Perceptions of Crime and Safety in Green Bay

Running Head: PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 1

Perceptions of Crime and Safety in Green Bay

Matthew D. Machnik

University of Wisconsin-Green Bay

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIME AND SAFETY 2

Perceptions of Crime and Safety in Green Bay

Over the course of my internship with the Green Bay Police Department [GBPD], I was

able to participate in a number of interesting and enlightening experiences. These included riding

with officers, learning how the police department is run, and being able to witness the interaction

between law enforcement and mental illness. A consistent theme that emerged across all of my

experiences was how the citizens of Green Bay perceive crime rates as well as safety. This was

especially true in regard to the data analysis work that I performed over the course of the

semester. The analysis was done on data obtained from surveys, known collectively as the citizen

confidence surveys, which were designed to assess citizens’ perceptions of both crime and

safety. It was interesting to see how the work of the police department influences these

perceptions, and, furthermore, how these perceptions are connected to scientific research and

theory.

On the first day of my internship, I had a meeting with Michelle Arneson, who is a crime

analyst for the GBPD, and Bill Bongle, who is a newly promoted captain in the GBPD, and is

one of the creators of the citizen confidence surveys. They had done a preliminary review of the

results of the survey, and had noted several interesting trends that were present. Over the course

of the meeting, they explained these trends to me, which laid the groundwork for much of the

analysis work I would do throughout the semester.

One of the trends involved perceptions of crime rates. Specifically, although incidences

of crime have been showing a significant overall decline, respondents seemed to believe that the

crime rate was actually increasing. In addition, Bill and Michelle explained to me that

respondents reported feeling much safer in their homes than they did in their surrounding

neighborhoods, and that they felt even less safe in other parts of Green Bay. Thus, one of the


main goals intended for analyzing the data was to look for reasons why people felt this way.

Though I explained to them that finding a perfect source of causality is difficult, I asserted that I

would try my best to give them the information they desired.

After the meeting, I immediately went home and began to peruse the literature pertaining

to the trends that Bill and Michelle had described. One article, authored by Ackerman et al.

(2001), made use of a number of polls and other social surveys regarding the concerns of the

American public, and used them to make comparisons between the public’s perceptions of crime

and their actual prevalence rates. What the researchers found was that, despite a consistent

nationwide drop in crime rates, the individuals who were surveyed felt that the rate of crime was

steadily increasing (Ackerman et al., 2001). Equally intriguing was the finding that the majority

of the survey respondents felt that this increase in crime was happening within a close proximity

to them, such as in their neighborhoods (Ackerman et al., 2001). Thus, based upon the results

obtained by Ackerman et al. (2001), it would seem that the city of Green Bay is not alone in this

dilemma.

After finding this out, I brought the article to the next meeting with Bill and Michelle. I

hoped that it could serve as a means of trying to find a solution to the issue, such that efforts

could be undertaken to reduce the degree of citizens’ misperceptions. After sharing the

information, we sat and brainstormed about what could be contributing to this problem. While a

number of good points were raised about possible contributors, such as racial stereotypes and

forming overgeneralizations about crime following certain events, one idea in particular seemed

to be the most plausible. Specifically, we discussed the influence of the media over people’s

perceptions of crime and safety.


For us, this certainly made sense. As the speed with which people throughout the world

can move information increases, it would seem that having the media providing a constant

stream of information about crime happening throughout not only the country, but also the

world, may be exposing people to more information than they would have had access to

previously. It was proposed that this could cause people to make overgeneralizations about the

prevalence of crime, which, in turn, could subsequently cause viewers to feel less safe.

Upon reading over some of the research regarding this topic, it would seem that there is

evidence supporting a strong connection between the media and perceptions of crime and safety.

For example, Ackerman et al. (2001) noted that the surveys, which led to the conclusion that

there is a mismatch regarding actual versus perceived crime rates, were administered during a

time when a number of high profile crime stories were commanding the television airwaves.

These events were fairly prominent, and included the Oklahoma City bombings, Menendez

brother’s murder trial, as well as others (Ackerman et al., 2001). Thus, while the relationship was

only hypothesized, it certainly seems possible.

Further research, though not finding a strong causal link between the two, would suggest

that portrayals of crime related incidents in the news can possibly influence viewers’ perceptions.

