Pentaerythritol tetranitrate 1

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate

Identifiers

CAS number 78-11-5 [1] 

PubChem 6518 [2]

ChemSpider 6271 [3] 

ChEMBL CHEMBL466659 [4] 

ATC code C01 DA05 [5]

Jmol-3D images Image 1 [6]

Properties

Molecular formula C5H8N4O12

Molar mass 316.14 g mol−1

Appearance White crystalline solid[7]

Density 1.77 g/cm3 at 20 °C

Melting point 141.3 °C, 414 K, 286 °F

Boiling point 180 °C, 453 K, 356 °F (decomposes above 150 °C)

Explosive data

Shock sensitivity Medium

Friction sensitivity Medium

Explosive velocity 8400 m/s (density 1.7 g/cm3)

RE factor 1.66

Hazards

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate 2

Autoignitiontemperature

190 °C

  (verify) [8] (what is:  / ?)Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)

Infobox references

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), also known as PENT, PENTA, TEN, corpent, penthrite (or—rarely andprimarily in German—as nitropenta), is the nitrate ester of pentaerythritol. Penta refers to the five carbon atoms ofthe neopentane skeleton.PETN is most well known as an explosive. It is one of the most powerful high explosives known, with a relativeeffectiveness factor of 1.66.[9]

PETN mixed with a plasticizer forms a plastic explosive.[10] As a mixture with RDX and other minor additives, itforms another plastic explosive called Semtex as well. The compound was discovered in the bombs used by the 2001Shoe Bomber, in the 2009 Christmas Day bomb plot, and in the 2010 cargo plane bomb plot.[11] On 7 September2011, a bomb suspected to have used PETN exploded near the High Court of Delhi in India claiming 13 lives andinjuring more than 70.[12]

It is also used as a vasodilator drug to treat certain heart conditions, such as for management of angina.[13][14]

HistoryPenthrite was first synthesized in 1891 by Bernhard Tollens and P. Wigand by nitration of pentaerythritol.[15] Theproduction of PETN started in 1912, when it was patented by the German government. PETN was used by theGerman Army in World War I.[16]

PropertiesPETN is practically insoluble in water (0.01 g/100 ml at 50 °C), weakly soluble in common nonpolar solvents suchas aliphatic hydrocarbons (like gasoline) or tetrachloromethane, but soluble in some other organic solvents,particularly in acetone (about 15 g/100 g of the solution at 20 °C, 55 g/100 g at 60 °C) and dimethylformamide(40 g/100 g of the solution at 40 °C, 70 g/100 g at 70 °C). PETN forms eutectic mixtures with some liquid or moltenaromatic nitro compounds, e.g. trinitrotoluene (TNT) or tetryl. Due to its highly symmetrical structure, PETN isresistant to attack by many chemical reagents; it does not hydrolyze in water at room temperature or in weakeralkaline aqueous solutions. Water at 100°C or above causes hydrolysis to dinitrate; presence of 0.1% nitric acidaccelerates the reaction. Addition of TNT and other aromatic nitro derivatives lowers thermal stability of PETN.The chemical stability of PETN is of interest, because of the use of PETN in aging stockpiles of weapons. A reviewhas been published.[17] Neutron radiation degrades PETN, producing carbon dioxide and some pentaerythritoldinitrate and trinitrate. Gamma radiation increases the thermal decomposition sensitivity of PETN, lowers meltingpoint by few degrees Celsius, and causes swelling of the samples. Like other nitrate esters, the primary degradationmechanism is the loss of nitrogen dioxide; this reaction is autocatalytic.. Studies were performed on thermaldecomposition of PETN.[18]

In the environment, PETN undergoes biodegradation. Some bacteria denitrate PETN to trinitrate and then dinitrate,which is then further degraded. PETN has low volatility and low solubility in water, and therefore has lowbioavailability for most organisms. Its toxicity is relatively low, and its transdermal absorption also seems to below.[7] It poses a threat for aquatic organisms. It can be degraded to pentaerythritol by iron metal.[19]

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate 3

ProductionProduction is by the reaction of pentaerythritol with concentrated nitric acid to form a precipitate which can berecrystallized from acetone to give processable crystals.[20]

