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PERFORMANCE OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE USING PALM OIL
CLINKER AGGREGATES FOR PRECAST APPLICATION
NAZRY BIN AZILLAH
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
PERFORMANCE OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE USING PALM OIL
CLINKER AGGREGATES FOR PRECAST APPLICATION
NAZRY BIN AZILLAH
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Philosophy
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
FEBRUARY 2018
iii
To my beloved parents, siblings, wife and daughter
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah, all praises to Allah for the strengths, wisdom, knowledge and
opportunity given and His blessing in completing this thesis. Special appreciation
goes to my supervisor, Dr. Roslli Noor Mohamed for all the guidance, supervision,
constant support and advice. His invaluable help of constructive comments and
suggestions throughout the experimental and thesis works have contributed to the
success of this research.
I would like to thank all the staff of the Structure and Materials Laboratory,
Faculty of Civil Engineering especially Encik Raja Ezar, Encik Nawawi and Encik
Zaabah for their valuable co-operations, support and help during execution of
experimental. My acknowledgement also goes out to all my postgraduate colleagues
named Shariwati Mansor, Nazirah Ahmad Shukri and Sazlly Nazren Mahmor for
their assistance and energy contributed since the beginning of the research program.
Last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents; Mr.
Azillah Omar and Mrs. Salmah Ahmad, my parents-in-law; Mr. Mohd Noor Ismail
and Mrs. Arbayah Rais and also to my siblings for their endless love, prayers and
encouragement. Also not forgetting my wife, Noor Afiqah Mohd Noor and my
lovely daughter, Ayna Humayra Nazry for their love, patience and care throughout
this Master of Philosophy program. To those who indirectly contributed in this
research, your kindness means a lot to me. Thank you very much.
v
ABSTRACT
Palm oil clinker (POC) is a waste from the incineration process of palm oil
shell and palm oil fibre which can be easily obtained from palm oil mill. This study
focused on the 100% replacement of fine and coarse POC aggregates in concrete.
The utilization of POC has been accepted by researcher to produce lightweight
concrete and has good potential to replace natural aggregates. In this study, the
characterization of fine and coarse aggregates consist of the physical and mechanical
properties. Specific gravity, water absorption, dry loose bulk density, moisture
content, sieve analysis, fineness modulus and Los Angeles abrasion tests were
conducted to evaluate the physical properties. While for the mechanical properties of
aggregate, tests on aggregate crushing value and aggregate impact value were carried
out. It was found that the coarse and fine POC aggregates produce a density of
817.17 kg/m3 and 917.82 kg/m3, respectively, which were lighter than normal granite
and sand as much as 36.85% and 29.45%. This is due to the porous nature of POC
aggregates. POC absorbs excessive water which contributes to higher water
absorption of 15.17% and 5.35% for fine and coarse, respectively. The sieve
analysis result shows that fine and coarse POC comply with American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) C330/330M (2014), thus indicates that fine and
coarse POC aggregates can be considered as a well-graded aggregate. A concrete
mixture consists of 100% fine and coarse POC aggregates were then designed
according to American Concrete Institute (ACI) 211.2 (1998), producing lightweight
concrete with a density of 1990.33 kg/m3. The normal weight concrete (NC) and
lightweight concrete or later known as palm oil clinker concrete (POCC) were tested
for its fresh and hardened properties. Slump test was performed to assess its
workability while for the hardened concrete tests, density, water absorption,
ultrasonic pulse velocity, compressive strength, tensile splitting, flexural strength,
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio tests were conducted. To evaluate
suitability in the structural precast application, normal concrete wall (NCW) and
lightweight precast wall (LPW) panels were constructed and tested under static
loading. LPW panel exhibited lower axial load capacity by 44.13% from NCW and
this is mainly due to the lower initial stiffness. Moreover, the higher Poisson’s ratio
value for POCC reflects the higher lateral displacement recorded by LPW at peak
load which was 4.46 mm compared to only 1.1 mm for NCW. The failure mode and
cracking pattern for both panels were similar except LPW exhibited concrete spalling
during failure. The utilization of POC aggregate shows significant impact as LPW
had larger strain at lower load. From the study conducted, POCC with air voids in
the concrete contributes to lower initial stiffness of LPW. In conclusion, the LPW is
suitable to be used as low load structural members.
vi
ABSTRAK
Batu hangus kelapa sawit (POC) ialah sisa buangan dari proses pembakaran
kulit kelapa sawit dan serat kelapa sawit yang mudah didapati di kilang kelapa sawit.