This connection was explored further by Duffy, Wake, Burrows, and Bremner (2008), after it

was noticed that citizens of London reported a similar discrepancy between actual and perceived

crime rates. Specifically, British citizens also reported thinking that crime rates were increasing,

despite a general decline in crime (Duffy et al., 2008). In addition, it was reported by Duffy et al.

(2008) that this misperception had such a significant impact on respondents, that they reported

decreased perceptions of personal safety. Thus, when comparing the current situation in Green


Bay with the results of research studies (e.g., Ackerman et al., 2001; Duffy et al., 2008) it would

seem that the problem of public misperception is occurring at a cross-cultural level.

In an attempt to better understand this phenomenon, Duffy et al. (2008) made use of a

wide variety of information, including public surveys, crime statistics, and media reports. One of

the public surveys used in the research evaluated what British citizens believed was the most

important issue facing their country (Duffy et al., 2008). It was reported that, between July of

2007, and August of 2007, crime went from being the third most important issue in Britain to the

first (Duffy et al., 2008). It was noted by the researchers that, during that point in time, media

outlets across the country were continually reporting on the shooting of an 11 year-old boy

named Rhys Jones (Duffy et al., 2008). Therefore, it was proposed that the extensive coverage of

the boy’s death led to an overall increase in concern about crime (Duffy et al., 2008).

Given the tragedy involved with the boy’s story, it can certainly be understood how

people would be moved to use the event as a means of suggesting that crime is a prominent

issue. Yet, when looking at the overall crime statistics from the time, their overall rates were

decreasing (Duffy et al., 2008). Not to belittle the unfortunate death of a child, but when it is

considered that the event was a statistic among a regular decreasing trend of crime, it would

certainly seem possible that, when the tragic circumstances surrounding his death were

magnified by constant media exposure, the media can play an important role in how viewers

perceive crime.

This notion was further explored by Duffy et al. (2008), who, in a review of the pertinent

literature, found that a consistent negative bias used by the media when reporting events can lead

viewers to misperceive the issue. Furthermore, the researchers made note of how newspapers

began to make generalizations about crime following the death of Rhys Jones (Duffy et al.,


2008). Specifically, they had begun to report the event as a signal that crime was rampant, and

that England was facing an inevitable decline in safety (Duffy et al., 2008). When combined with

the negative bias and overgeneralizations made by the media regarding the boy’s death, the

researchers propose that this type of media coverage can create a gap in the perceptions of

individuals, such that they may believe that the rate of crime rates are increasing, when they are

actually decreasing (Duffy et al., 2008).

While Bill, Michelle, and I were discussing the possible influence of the media, Bill

described a situation in which he had personally taken steps to reduce the negative impact of the

media. He explained that, several years ago, a movement was undertaken to make the area

surrounding Broadway Street near downtown Green Bay safer and more hospitable. During this

process, a police operation led to a significant number of arrests regarding a prostitution ring

being run in the area. The next day, Bill went down to the Press-Gazette to speak with the

individual in charge of reporting the incident. While he did not ask that the story be changed, he

did ask them to present the story in a more positive light. The reporter agreed, and the story

about the prostitution ring was released as a positive story about police success, rather than a

negative story depicting the area as being rife with crime that should be avoided.

Research would suggest that the method used by Bill to present events in a more positive

light can lead to increased feelings of safety. Specifically, by relating media reports to ratings of

safety, Duffy et al. (2008) found that individuals reported increased feelings of safety following

stories of police success in fighting crime. The method undertaken by Bill to provide viewers

with more positive portrayals of police-related events may be especially effective, since, in the

survey administered by the GBPD, television was consistently rated as being the top method for

communicating information regarding police activities (Machnik, 2011). Therefore, it would


seem that if the GBPD were to continue to be presented in a positive light, these portrayals could

reach a large number of people, and could result in increased feelings of safety.

For the remaining duration of my internship, much of my work involved the analysis of

the results of the citizen confidence survey. In order to better understand citizens’ perceptions, I

used the data to find which of the different items included in the survey had a significant

influence on safety. This involved comparing things such as perceptions of crimes, prior

victimization, and police priorities with safety. Over the course of the analysis, I made thorough

notes regarding my findings, and I eagerly brought them to the police station to present them.