C(CH2OH)4 + 4 HNO3 → C(CH2ONO2)4 + 4 H2OVariations of a method first published in a US Patent 2,370,437 by Acken and Vyverberg (1945 to Du Pont) formsthe basis of all current commercial production.PETN is manufactured by numerous manufacturers as a powder about the consistency of fine popcorn salt, ortogether with nitrocellulose and plasticizer as thin plasticized sheets (e.g. Primasheet 1000 or Detasheet). PETNresidues are easily detectable in hair of people handling it.[21] The highest residue retention is on black hair; someresidues remain present even after washing.[22][23]

Explosive useThe most common use of PETN is as an explosive with high brisance. It is more difficult to detonate than primaryexplosives, so dropping or igniting it will typically not cause an explosion (at atmospheric pressure it is difficult toignite and burns relatively slowly), but is more sensitive to shock and friction than other secondary explosives suchas TNT or tetryl.[20][24] Under certain conditions a deflagration to detonation transition can occur.It is rarely used alone, but primarily used in booster and bursting charges of small caliber ammunition, in uppercharges of detonators in some land mines and shells, and as the explosive core of detonation cord.[25] PETN is theleast stable of the common military explosives, but can be stored without significant deterioration for longer thannitroglycerin or nitrocellulose.[26]

During World War II, PETN was most importantly used in exploding-bridgewire detonators for the atomic bombs.These exploding-bridgewire detonators gave more precise detonation, compared with primacord. PETN was used forthese detonators because it was safer than primary explosives like lead azide: while it was sensitive, it would notdetonate below a threshold amount of energy.[27] Exploding bridgewires containing PETN remain used in currentnuclear weapons. In spark detonators, PETN is used to avoid the need for primary explosives; the energy needed fora successful direct initiation of PETN by an electric spark ranges between 10–60 mJ.Its basic explosion characteristics are:•• Explosion energy: 5810 kJ/kg (1390 kcal/kg), so 1 kg of PETN has the energy of 1.24 kg TNT.• Detonation velocity: 8350 m/s (1.73 g/cm3), 7910 m/s (1.62 g/cm3), 7420 m/s (1.5 g/cm3), 8500 m/s (pressed in a

steel tube)• Volume of gases produced: 790 dm3/kg (other value: 768 dm3/kg)•• Explosion temperature: 4230 °C• Oxygen balance: -6.31 atom -g/kg• Melting point: 141.3 °C (pure), 140–141 °C (technical)• Trauzl lead block test: 523 cm3 (other values: 500 cm3 when sealed with sand, or 560 cm3 when sealed with

water)• Critical diameter (minimal diameter of a rod that can sustain detonation propagation): 0.9 mm for PETN at 1

g/cm3, smaller for higher densities (other value: 1.5 mm)

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate 4

In mixturesPETN is used in a number of compositions. It is a major ingredient of the Semtex plastic explosive. It is also used asa component of pentolite, a 50/50 blend with TNT; a shaped charge of 8 ounces ( kg) of pentolite, used in the M9A1(bazooka) rockets, can penetrate up to 5 inches ( mm) of armor. The XTX8003 extrudable explosive, used in theW68 and W76 nuclear warheads, is a mixture of 80% PETN and 20% of Sylgard 182, a silicone rubber.[28] It is oftenphlegmatized by addition of 5–40% of wax, or by polymers (producing polymer-bonded explosives); in this form itis used in some cannon shells up to 30 mm caliber, though unsuitable for higher calibers. It is also used as acomponent of some gun propellants and solid rocket propellants. Nonphlegmatized PETN is stored and handled withapproximately 10% water content. PETN alone cannot be cast as it explosively decomposes slightly above itsmelting point, but it can be mixed with other explosives to form castable mixtures.PETN can be initiated by a laser.[29] A pulse with duration of 25 nanoseconds and 0.5–4.2 joules of energy from aQ-switched ruby laser can initiate detonation of a PETN surface coated with a 100 nm thick aluminium layer in lessthan half microsecond.PETN has been replaced in many applications by RDX, which is thermally more stable and has longer shelf life.[30]

PETN can be used in some ram accelerator types.[31] Replacement of the central carbon atom with silicon producesSi-PETN, which is extremely sensitive.[32][33]

Terrorist useIn 1983, the "Maison de France" house in Berlin was brought to a near-total collapse by the detonation of 24kilograms ( lb) of PETN by terrorist Johannes Weinrich.[34]