Kajian ini fokus kepada penggantian 100% aggregat POC halus dan kasar di dalam
konkrit. Penggunaan POC dipersetujui oleh penyelidik dalam menghasilkan konkrit
ringan selain mempunyai potensi bagi menggantikan aggregat semulajadi. Ciri-ciri
POC yang dikaji di dalam kajian ini meliputi ciri-ciri fizikal dan mekanikal aggregat.
Graviti tentu, serapan air, ketumpatan pukal longgar kering, kandungan kelembapan,
analisis ayakan, modulus kehalusan dan ujian lelasan Los Angeles dilakukan untuk
menilai ciri-ciri fizikal. Manakala bagi ciri-ciri mekanikal aggregat, ujian nilai
kehancuran aggregat dan nilai impak aggregate dilakukan. POC kasar dan halus
mempunyai nilai ketumpatan 817.17 kg/m3 dan 917.82 kg/m3, di mana nilai ini lebih
rendah berbanding granit dan pasir sebanyak 36.85% dan 29.45%. Ini disebabkan
oleh sifat POC yang berongga. Sifat menyerap air POC menyebabkan nilai serapan
air tinggi iaitu sebanyak 15.17% untuk POC halus dan 5.35% untuk POC kasar.
Analisis ayakan POC halus dan kasar mematuhi American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) C330/330M (2014) yang menandakan bahawa aggregat POC
halus dan kasar dikelaskan sebagai aggregat bergred baik. Campuran konkrit
mengandungi 100% aggregat halus dan kasar direka berpandukan American
Concrete Institute (ACI) 211.2 (1998) bagi menghasilkan konkrit ringan dengan
ketumpatan 1990.33 kg/m3. Konkrit berat biasa (NC) dan juga konkrit ringan yang
kemudiannya dikenali sebagai konkrit klinker kelapa sawit (POCC) diuji untuk sifat
konkrit basah dan sifat konkrit keras. Ujian runtuhan dilakukan bagi menilai
kebolehkerjaan manakala bagi konkrit keras, ujian ketumpatan, serapan air, halaju
denyut ultrasonik, kekuatan mampatan, mampatan tegangan, kekuatan lenturan,
modulus elastik dan nisbah Poisson turut dilakukan. Bagi menilai kesesuaian
aplikasi di dalam struktur konkrit pratuang, dinding konkrit berat biasa (NCW) dan
dinding ringan pratuang (LPW) dibina dan diuji dibawah tekanan statik. Panel LPW
menunjukkan nilai keupayaan yang lebih rendah dari NCW sebanyak 44.13% yang
disebabkan oleh nilai kekukuhan awal yang rendah. Nilai nisbah Poisson yang tinggi
turut menyebabkan LPW mempunyai nilai sesaran yang tinggi iaitu 4.46 mm
manakala NCW hanya 1.1 mm. Mod kegagalan bagi kedua-dua panel didapati
adalah kehancuran konkrit tetapi LPW turut menunjukkan pecahan konkrit.
