ing super -

n a t u ra l . B u t , a s D a rw i n h a d s a id , s u c h a n a c c o u n t i s n o s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n .

S u p e rn a t u r a l a g e n t s m a y d o w h a t t h e y w i l l - t h e y a r e , b y d e f i n i t i o n , u n c o n -

s t ra ined by na tura l l aw - and as such they a re o f l it t le o r no va lue fo r exp lana-

t ion . For exam ple , Ch r i s t ian spec ia l c rea t ion i st s looked a t the pa t t e rn o f phy s ica l

h o m o l o g i e s a n d c o n c l u d e d th a t G o d c r e at e d an i m a l s a c c o rd i n g to i d e a l p l a n s

o f a f e w g e n e ra l k i n d s , b u t i f t h e p a tt e rn h a d b e e n d i f f e r e n t o r i f t h e r e h a d

b e e n n o p a t te rn a t a l l t h e y c o u l d e q u a l l y h a p p i l y h a v e c o n c l u d e d t h a t G o d j u s t

d i d i t th a t w a y ; b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e n o l i m i ts o n w h a t m i g h t c a u s a l l y fo l l o w f ro m

G o d ' s w i l l u n d e r a n y c o n d i t io n s w h a t s o e v e r , a l l s u c h e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e a d h o c .

T h u s , o n e a p p e a l s t o s u p e rn a t u r a l a g e n c y o n l y w h e n a n d b e c a u s e t h e r e i s n o

o t h e r c h o i c e . B e fo re D a rw i n t h e r e w a s n o p l a u s i b l e n a t u ra l o p t i o n a v a i l a b le , s o

a l l th e o r i e s o f h u m a n o r i g in s h a d t o r e f e r to s o m e s u p e rn a t u r al a g e n t . B u t w i t h

a n a c c e p t a b l e n a t u r a l t h e o ry o f b i o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n i n p l a c e fo l l o w i n g t h e

Orig in a l l D a rw i n n e e d e d w a s t o s h o w t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e

p u rp o r t e d h u m a n a n o m a l i e s w i t h i n th e r e g i m e n o f t h e th e o ry t o m a k e t h a t t h e o ry

comprehens ive and thus a p re fe rab le , un i f i ed a l t e rna t ive to the superna tura l

t h e o r i e s. M i v a r t r e l i e d o n t h e i n f e r e n c e t h at d i f f e r e n c e in k i n d i m p l i e d d i f f e r e n c e

i n o r i g i n t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e re m u s t h a v e b e e n a n i n d e p e n d e n t a c t o f c r e a t io n o f

h u m a n s , b u t D a rw i n ' s e t h ic a l t h e o ry a n d c a u s a l s to ry o f it s d e v e l o p m e n t sh o w e d

t h a t t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t h u m a n m o ra l i t y p ro v e d t h a t h u m a n s w e re d i f f e r e n t i n

k i n d f ro m o t h e r a n im a l s w a s n o t w e l l - fo u n d e d . O f c o u r s e , o n e c o u l d c l in g t o t h e

h y p o t h e s i s o f in d e p e n d e n t o r i g in s e v e n i f t w o t h in g s a r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t

i n k i n d , b u t i t is n o l o n g e r a r e a s o n a b l e c o n c l u s i o n o n c e t h e e v i d e n c e fo r s a m e -

c las s inc lus ion i s in p lace . As for sp i r i t gu idance , o r d iv ine c rea t ion , the

p r i n c i p l e o f p a r s i m o n y w o u l d t e n d t o d i s f a v o r t h e s e m o d e l s b e c a u s e t h e y

p o s t u l a t e u n n e c e s s a ry e n t i t i e s . D a rw i n d o e s n o t m a k e a n e x p l i c i t c o m p a r i s o n ,

b u t t o fu r t h e r d i f f e r e n t ia t e t h e h y p o t h e s e s w i t h p a r t ic u l a r f o c u s o n t h e m o ra l

q u e s t i o n , D a rw i n c o u l d h a v e p o i n t e d t o s e v e ra l f e a t u r e s o f h u m a n m o ra l i t y h e

h a d n o t e d , s u c h a s t h e o b s e rv e d r e l a t i v i s m o f m o ra l c o d e s f ro m c u l t u r e t o

c u l t u r e , t h e g e o g ra p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s u c h n o rm s a m o n g p o p u l a t i o n s w h i c h

fo l l o w s a g l o b a l p a t t e rn s i m i l a r t o t h a t w h i c h h e n o t e d i n o t h e r a s p e c t s o f

b i o g e o g ra p h y , a n d t h e f a c t t h at n o rm s a r e ty p i c a l l y t a k e n t o e x t e n d o n l y t o o n e ' s


17/21


o w n g r o u p , t h a t w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e b e t te r e x p l ai n e d b y h i s m o d e l t h a n b y o n e

t h a t h a d h u m a n s a l l c r e a t e d b y a s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g , e s p e c i a l l y a s o n t h e

C h r i s t ia n m o d e l .

O f c o u r s e o n e m a y o f f e r g o o d e v i d e n c e f o r a h y p o t h e s i s a n d y e t e n c o u n t e r

r e s i s t a n c e t o i t s a c c e p t a n c e b e c a u s e o f a n y n u m b e r o f s o c i a l f a c t o r s . S u c h

f a c t o r s, w h e t h e r t h e y b e p r e j u d i c e s o r m i s u n d e r s ta n d i n g s , d o n o t a f f e c t t h e

c o n f i r m a t i o n i t s e l f , b u t c e r t a i n l y m a y a f f e c t i t s r e c e p t i o n . D u r i n g a n e a r l i e r

p e r i o d , w h e n s c i en t i st s st il l t o o k it a s G o s p e l t h a t G o d c o u l d a n d d i d w o r k a l l

m a n n e r o f m i r ac l e s in t h e w o r ld , D a r w i n ' s a r g u m e n t m a y h a v e b e e n i g n o r e d o r

d i s m i s s e d a s h e r e s y . B u t D a r w i n m a d e h i s a r g u m e n t d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i -

t i o n - a p e r i o d w h e n t r a d i ti o n a l s u p e r n a t u r a l a c c o u n t s o f a v a r i e t y o f n a t u r a l

p h e n o m e n a , u s u a l l y b a s e d i n o n e w a y o r o t h e r o n s c r i p t u r e , w e r e b e i n g f o u n d

w a n t i n g . G e o l o g i s t s , f o r i n s t a n c e , h a d l o n g a s s u m e d t h e t r u t h o f t h e B i b l i c a l

a c c o u n t o f th e N o a c h i a n d e l u g e a n d m a d e u s e o f p o s t u la t e d f l o o d s to e x p l a i n

m a n y g r o s s g e o l o g i c a l fe a t u r e s. O n l y j u s t d u r i n g D a r w i n ' s l i f e ti m e d i d s c i e n -

t i s t s , i nc lud ing t he devout c l e rgyman-na tura l i s t s , f i na l l y admi t t ha t t h

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