In 1999, Alfred Heinz Reumayr used PETN as the main charge for his fourteen improvised explosive devices that heconstructed in a thwarted attempt to damage the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System.In 2001, al-Qaeda member Richard Reid, the "Shoe Bomber", used PETN in the sole of his sneaker in hisunsuccessful attempt to blow up American Airlines Flight 63 from Paris to Miami.[23][35] He had intended to use thesolid triacetone triperoxide (TATP) as a detonator.[24]

In 2009, PETN was used in an attempt by al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula to murder the Saudi Arabian DeputyMinister of Interior Prince Muhammad bin Nayef, by Saudi suicide bomber Abdullah Hassan al Asiri. The targetsurvived and the bomber died in the blast. The PETN was hidden in the bomber's rectum, which security expertsdescribed as a novel technique.[36][37][38]

On December 25, 2009, PETN was found in the underwear of Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, the "Underwearbomber", a Nigerian with links to al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.[39] According to U.S. law enforcementofficials,[40] he had attempted to blow up Northwest Airlines Flight 253 while approaching Detroit fromAmsterdam.[41] Abdulmutallab had tried, unsuccessfully, to detonate approximately 80 grams ( oz) of PETN sewninto his underwear by adding liquid from a syringe;[42] however, only a small fire resulted.[24]

In the al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula October 2010 cargo plane bomb plot, two PETN-filled printer cartridgeswere found at East Midlands Airport and in Dubai on flights bound for the U.S. on an intelligence tip. Both packagescontained sophisticated bombs concealed in computer printer cartridges filled with PETN.[11][43] The bomb found inEngland contained 400 grams ( oz) of PETN, and the one found in Dubai contained 300 grams ( oz) of PETN.[43]

Hans Michels, professor of safety engineering at University College London, told a newspaper that 6 grams ( oz) ofPETN "— around 50 times less than was used – would be enough to blast a hole in a metal plate twice the thicknessof an aircraft's skin."[44] In contrast, according to an experiment conducted by a BBC documentary team designed tosimulate Abdulmutallab's Christmas Day bombing, using a Boeing 747 airplane, even 80 grams of PETN was notsufficient to materially damage the airplane's fuselage.[45]

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate 5

DetectionIn the wake of terrorist PETN bomb plots, an article in Scientific American noted that even if all cargo werescreened, PETN is difficult to detect because it has a very low vapor pressure at room temperature, meaning verylittle of it gets into the air around the bomb, where it can be detected.[11] The Los Angeles Times noted in November2010 that because of its more stable molecules, and lower vapor, it is more difficult to detect by bomb-sniffing dogsand the trace swabs then used by the U.S. Transportation Security Administration.[23]

Many technologies can be used to detect PETN,[46] a number of which have been implemented in public screeningapplications, primarily for air travel. PETN is just one of a number of explosive chemicals typically of interest in thatarea, and it belongs to a family of common nitrate-based explosive chemicals which can often be detected by thesame tests.One technology, detectors that test swabs wiped on passengers and their baggage for traces of explosives, isgenerally reserved for travelers who are thought to merit additional scrutiny. A second type of machine, whole-bodyimaging scanners, use radio-frequency electromagnetic waves, low-intensity X-rays or T-rays of terahertz frequencyto detect objects under clothing; these devices were of limited availability because of cost, privacy groups' oppositionand industry concerns about bottlenecks.[47]

Both parcels in the 2010 cargo plane bomb plot were x-rayed without the bombs being spotted.[48] Qatar Airwayssaid the PETN bomb "could not be detected by x-ray screening or trained sniffer dogs".[49] The Bundeskriminalamtreceived copies of the Dubai x-rays, and an investigator said German staff would not have identified the bombeither.[48][50] New airport security procedures followed in the U.S., largely to protect against PETN.[23]

Medical useLike nitroglycerin (glyceryl trinitrate) and other nitrates, PETN is also used medically as a vasodilator in thetreatment of heart conditions.[13][14] These drugs work by releasing the signaling gas nitric oxide in the body. Theheart medicine Lentonitrat is nearly pure PETN.[51]

Monitoring of oral usage of the drug by patients has been performed by determination of plasma levels of several ofits hydrolysis products, pentaerythritol dinitrate, pentaerythritol mononitrate and pentaerythritol, in plasma using gaschromatography-mass spectrometry.[52]