Penggunaan aggregat POC menunjukkan hasil yang ketara di mana LPW
mempunyai terikan yang lebih besar ketika beban yang rendah. Hasil kajian
menunjukkan POCC dengan udara terkandung di dalam konkrit menyumbang
kepada nilai kekukuhan awal yang rendah untuk LPW. Kesimpulannya, LPW
didapati hanya sesuai untuk digunakan sebagai struktur untuk beban rendah.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF SYMBOLS
LIST OF APPENDICES
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
xii
xiv
xvii
xix
xxii
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Aim and Objectives
1.4 Scopes of Study
1.5 Significance of Research
1.6 Thesis Outline
1
1
3
4
4
5
6
viii
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Lightweight Aggregate
2.2.1 Types of Lightweight Aggregate
2.2.2 Effects on Lightweight Concrete Utilizing
Lightweight Aggregate
2.3 Palm Oil Clinker Aggregates
2.3.1 Production of Palm Oil Clinker Aggregates
2.3.2 Properties of Palm Oil Clinker Aggregates
2.4 Lightweight Concrete
2.4.1 Background of Lightweight Concrete
2.4.2 Types of Lightweight Concrete
2.4.2.1 No-fines Lightweight Concrete
2.4.2.2 Aerated Lightweight Concrete
2.4.2.3 Lightweight Aggregates Concrete
2.4.3 Advantages of Lightweight Concrete
2.5 Palm Oil Clinker Concrete
2.5.1 Mix Design Methods of Palm Oil Clinker
Concrete
2.5.2 Previous research on Palm Oil Clinker Concrete
Properties
2.6 Wall
2.6.1 Theoretical Equation of Wall
2.7 Precast Concrete
2.7.1 Precast Wall
2.7.1.1 Types of Precast Wall
2.7.2 Lightweight Precast Wall
2.7.2.1 Precast Wall Limitation
2.7.2.2 Advantages of Lightweight Precast Wall
2.7.2.3 Structural Behaviour of Lightweight
Precast Wall
2.8 Concluding Remarks
7
7
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12
12
14
17
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3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials
3.2.1 Cement
3.2.2 Aggregates
3.2.3 Water
3.2.4 Superplasticizer
3.3 Material Properties of Palm Oil Clinker (POC)
3.3.1 Physical Properties of POC
3.3.1.1 Sieve Analysis and Fineness Modulus
3.3.1.2 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption
3.3.1.3 Dry Loose Bulk Density
3.3.1.4 Moisture Content
3.3.1.5 Los Angeles Abrasion Value
3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of POC
3.3.2.1 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
3.3.2.2 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
3.3.3 Chemical Properties of POC
3.3.3.1 Chloride Content
3.3.3.2 Sulphate Content
3.4 Concrete Mix Design
3.4.1 Mix Design of Normal Concrete
3.4.2 Mix Design of Palm Oil Clinker Concrete (POCC)
3.5 Preparation and Casting of Test Specimens
3.6 Properties of Concrete
3.6.1 Fresh Concrete Test – Slump Test
3.6.2 Hardened Concrete Tests
3.6.2.1 Density
3.6.2.2 Water Absorption Test
3.6.2.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
3.6.2.4 Compressive Strength Test
3.6.2.5 Tensile Splitting Strength Test
3.6.2.6 Flexural Strength Test
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x
3.6.2.7 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio
Test
3.7 Precast Wall
3.7.1 Design and Construction of Normal Concrete
and POCC Precast Wall Panel
3.7.2 Test Set-Up
3.7.3 Test Procedures
3.7.4 Analysis Procedures
3.8 Summary of Chapter
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4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ON MATERIAL
PROPERTIES AND CONCRETE PROPERTIES
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Material Properties of POC
4.2.1 Physical Properties of POC
4.2.1.1 Sieve Analysis and Fineness Modulus
4.2.1.2 Specific Gravity
4.2.1.3 Water Absorption
4.2.1.4 Dry Loose Bulk Density
4.2.1.5 Moisture Content
4.2.1.6 Los Angeles Abrasion Value
4.2.2 Mechanical Properties of POC
4.2.3 Chemical Properties of POC
4.3 Mix Design of Normal Concrete and Lightweight
Concrete
4.4 Properties of Concrete
4.4.1 Fresh Concrete
4.4.2 Hardened Concrete
4.4.2.1 Density
4.4.2.2 Water Absorption
4.4.2.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
4.4.2.4 Compressive Strength
4.4.2.5 Tensile Splitting Strength
78
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100
xi
4.4.2.6 Flexural Strength
4.4.2.7 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio
4.5 Summary
4.5.1 Material Properties of POC
4.5.2 Properties of POCC
101
103
106
106
107
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ON STRUCTURAL
BEHAVIOUR OF LIGHTWEIGHT PRECAST WALL
PANEL
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Structural Behaviour of Lightweight Precast Wall
Panel (LPW)
5.2.1 Ultimate Load Capacity of LPW
5.2.2 Load-Displacement Profile of LPW
5.2.3 Crack Pattern and Failure Mode of LPW
5.2.4 Load-Strain Behaviour of LPW
5.3 Validation of Experimental Compressive Stress of LPW
5.3.1 First Crack and Ultimate Load
5.3.2 Validation of Experimental Compressive Stress of
LPW with Theoretical Equations
5.4 Summary
5.4.1 Structural Behaviour of Lightweight Precast Wall
Panel
5.4.2 Validation of Experimental Compressive Stress
Capacity of LPW with Theoretical Equations