During the meeting, I proceeded to go over the results of the data analysis. One of the

categories of comparison involved a number of items regarding what people believed the police

department should spend more, or less, time doing. This particular list included activities such as

enforcement of drunken driving laws, providing educational programs, and reducing minor

crimes. I hypothesized that determining which of them were associated with lower levels of

safety could be an indicator of how focusing on certain priorities could increase feelings of

safety. Though not provided in the executive summary, this analysis resulted in a number of

significant relationships. For example, spending more time investigating crimes, as well as

protecting personal property, was associated with higher levels of perceived safety.

When I presented this list to Bill, one of the results caused a momentary pause in the

discussion. Specifically, the data indicated that increased time spent patrolling on foot or bicycle

was associated with a greater level of perceived safety. This was surprising to him, as not much

of the patrol activity is devoted to patrolling on foot or bicycle. While, at the very least, bicycle

patrol was encouraged, it was not used very often. Though this was not explicitly stated, I

assumed that this was the case because patrolling on foot or bicycle seems relatively inefficient.


This is because it would seemingly take an officer a greater amount of time to get to a call if he

or she was needed. In addition, I suspected that it would likely take an officer longer to patrol a

certain area if on foot or bicycle, which could hypothetically increase the likelihood of missing

something important.

However, according to Bill’s explanation, this type of patrol is not without its benefits.

Specifically, it can allow for increased interaction with members of the public. This, in turn, can

lead to greater rapport with members of the community, and can possibly be a means of

gathering information regarding any problems that are present. Thus, while it might be relatively

inefficient when compared with car-patrols, foot-patrol may be one way in which the police can

work toward more positive public perceptions, and build better relationships with the

community.

Research conducted by Salmi, Voeten, and Keskinen (2000) would suggest that Bill’s

interpretation of foot-patrol activities is fairly accurate. The researchers conducted a study aimed

at comparing individuals’ perceptions of the police following either a foot-patrol or car-patrol

encounter (Salmi et al., 2000). They accomplished this by gathering participants’ histories of

encounters with the police, and then assessed their perceptions of those encounters using a

lengthy measure (Salmi et al., 2008). Specifically, they assessed the perceived public image and

visibility of the police, as well as any prior victimization (Salmi et al., 2008).

Upon analyzing the collected data, a number of significant findings were obtained. Most

importantly, it was found that, among participants who had encountered foot-patrol officers,

perceptions of the police tended to be more positive (Salmi et al., 2008). Specifically,

participants viewed the police as being friendlier, especially when the officer made an attempt to

stop and talk to them (Salmi et al., 2008). Conversely, participants who reported contact with


car-patrols reported having a less positive perception of the police, in that they viewed them as

being less friendly (Salmi et al., 2008). From these results, the researchers conclude that, in order

to form a greater rapport with the public, police officers should engage in more foot-patrol

related activities (Salmi et al., 2008). The researchers suggest that this does not necessarily mean

that officers should engage in full-time foot-patrol, but should rather spend more time out of their

vehicles and engaging the public (Salmi et al., 2008).

What makes the results of the study conducted by Salmi et al. (2008) even more

interesting is how they can be connected to the results of the data analysis. Within the citizen

confidence survey, respondents were asked to rate their most recent contact with the police

across a number of different characteristics. This included items such as professionalism, being

respectful, and providing impartial treatment. Respondents’ ratings on each of these items were

compared to their ratings of safety to determine if any significant relationships were present.

The results showed that the majority of the contact characteristics were significantly

related to perceptions of safety (Machnik, 2011). Specifically, as contacts were rated more highly

on each the characteristics, respondents’ perceptions of safety increased (Machnik, 2011). While

this information is certainly useful per se, when connected to the insights offered by Salmi et al.

(2008), a greater understanding of how perceptions of safety can be increased among the public

emerges.

Specifically, the results of Salmi et al. (2008) indicate that citizens develop more positive

perceptions of the police when encountered through foot-patrol activities. In addition, the results

of the data analysis suggest that positive contact ratings can result in increased perceptions of

safety (Machnik, 2011). Therefore, when combining both of these results, one could logically

conclude that increased perceptions of safety may result from foot-patrol related encounters with


the police. However, one must keep in mind that this contact does not necessarily need to be the

result of foot-patrol activities, but can be something as simple as officers taking time to step out

of their vehicles and engage the public (Salmi et al., 2008). With all of this considered, it would

seem that the results of Salmi et al. (2008) and Machnik (2011) provide a method that can be

used by police to increase public perceptions of safety. Specifically, if time is taken to step out of

the vehicle and engage members of the public, while conducting oneself in a professional and

respectful manner, this small act on the part of officers can lead to greater perceptions of safety

among the public.