References[1] http:/ / www. commonchemistry. org/ ChemicalDetail. aspx?ref=78-11-5[2] http:/ / pubchem. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ summary/ summary. cgi?cid=6518[3] http:/ / www. chemspider. com/ 6271[4] https:/ / www. ebi. ac. uk/ chembldb/ index. php/ compound/ inspect/ CHEMBL466659[5] http:/ / www. whocc. no/ atc_ddd_index/ ?code=C01DA05[6] http:/ / chemapps. stolaf. edu/ jmol/ jmol.

php?model=C%28C%28CO%5BN%2B%5D%28%3DO%29%5BO-%5D%29%28CO%5BN%2B%5D%28%3DO%29%5BO-%5D%29CO%5BN%2B%5D%28%3DO%29%5BO-%5D%29O%5BN%2B%5D%28%3DO%29%5BO-%5D[7] Wildlife Toxicity Assessment for pentaerythritol tetranitrate (http:/ / chppm-www. apgea. army. mil/ erawg/ tox/ files/ WTA(PETN)_FINAL.

pdf). U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine. November 2001.[8] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special%3Acomparepages?rev1=464197954& page2=%3APentaerythritol+ tetranitrate[9] "PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate)" (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ systems/ munitions/ explosives-nitrate-petn. htm). .

Retrieved March 29, 2010.[10] John Childs (1994). "Explosives" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=nEQ7FUAdmc8C& pg=PA231) (Google Books extract). A

dictionary of military history and the art of war. ISBN 780631168485. .[11] Greenemeier, Larry. "Exposing the Weakest Link: As Airline Passenger Security Tightens, Bombers Target Cargo Holds" (http:/ / www.

scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=aircraft-cargo-bomb-security). Scientific American. . Retrieved November 3, 2010.[12] Kumar, Vinay (September 7, 2011). "Nationwide alert as NIA takes up probe" (http:/ / www. thehindu. com/ news/ national/ article2432945.

ece?homepage=true). The Hindu (Chennai, India). .[13] "New Drugs". Can Med Assoc J 80: 997–998. 1959. PMC 1831125. PMID 20325960.

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate 6

[14] Manuchair S. Ebadi (1998) (Google Books excerpt). CRC desk reference of clinical pharmacology (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=-EAxShTKfGAC& pg=PA383). p. 383. ISBN 978-0-8493-9683-0. .

[15] Tollens, B.; Wigand, P. (1891). "Über den Penta-Erythrit, einen aus Formaldehyd und Acetaldehyd synthetisch hergestellten vierwerthigenAlkohol (On penta-erythritol, a tetravalent alcohol synthetically produced from formaldehyde and acetaldehyde)" (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=hjI0AQAAMAAJ& pg=PA316#v=onepage& q& f=false). Justus Liebig's Annalen der Chemie 265: 316–340.doi:10.1002/jlac.18912650303. .

[16] Stettbacher, Alfred (1933). Die Schiess- und Sprengstoffe (2. völlig umgearb. Aufl. ed.). Leipzig: Barth. p. 459.[17] M. F. Foltz. Aging of Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN) (https:/ / e-reports-ext. llnl. gov/ pdf/ 372573. pdf). Lawrence Livermore National

Laboratory.[18] Thermal decomposition of PENT and HMX over a wide temperature range (http:/ / www. intdetsymp. org/ detsymp2002/ PaperSubmit/

FinalManuscript/ pdf/ German-258. pdf) by V.N. German et al.[19] Li Zhuang, Lai Gui and Robert W. Gillham (2008). "Degradation of Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN) by Granular Iron". Environ. Sci.

Technol. 42: 4534. doi:10.1021/es7029703. PMID 18605582.[20] Jacques Boileau, Claude Fauquignon, Bernard Hueber, Hans H. Meyer (2005), "Explosives", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial

Chemistry, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_143.pub2[21] Winslow, Ron. (2009-12-29) A Primer in PETN – WSJ.com (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB126195987401406861. html).

Online.wsj.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.[22] Oxley, Jimmie C.; Smith, James L.; Kirschenbaum, Louis J.; Shinde, Kajal. P.; Marimganti, Suvarna (2005). "Accumulation of Explosives

in Hair". Journal of Forensic Sciences 50: 1. doi:10.1520/JFS2004545.[23] . http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/ nationworld/ nation/ wire/ sc-dc-1124-petn-20101123,0,2000499. story.[24] Kenneth Chang (December 27, 2009). "Explosive on Flight 253 Is Among Most Powerful" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 12/ 28/ us/

28explosives. html?ref=us). The New York Times. .[25] "Primacord Technical Information" (http:/ / www. dynonobel. com/ files/ 2010/ 04/ Primacord. pdf). Dyno Nobel. . Retrieved April 22,

2009.[26] PETN (chemical compound) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 454067/ PETN).