108
108
108
109
111
114
116
118
119
119
123
123
124
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusions
6.2 Recommendations
125
125
127
REFERENCES 128
Appendices A-E 135-142
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
Physical and mechanical properties of coarse POC
aggregates
Physical properties of fine POC aggregates
Mix proportions utilizing POC aggregates from previous
studies
Mix proportion for NC (per m3)
Fine to coarse ratio for POCC
Mix proportion for POCC (per m3)
Physical properties of fine and coarse POC, crushed
granite and river sand
Sieve analysis of coarse POC aggregate
Sieve analysis of crushed granite
Sieve analysis of fine POC aggregate
Sieve analysis of river sand
Mechanical properties of POC and crushed granite
Chemical properties of coarse POC
Mix proportion for trial mixes
Slump value and designated slump range for concrete
mixes
Mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation of
density of POCC and NC
Mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation of
water absorption of POCC and NC
15
16
27
51
57
58
79
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81
81
82
88
89
92
94
96
96
xiii
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
5.1
5.2
5.3
Mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation of
UPV of POCC and NC
Mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation of
compressive strength of POCC and NC
Mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation of
tensile splitting strength of POCC and NC
Mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation of
flexural strength of POCC and NC
Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio
The percentage of difference for compressive strength
Compressive strength of cubic specimen, first crack and
ultimate load
First crack and ultimate load
Comparison of experimental compressive stress and
theoretical equations
97
99
101
102
105
105
111
119
121
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Types of lightweight aggregates that commonly used in
concrete (Chandra and Berntsson, 2002)
Fracture paths for normal weight concrete and
lightweight concrete (Newman, 1993)
Physical character of POC (a) POC boulder (b) Porous
structure of POC
Types of lightweight concrete (Newman and Owens,
2003)
The honeycomb structure of no-fines lightweight
concrete
Aerated lightweight concrete groups
Types of ALC (a) ALC by chemical reaction (b) ALC
made of foam
Types of precast wall (a) solid wall (b) sandwich wall (c)
thin shell
Flow chart of research activities
Work flows of experimental research activities
Preparation of POC aggregates (a) Raw POC collected
from palm oil mill (b) POC after crushed by hammer (c)
Grinding machine used to crush POC to smaller size (d)
POC after grinded
Sieve shaker for sieve analysis test
10
12
13
18
19
20
20
33
42
43
45
47
xv
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
4.1
4.2
4.3
Specific gravity and water absorption test (a) Coarse
aggregate was immersed in water for 24 hours (b) The
apparent mass of aggregate was taken (c) Taking the
mass of coarse aggregate after oven dried
The ACV test for coarse aggregate
The AIV test for coarse aggregate
Moulds used for the hardened concrete tests
Slump test for fresh concrete
UPV test being carried out on prism specimen
Compressive test of cube specimen
Tensile splitting strength test (a) Test set-up (b)
Schematic diagram
Flexural strength test (a) Test set-up (b) Schematic
diagram
Preparation and test set-up (a) Location of strain gauges
(b) Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s ratio test set up
for cylindrical specimen
Layout of the wall
Strain gauges attached to steel reinforcement (SS)
Preparation of steel strain gauge and formwork (a) Strain
gauge after glued (b) First layer of coating with N-1 (c)
Second layer of coating with bituminous tape (d)
Completed formwork with reinforcement
Mixing and casting process (a) Drum mixer for the
mixing process (b) Slump test to check the workability
(c) Concrete vibrating
(a) Location of the strain gauges at the surface of wall
(SC) (b) Testing setup for POCC wall
Set-up for wall panel test
Schematic diagram of test set-up
Sieve analysis grading curve for coarse POC
Sieve analysis grading curve for crushed granite
Sieve analysis grading curve for fine POC
48
53
54
59
60
63
64
65
66
68
69
71
71
72
73
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75
82
83
83
xvi
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
Sieve analysis grading curve for river sand
Fineness modulus results
Rejected trial mixes of POCC (a) D1 with honeycomb all
over the cubic specimens (b) Trial mixes A1 to A3 have
segregation and less cohesive cement paste
Compressive strength of cube specimens for POCC and
NC
Failure mode of cubic specimens (a) POCC (b) NC
Failure mode of cylindrical specimen for POCC
Failure mode of POCC prism specimen
Failure mode of normal concrete prism specimen
Determination of modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s