It is also worth mentioning that the GBPD both encourages, and rewards, positive

encounters with citizens. The specific program that is used is referred to as the WOW awards.

When a citizen encounters a member of the police department, whether it is through the front

desk, records, or a uniformed officer, he or she can nominate the individual for an award. In

addition, the citizen is given the opportunity to give a description of his or her positive

experience. While this process serves as means of recognizing GBPD personnel who work to

ensure positive interactions with individuals with whom they come into contact, it can also serve

as a source of motivation for them to conduct themselves in a positive manner. When

considering the aforementioned benefits of positive encounters between the police and the

public, the motivation provided by the WOW awards can also serve as a means of increasing

feelings of safety.

Nevertheless, recognizing and encouraging positive encounters may not be a completely

sufficient means of changing citizens’ perceptions. Since one cannot typically predict when and

where crime will happen, it would seem necessary to ensure that the police are able to handle

day-to-day events efficiently. Doing so could be advantageous, since knowing that the police can


respond quickly in the event of an emergency may encourage feelings of safety and confidence

among the public. While simply hiring more officers may be effective means of accomplishing

this, it may not represent the most economical approach.

Instead, Bill explained to me that the GBPD addressed this problem by creating a

Community Police [CP] division. Within this division, a number of specialized officers are

employed to address chronic problems that are present across a number of areas. Having a

dedicated individual deal with these problems on a full time basis allows other patrol officers to

be more available to take calls when necessary. It was explained to me that this idea came about

when it was noticed that patrol officers were having to spend a significant amount of time

dealing with persistent problems that happened on a regular basis. In order to counteract this, the

city of Green Bay was divided up into a number of different areas, each of which was assigned

one or two CP officers who could address these issues. This, in turn, gave patrol officers more

time to devote to the sporadic and potentially more significant issues that arose, and they could

do so in a more quick and efficient manner.

In addition to making an efficient use of time and resources, this method of policing

seems to carry with it a number of other advantages. First, since each CP officer is assigned to a

specific, fixed area, he or she can gain a better understanding of the problems present. Second,

those who experience these persistent problems, such as landlords or businesses, can have a

familiar person to contact when issues arise. Both of these advantages can, in turn, ensure that

problems are dealt with effectively, and can increase rapport with the police department.

While there does seem to be a plethora of advantages to using this approach, Bill

explained to me that the GBPD will be taking it one step further. During one of our meetings, we

had to wait for another person to become available before we could start. Bill took this time to


explain the new policing strategy that will be used by the department starting in 2012. While

many of the familiar elements of policing will be retained, the GBPD will begin making

increasing use of information about crime, such as prevalence rates and locations of chronic

problems. By making use of this information, patrol officers will be able to make more efficient

use of their time by focusing their efforts on any issues that are identified. It was explained to me

on one of my ride-alongs that this can include things such as monitoring active drug houses, or

patrolling known problematic neighborhoods.

This particular method is known as information-led policing, and was explained to me in

greater detail by Michelle. Her role in this method is crucial, as it is largely her crime analysis

results that will contribute to directing the actions of officers. I sat in with her one day as she

worked, and she showed me the different methods used to obtain this information. These include

determining prevalence rates, keeping track of calls to a certain address, or determining locations

of chronic problems. By relaying this information to patrol officers, it will be providing a more

efficient and targeted approach to policing, which can result in a greater reduction in criminal

activity. This method was developed as an alternative approach to their current method of

policing, in which, aside from taking reported calls, patrol activities involve little direction. It

was noted that this targeted method of patrol should be advantageous, for, as Michelle stated,

“random patrols equal random results.” Thus, by using information to take the randomness out of

police activities, the GBPD hopes to see better results regarding reductions in crime.