Britannica.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.[27] Lillian Hoddeson, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Gordon Baym, Richard Hewlett, Alison Kerr, Robert

Penneman, Leslie Redman, Robert Seidel (2004) (Google Books excerpt). A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years,1943–1945 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KoTve97yYB8C& pg=PA164). pp. 164–173. ISBN 978-0-521-54117-6. .

[28] Information Bridge: DOE Scientific and Technical Information – Sponsored by OSTI (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ bridge/ servlets/ purl/650196-rV1bU0/ webviewable/ 650196. pdf). Osti.gov (2009-11-23). Retrieved on 2010-02-08.

[29] Tarzhanov, V. I.; Zinchenko, A. D.; Sdobnov, V. I.; Tokarev, B. B.; Pogrebov, A. I.; Volkova, A. A. (1996). "Laser initiation of PETN".Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves 32: 454. doi:10.1007/BF01998499.

[30] US Army – Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items, vol.8[31] Simulation of ram accelerator with PETN layer (http:/ / fluid. ippt. gov. pl/ ictam04/ CD_ICTAM04/ FM3/ 12843/ FM3_12843. pdf),

Arkadiusz Kobiera and Piotr Wolanski, XXI ICTAM, 15–21 August 2004, Warsaw, Poland[32] Wei-Guang Liu et al. (2009). "Explanation of the Colossal Detonation Sensitivity of Silicon Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (Si-PETN)

Explosive" (http:/ / www. wag. caltech. edu/ publications/ sup/ pdf/ 806. pdf). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131: 7490. doi:10.1021/ja809725p.PMID 19489634. .

[33] Computational Organic Chemistry » Si-PETN sensitivity explained (http:/ / comporgchem. com/ blog/ ?p=258). Comporgchem.com(2009-07-20). Retrieved on 2010-02-08.

[34] "Article detailing attack on Maison de France in Berlin (German)" (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ panorama/ 0,1518,56218,00. html). Spiegel.de.December 13, 1999. . Retrieved November 4, 2010.

[35] "'Shoe bomb suspect 'did not act alone'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 1783237. stm). BBC News. January 25, 2002. . RetrievedApril 22, 2009.

[36] "Saudi suicide bomber hid IED in his anal cavity" (http:/ / homelandsecuritynewswire. com/ saudi-suicide-bomber-hid-ied-his-anal-cavity).Homeland Security Newswire. September 9, 2009.

[37][37] Andrew England (November 1, 2010). "Bomb clues point to Yemeni terrorists". Financial Times.[38] "Saudi Bombmaker Key Suspect in Yemen Plot" (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2010/ 11/ 01/ world/ main7010288. shtml). CBS

News. November 1, 2010. . Retrieved November 2, 2010.[39] "Al Qaeda Claims Responsibility for Attempted Bombing of U.S. Plane" (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,581307,00. html). FOX

News Network. December 28, 2009. . Retrieved December 29, 2009.[40] "Criminal Complaint" (http:/ / big. assets. huffingtonpost. com/ AbdumutallabCharges. pdf) (PDF). Huffington Post. . Retrieved November

4, 2010.[41] "'Investigators: Northwest Bomb Plot Planned by al Qaeda in Yemen'" (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ Blotter/

northwest-bomb-plot-planned-al-qaeda-yemen/ story?id=9426085& page=1). ABC News. December 26, 2009. . Retrieved December 26,2009.

[42] Explosive in Detroit terror case could have blown hole in airplane, sources say (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/2009/ 12/ 28/ AR2009122800582. html) washingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate 7

[43] Shane, Scott; Worth, Robert F. (November 1, 2010). "Early Parcels Sent to U.S. Were Eyed as Dry Run" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/11/ 02/ world/ 02terror. html?src=twrhp). The New York Times. .

[44] "Parcel bombs could rip 50 planes in half" (http:/ / indiatoday. intoday. in/ site/ Story/ 118746/ World/parcel-bombs-could-rip-50-planes-in-half. html). India Today. . Retrieved November 3, 2010.

[45] "'Underwear Bomber' Could not have Blown Up Plane" (http:/ / news. discovery. com/ tech/ underwear-bomber-explosion-plane-test. html).Discovery. March 10, 2010. . Retrieved November 16, 2010.