ratio of POCC from stress-strain curves
Determination of modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s
ratio of NC from stress-strain curves
The cracks path line for LPW and NCW
Fracture path (a) Crack travels between cement paste and
aggregates for normal weight concrete (b) The crack path
travels through the porous structure of POC aggregates
Load-vertical displacement of precast wall panels
Lateral displacement along the wall height of
Lightweight Precast Wall (LPW) at different load
Lateral displacement along the wall height of Normal
Concrete Wall (NCW) at different load
Crack propagation and failure mode (a) LPW (b) NCW
Illustration of crack pattern
The spalled concrete of LPW (a) Flat surface of spalled
concrete (b) Converged cracks
Load-strain of concrete strain gauges for NCW and LPW
Load-strain of steel reinforcement strain gauges for
NCW and LPW
Comparison of experimental and theoretical compressive
stress of LPW panels
84
85
91
98
100
101
102
103
104
104
109
110
112
113
113
114
115
115
117
118
120
xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ACI - American Concrete Institute
ACV - Aggregate crushing value
AIV - Aggregate impact value
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
BS - British Standards
CIDB - Construction Industry Development Board
COV - Coefficient of variation
DOE - Department of Environment
FCSP - Foamed concrete sandwich panel
IBS - Industrial building system
LPW - Lightweight precast wall
LVDT - Linear variable displacement transducer
LWA - Lightweight aggregate
LWAC - Lightweight aggregate concrete
LWC - Lightweight concrete
LWECC - Lightweight expanded clay concrete
LWPSC - Lightweight pumice stone concrete
M-sand - Manufactured sand
NC - Normal concrete
NCW - Normal concrete wall
OPC - Ordinary Portland cement
OPS - Oil palm shell
PFA - Pulverized fly ash
POC - Palm oil clinker
POCC - Palm oil clinker concrete
xviii
POS - Palm Oil Shell
PP - Particle packing
SCC - Self-compacting concrete
SCLWC - Self-compacting lightweight concrete
SD - Standard deviation
SP - Superplasticizer
UPV - Ultrasonic pulse velocity
xix
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A - Mass of oven-dry specimen
Ac - The cross-sectional area of the specimen which was
subjected to the compression load
Asc - The area of steel reinforcement bar
As,max - Maximum area of reinforcement required
As,min - Minimum area of reinforcement required
B - Mass of saturated surface-dry sample in air
B1 - Mass of pycnometer filled with water to calibration mark
C - Apparent mass of saturated test sample in water
Cnom - Nominal cover
C1 - Mass of pycnometer filled with specimen and water to
calibration mark
D - Mass of dried sample
d - Diameter of the specimen
d1 - Horizontal dimension of prism specimen
d2 - Vertical dimension of prism specimen
E - Modulus of elasticity
F - The maximum load at failure
fc - Compressive strength
fcd - The design compressive strength of concrete
fcf - Flexural strength
fct - Tensile splitting strength
fk, exp - Experiment compressive stress of wall
fk, theo - Theoretical compressive stress of wall
xx
fy - The characteristic yield strength of concrete
G - Mass of the aggregate and the cylinder
H - Height of the wall
H/t - Slenderness ratio
h - Width of the wall
I - Distance between the supporting rollers
Im - Moment of inertia
i - The radius of gyration about the axis considered
k - Factor for fully restrained wall against rotation
L - Length of specimen
le - Effective length
MEd - The design bending moment
Mo2 - First order moment
M1 - Mass of test specimen
M2 - Mass of the material passing the 2.36 mm test sieve
m3 - Mass of the precipitate of barium sulphate
NEd - The design ultimate axial load in the wall
Pu - Ultimate load for stocky wall
S - Mass of saturated surface-dry specimen (used in
gravimetric procedure for density and relative density)
T - Mass of cylinder
T1 - Time taken by the pulse to transverse the length
t - Thickness of the wall
V - Volume of cylinder
V1 - Volume of the specimen
V2 - Used volume of 0.01 mol/l silver nitrate solution
ʋ - Poisson’s ratio
W - Mass of original sample
W1 - Mass of original test sample
W2 - Final mass of the test sample
W3 - 1000 g / mass of the aggregate
εa - Longitudinal strain at stress σa
εb - Longitudinal strain at stress σb
xxi
εta - Transverse strain at stress σa
εtb - Transverse strain at stress σb
λ - Slenderness ratio
λlim - Slenderness limit
σa - Upper loading stress of the gradient from graph of stress
versus strain
σb - Lower loading stress of the gradient from graph of stress
versus strain
Ø - Capacity reduction factor for compression members
xxii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A
B
C
D
E
Mix Design of NC (DOE)
Mix Design of POCC (ACI)
Design of LPW and NCW Panels
Theoretical Equations for Ultimate Load From Previous
Studies
List of Publications
135
136
137
140
142
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
Construction industry contributes directly to the development of an area.