Work done by Innes, Abbot, Lowe, and Roberts (2009) gives further insight into this

method by detailing a case study done in England, and providing information regarding the

methodology they undertook. One of the advantages they propose to the information-led

approach is that it allows law enforcement to see the area from a citizen’s point of view (Innes et


al., 2009). They explain that this is an improvement over prior methods of policing, as it can lead

to a greater understanding of how certain issues can serve as a signal of problems to come (Innes

et al., 2009). Therefore, one of the underlying assumptions to this approach is that, by analyzing

crime, and seeking input from citizens, law enforcement agencies will gain access to information

that can provide insight into the situations happening at the neighborhood level (Innes et al.,

2009).

The researchers elaborate on this further by giving a detailed assessment of how this

method can benefit both law enforcement, as well as citizens. They propose that using this

method can help determine which of the events occurring at a neighborhood level have a

significant impact on citizens’ perceptions of safety (Innes et al., 2009). Therefore, collecting

information regarding citizens’ perceptions of events can provide a means of determining issues

that have the biggest impact on citizens’ experiences, and law enforcement can work to resolve

these issues before they become more problematic (Innes et al., 2009). In doing so, law

enforcement agencies will also be able make the most efficient use of their resources by ensuring

that their primary areas of prevention are having the greatest impact on neighborhood

perceptions (Innes et al., 2009). Thus, by identifying prominent issues in certain areas, and

subsequently working to resolve these issues in an efficient and organized manner, Innes et al.

(2009) propose that law enforcement can play an integral part in increasing perceptions of safety

at the neighborhood level (Innes et al., 2009).

A trial conducted by Innes et al. (2009) demonstrated how this approach can identify

problematic crimes that impact a community’s perceptions. Specifically, they detailed the

tensions that existed between two different neighborhoods, each of which had distinct ethnic

demographics (Innes et al., 2009). Upon interviewing members of each neighborhood, it was


determined that both groups were fearful of venturing into the other area (Innes et al., 2009).

Applying the information-led approach, the researchers identified certain crimes, such as racist

graffiti, that were related to feelings of anxiety and threat, and led to decreased perceptions of

safety (Innes et al., 2009).

While the efficacy of this approach in reducing crime was not examined, the researchers

do provide an example of how this information can increase the effectiveness of community

policing. For example, they propose that information regarding the racial tensions that are

present could be provided to community police officers to gain greater insight into how issues

are affecting the neighborhoods’ residents (Innes, et al., 2009). In addition, community officers

could gain knowledge pertaining to which crimes, such as the graffiti, have the greatest impact

over perceptions of safety, and can subsequently put greater emphasis on preventing these

crimes, thus ensuring that levels of perceived safety are increased or maintained (Innes et al.,

2009).

Given the description of information-led policing by Innes et al. (2009), it would seem

that there are two distinct types of information that are required for it to be effective. The first

involves analysis detailing items such as prevalence rates and crime location. In regards to the

GBPD, this work would be completed by Michelle, as it seems a significant amount of her job is

devoted to these issues. The second part of this method involves gathering information regarding

citizens’ perceptions of problems throughout the community. As Bill explained to me when

detailing this approach, the need for this type of information was why they chose to administer

the citizen confidence survey.

As per the request of the GBPD, I spent a significant amount of time working to find out

which of the survey items were closely related to ratings of safety, which included making


comparisons between perceptions of safety and crime. Upon doing a number of the analyses, I

brought my results to a meeting with Bill and Lieutenant Jeremy Muraski. The items that had a

significant impact on ratings of safety included a number of serious issues, such as armed hold-

ups, sexual assaults, and thefts of cars, but also included a number of minor offenses, such as

littering, graffiti, and poorly maintained properties (Machnik, 2011).

While all of these issues represent areas of concern, Jeremy explained to me how the

minor issues could play an important role in perceptions of safety. He explained that minor

crimes, such as graffiti and littering, can send a message of disorder to neighborhood residents,

and can also act as an invitation to more serious crimes. This is because, if left unattended, minor

issues can send a signal that neighborhood residents do not care about the upkeep of their area,

which can be perceived as a lack of willingness to address more serious ones. From this, he

suggested that it might be necessary to begin enforcing minor offenses more strictly in order to

prevent further disorder.