[46] Committee on the Review of Existing and Potential Standoff Explosives Detection Techniques, National Research Council, Existing andPotential Standoff Explosives Detection Techniques (http:/ / www. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=10998& page=1), National AcademiesPress, Washington, DC, 2004, p. 77

[47] Equipment to detect explosives is available (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2009/ 12/ 27/ AR2009122702021.html). washingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.

[48] "Foiled Parcel Plot: World Scrambles to Tighten Air Cargo Security" (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ international/ world/ 0,1518,726746,00.html). Der Spiegel. . Retrieved November 2, 2010.

[49] "Q&A: Air freight bomb plot" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ 11658452). BBC News. October 30, 2010. . Retrieved November 3, 2010.[50] "Passenger jets carried Dubai bomb" (http:/ / english. aljazeera. net/ news/ middleeast/ 2010/ 10/ 20101031144429122829. html). Al

Jazeera. . Retrieved November 1, 2010.[51] Russek H. I. (1966). "The therapeutic role of coronary vasodilators: glyceryl trinitrate, isosorbide dinitrate, and pentaerythritol tetranitrate.".

American Journal of Medical Science 252 (1): 9–20. doi:10.1097/00000441-196607000-00002. PMID 4957459.[52] R. Baselt, Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, 2008, pp. 1201–1203.

Further reading• Cooper, Paul (1997). Explosives Engineering. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-18636-8.

Article Sources and Contributors 8

Article Sources and ContributorsPentaerythritol tetranitrate  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=539520659  Contributors: A Train, AirdishStraus, Ambix, Anilmuthineni, Anomalocaris, Ante Aikio, AnthonyAppleyard, Anypodetos, Aramgutang, Arcadian, AxelBoldt, Beetstra, Bender235, Benjah-bmm27, Bernd.Brincken, BigBen212, Billgordon1099, Binksternet, Bkell, Bobblewik, Boghog,Br77rino, Brian Crawford, Bryan Derksen, Buchanan-Hermit, CAMASS, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Centrx, ChemNerd, Chowbok, CliffC, Cogorno, Cuaxdon, Cwkmail, DMacks,DaBlazesUSay, DasBub, Daveswagon, Dbaron, Dino, DocWatson42, Docbob49, Download, Dtgriscom, Edgar181, Edibobb, Edward Vielmetti, Enemyunknown, EoGuy, Epeefleche,Explodo-nerd, GCarty, GDW13, GODhack, Galaplox, Gar37bic, GeeJo, Gene Nygaard, Gentgeen, Geo8rge, Georgewilliamherbert, Giuliopp, Goethean, GreenReaper, HazyM, Hu12, IanMcGrady, JDspeeder1, JEH, Jbenjamin, Jimp, Johann Wolfgang, John, Jumping cheese, Jynto, Kelreth, Krbvroc1, Leyo, Louisajb, Mandarax, Marokwitz, Materialscientist, Matt Gies, Megapixie,Mh26, Michael Zimmermann, Mintleaf, Msjayhawk, Mulad, Nablad, Nabokov, NapoliRoma, Never21, NickCT, Night Gyr, Nihiltres, Nippoo, Nono64, Northfox, Pap3rw8, Physchim62, PoisonOak, Pol098, Poor Yorick, Poppy, Pwitham, Quota, Rand21, Rbaselt, RenniePet, Rickjpelleg, Riddley, Rifleman 82, Riventree, Rjwilmsi, Rmrf1024, RockMFR, Romanm, Scott.medling,Scrappo55, Shaddack, Shlomster, Shootbamboo, Sindala, SiriusB, Slash, Stanislao Avogadro, Stepa, Stone, Stroppolo, Superm401, Taggard, TaintedMustard, Tarchon, Tassedethe, TheMagnificent Clean-keeper, The chemistds, Tjmayerinsf, TwoOneTwo, User24, Vegaswikian, Victor Victoria, Wantnot, Wasell, Wechselstrom, Welby7, Wickey-nl, Willking1979, Wjemather,Wtmitchell, Yyy, 218 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:PETN.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PETN.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BanginImage:PETN-from-xtal-2006-3D-balls-B.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PETN-from-xtal-2006-3D-balls-B.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ben MillsFile:Yes check.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yes_check.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:X mark.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:X_mark.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gmaxwell

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