With the increase of population, rapid development of public facilities such as road,
infrastructure and residential buildings are essential. Thus, the demand for concrete
which consists of four basic materials such as cement, sand, crushed granite and
water has been increasing by time. Aggregate consumes about 60 % to 70 % of the
total volume of concrete (Harmon, 2006). Dependency on these natural resources
only had raise concerns toward the equilibrium of environment since the source will
be depleted (Sharmin et. al., 2015).
Whilst the construction of industrial building system (IBS) is focusing on
utilizing precast panels in buildings, more studies were conducted to enhance the
performance and production. Precast panel is a concrete panel that was cast in a
factory earlier and then been transported to the site. It is being used as cladding since
1920s and has been widely used since 1950s (Rahim et al., 2012).
2
The Malaysian government has urged the local construction industry to move
on from conventional practice to precast products in all government projects since
1960s. Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) was set up by the
Malaysian government in 1994 in order to guide and to educate the local construction
industry (Azman et al., 2012). The precast panel is seen as a good alternative
especially in improving quality and time reduction of construction project.
Meanwhile, Malaysia produced 19.96 million tonnes crude palm oil in 2015
with an increase of 1.5% from previous year (MPOB, 2015). The palm oil process
produces 2.6 million tonnes of waste per year which has cause problem in finding the
suitable disposable area (Basri et al., 1999). Numbers of researches have been
conducted to determine the suitable method of disposing the waste and the ability of
this waste to be recycled. Among the materials that had been recognized suitable to
be used in concrete production are palm oil clinker (POC) and palm oil shell (POS)
(Ahmmad et al., 2014). POC can be used as a replacement for both coarse and fine
aggregate. Furthermore, a study by Mohammed et al. (2013) reported that POC
produced lighter density which fulfilled the requirement of lightweight aggregate
(LWA) in lightweight concrete (LWC). The utilization of POC in LWC can help not
only in waste disposing problem but also can reduce the dependency in the natural
source.
POC is an aggregate with porous and solid character. It is a by-product of
POS and oil palm fibre incineration used in generating electricity (Jumaat et al.,
2015). The light density makes it as a suitable material for LWC. Concrete with
density 2000 kg/m3 or less is considered under lightweight concrete according to BS
EN 206 (2013). LWC has been used for a long time since the 18th
century when
Roman builds the pantheon. And it has widely been used in USA and Europe in the
late 1990s to replace normal dense concrete. The used of POC can reduce the dead
load and at the same time giving reduction to construction cost. In this study, lighter
precast panels were produced using POC as fine and coarse aggregates. With a
lighter precast panel, the cross section of structural members can be reduced and this
will give some space to engineer to design a more sophisticated structure.
3
1.2 Problem Statement
Concrete is one of the most important materials in the construction industry.
As the development keep on going, the demand for concrete will increase. The high
demand of concrete requires a huge amount of sand and granite, leading to massive
extraction of those materials. Tu et al. (2006) reported that 8 to 12 billion tones of
natural aggregates been extracted annually. Depletion of natural sources to be used
in concrete can cause ecological imbalance. Thus it is important to find an
alternative material to replace both sand and granite.
Currently, the precast panel is facing difficulties in producing a lighter panel.
More than that, the application of precast panels in the local building is still on a
small scale. Precast panels need heavy crane during production and transportation.