While this scenario was only hypothesized by Jeremy, research would suggest that the

events described may be possible. Basing their work on theories similar to the one Jeremy

proposed, O’Brien and Wilson (2011) used a number of different studies to determine how

individuals form judgments of different neighborhoods, and provided implications based on their

results. The first study involved determining participants’ perceptions of residents’ lifestyles and

social dynamics by looking at pictures of high- and low-maintained neighborhoods, while the

second involved examining perceptions of trust ascribed to the individuals from those same areas

(O’Brien & Wilson, 2011). Finally, the third study took a closer look at specific elements

depicted in the photographs of the neighborhoods, such as the appearances of the windows, lawn,


and litter that was present, and assessed how these influenced participants’ perceptions of the

neighborhood (O’Brien & Wilson, 2011).

The results of the first study indicated that lower levels of neighborhood upkeep were

rated by participants as being linked to decreased social interaction between residents (O’Brien

& Wilson, 2011). In addition, the results of the second study indicated that participants ascribed

lower levels of trust to individuals from lesser maintained neighborhoods (O’Brien & Wilson,

2011). Finally, the results of the third study suggest that individuals form their perceptions of

neighborhood environments based on an overall assessment of its features, with their

maintenance quality being associated with the perceived level of social quality (O’Brien &

Wilson, 2011). Thus when taken together, the results suggest that individuals living in

communities where the physical structures are not well maintained are subject to outside

assessments of lower levels of trust, as well as lower perceived social quality (O’Brien &

Wilson, 2011).

The researchers provide an explanation for how these assessments are linked to

perceptions of safety and crime rates. Specifically, they reason that quality of the relationships

between neighborhoods is associated with crime rates, such that lower levels of social quality

can lead to less interaction when dealing with neighborhood issues (O’Brien & Wilson, 2011). In

addition, they propose that the findings provide evidence for how individuals can accurately

make judgments about the social quality of a neighborhood based on the maintenance of its

physical structures (O’Brien & Wilson, 2011). These two findings add credence to the theory

provided by Jeremy. Specifically, when minor issues, such as poorly maintained properties or

litter, are not enforced, the cooperation between neighbors will likely decrease. In addition,

neighborhood visitors may become cognizant of the lower level of social quality based upon low


levels of maintenance, which can serve as a means to invite more serious problems. Thus, it

would seem that Jeremy may be correct in suggesting that the GBPD may be required to enforce

minor infractions more strictly in the future, for doing so could have a significant positive effect

on neighborhoods where these issues are present.

In conclusion, my internship experience with the GBPD was overwhelmingly positive.

Not only did I have the opportunity to gain skills related to data analysis, but the information and

insights provided by the people I interacted with has given me a greater understanding of the

work necessary to reduce crime and maintain safety. These insights were even further expanded

upon when looking at the relevant literature, which added to the perceived complexity of law

enforcement activity. However, comparisons between my experiences and research seem to

indicate that the GBPD is taking the right steps to ensure that activities are carried out efficiently,

and an overall increase in perceived safety is achieved. I feel a great sense of gratitude for being

able to be a part of this learning experience, and I look forward to seeing the results of the new

developments at the GBPD.


References

Ackerman, G. G., Anderson, B. B., Jensen, S. S., Ludwig, R. R., Montero, D. D., Plante, N. N.,

& Yanez, V. V. (2001). Crime rates and confidence in the police: America's changing

attitudes toward crime and police, 1972-1999. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare,

28, 43-54. Retrieved from http://www.wmich.edu/hhs/newsletters_journals/jssw/

Duffy, B., Wake, R., Burrows, T., & Bremner, P. (2008). Closing the gaps - crime and public

perceptions. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 22, 17-44.

doi:10.1080/13600860801924899

Innes, M., Abbott, L., Lowe, T., & Roberts, C. (2009). Seeing like a citizen: Field experiments in

'community intelligence-led policing’. Police Practice & Research: An International

Journal, 10, 99-114. doi:10.1080/15614260802264545

Machnik, M. D. (2011). Green Bay Police Department Citizen Confidence Survey: Executive

Summary. Green Bay, WI: Author

Salmi, S., Voeten, M. M., & Keskinen, E. (2000). Relation between police image and police

visibility. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 10, 433-447.

doi:10.1002/1099-1298(200011/12)10:6<433::AID-CASP576>3.0.CO;2-Z

O'Brien, D., & Wilson, D. (2011). Community perception: The ability to assess the safety of

unfamiliar neighborhoods and respond adaptively. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 100, 606-620. doi:10.1037/a0022803

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Perceptions of Crime and Safety in Green Bay