Lighter panels will eliminate the use of heavy machines, thus ease the assembling
process at site. In this case, producing a lighter precast panel will help in eliminating
those problems and most importantly, gain the interest from construction players.
Several types of research have been carried out on lightweight precast panels, but
with inclusion of waste material more research is seen required to make it more
applicable (Cavaleri et al., 2003; Carbonari et al., 2012; Amran et al., 2016).
Lightweight panels reduce self-weight and thus lower the load carried by the
foundation.
POC is a by-product from the incineration process of palm oil fiber and palm
oil shell at palm oil mill. This waste is produced in a large quantity from all palm oil
mill in Malaysia (Abutaha et al., 2016). POC was normally dumped into the
environment due to no significant application. This sparks concern among public,
environmental activist and researchers. The reuse of POC in form of fine and coarse
aggregates in concrete, so as to produce LWC is promising in reducing the amount of
natural aggregates, apart from providing natural balance to the environment.
4
1.3 Aim and Objectives
The aim of this research is to produce a lightweight precast wall panel made
of fine and coarse POC aggregates. The objectives of this research are as follows:
i. To evaluate the physical, mechanical and chemical properties of POC
aggregates.
ii. To develop optimum mix design of lightweight concrete using 100 %
replacement of fine and coarse POC aggregates and to investigate the fresh
and hardened tests of palm oil clinker concrete (POCC).
iii. To investigate the structural behavior of lightweight precast wall (LPW)
panel subjected to gravity load.
iv. To verify the experimental result with predicted values from previous
researcher and codes.
1.4 Scopes of Study
This study was conducted through experimental works. All testing methods
were in accordance to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and
British Standards (BS). Both fine and coarse POC aggregates were used as 100 %
replacement to produce a lightweight concrete with a designed strength of 30 N/mm2
at 28 days. The size range for fine aggregate is from 150 µm to 4.75 mm and 4.75
mm to 9.5 mm for coarse aggregate.
The physical properties of fine and coarse POC aggregates were determined
and compared with normal aggregate concrete (NC). This is because the POCC will
significantly have lighter density and expected to have lower compressive strength.
The physical properties being covered are specific gravity, water absorption, dry
5
loose bulk density, moisture content, sieve analysis, fineness modulus and Los
Angeles abrasion value. Meanwhile, the mechanical properties being covered are
aggregate impact value and aggregate crushing value. In additional, chemical tests to
determine sulphate and chloride content were also conducted. Fresh and hardened
palm oil clinker concrete (POCC) properties such as slump test, density, water
absorption test, ultrasonic pulse velocity test, compressive strength test, tensile
splitting test, flexural splitting test and modulus of elasticity test were conducted to
evaluate the performance of POCC as lightweight concrete.
LPW panel made of POCC was produced with a dimension of 1300 mm x
400 mm x 100 mm. The reinforced LPW wall was subjected to an axial load to
study the cracking pattern, strength capacity, failure mode, load-displacement
behavior and load-strain behavior.
1.5 Significance of Research
This research studied on the usage of POC as a replacement for fine and
coarse aggregate in concrete. This replacement can help in the waste disposing
problem of POC. Furthermore, it also can help to reduce the dependency on natural
resources where the equilibrium of environment could be disturbed. The utilization
of POCC in the lightweight precast panel has many advantages such as thermal
insulation, high fire resistance, reduction in building weight, construction cost and
period. The LPW with the utilization of waste material has high potential to be used
in the construction of affordable houses where the amount of conventional
aggregates can be reduced. Moreover, with the reuse of waste material the building
constructed with LPW made of POCC can be categorized as a green building.
6
1.6 Thesis Outline
This thesis discusses in details about the material properties of POC
aggregates and also the structural behaviour of LPW panel made of POCC. Chapter
1 covers the background of this study, problem statement, shows the aim and
objectives, explain the scope of this study and the significance of this research.
While Chapter 2 mainly discuss on the literature review on previous studies related
to lightweight aggregate and wall. In Chapter 3, all testing that were used in this
study were explained clearly. The results obtained from testing for material
properties were presented and discussed in Chapter 4 while for the testing on wall
was presented in Chapter 5. Finally, Chapter 6 summarize the conclusion of this
study.
128
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