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PERFORMANCE OF UNDERSIDE SHAPED
CONCRETE BLOCKS FOR PAVEMENT
AZMAN BIN MOHAMED
A thesis submitted in fulfilment
Of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
University Teknologi Malaysia
MAY 2014
iii
DEDICATION
Dedicated to Allah S.W.T,
my beloved wife Nur Hafizah Binti Abd Khalid
and my gorgeous kids,
Puteri Nurina Akhtar, Putera Naqib Akhtar and Ariff Akhtar.
Thanks for your valuable sacrifice and love.
To my beloved parents and in laws,
Mohamed Bin Jaffar – Jamilah Bt Sulaiman and
Abdul Khalid M.Latiff – Rukiah Abdul Rahman.
Thanks for your support and always being there for me in happiness and sadness.
~~~~~ Love you all ~~~~~
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Allah S.W.T for blessing me with excellent health and
ability during the process of completing my thesis.
Special thanks to my supervisor Professor Ir. Dr. Hasanan Bin Md Nor and
co-supervisor Professor Dr. Mohd Rosli Bin Hainin who have given me the
opportunity to learn a great deal knowledge, and guiding me towards fulfilling this
achievement.
My gratitude is also extended to the Highway and Transportation
Laboratory, Geotechnic Laboratory and Structures and Materials Laboratory staff.
Thank you for the support and friendship showered upon me throughout the
experimental periods.
I would like to thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation
(MOSTI), University Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) as my Research University, and the
Research Management Centre (RMC) for the financial and management support
provided under VOT ; FRGS - 78556, RUG – 00H93 and IRGS-78928.
Finally, I would like to thank my lovely wife Nur Hafizah Binti Abdul Khalid
for her unconditional support and assistance in various occasions. All your kindness
will not be forgotten.
v
ABSTRACT
This study presents an innovative concrete block pavement (CBP) of
rectangular blocks with grooves and web on the underside of the underside shaped
concrete block (USCB). This new concrete block concept intends to address known
causes of failure for CBP due to vertical, horizontal and repetitive traffic loading.
Interaction between CBP and underlying bedding sand layer may lead to significant
pavement deformation due to vertical traffic loading. The USCB provides an
additional underside mechanical interlocking, compared with traditional rectangular
concrete block. Twelve USCB with different groove depths (15 mm, 25 mm, and 35
mm) and four different bottom shapes (Shell – Rectangular (Shell–R), Trench
Groove – Triangular (TG–T), Trench Groove – 2 Rectangular (TG–2R), and Trench
Groove – 3 Rectangular (TG–3R)) were prepared. These USCB were mechanically
tested to investigate the effects of groove depth, groove volume, and groove shape on
their mechanical properties. To investigate their interlocking performance, a series
of push-in loading test, pull-out loading test, horizontal loading test, and accelerated
trafficking test were conducted using the Highway Accelerated Loading Instrument
(HALI). A control pavement and with only stretcher bond laying pattern was built to
allow for comparisons. The results indicate that triangular grooves exhibit promising
compressive strength while rectangular grooves performed better in flexural, with the
increase up to 25 % respectively when compared to control block. The optimum
USCB groove depth is found at 15 mm and the Shell USCB has the best mechanical
properties and resilience under all conditions due to their unique shape. The function
of the grooves and web as spike has enhanced the mechanical properties of USCB
and improved the interlocking mechanism between CBP and its underlying bedding
sand layer. The study shows that USCB is a highly potential concrete block that
could enhance pavement performance.
vi
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini membentangkan suatu penurap inovatif untuk turapan blok konkrit
(CBP) dalam bentuk blok konkrit segi empat tepat dengan alur dan web pada
bahagian bawah bagi blok konkrit terubahsuai permukaan bawah (USCB). Konsep
blok konkrit baru ini dibangunkan untuk menangani kegagalan CBP yang berpunca
daripada beban menegak, mendatar, dan beban ulangan lalu lintas. Interaksi antara
CBP dengan lapisan pasir pengalas boleh mengubah bentuk turapan dengan ketara
disebabkan oleh beban menegak lalu lintas. USCB memberi daya rintangan
tambahan terhadap penguncian mekanikal permukaan bawah yang tidak disediakan
oleh blok konkrit segiempat tradisional. Dua belas USCB dengan kedalaman alur
yang berbeza (15 mm, 25 mm dan 35 mm) dan empat bentuk alur yang berbeza
(Cengkerang–Segi Empat Tepat (Shell–R), Alur–Segi Tiga (TG–T), Alur–2 Segi
Empat Tepat (TG–2R), dan Alur–3 Segi Empat Tepat (TG–3R)) telah disediakan.
USCB ini diuji secara mekanikal bagi mengkaji kesan kedalaman alur, isipadu alur,
dan bentuk alur kepada sifat mekanikal USCB. Untuk mengkaji prestasi penguncian
blok-blok tersebut, satu siri ujian yang terdiri daripada ujian bebanan tekan masuk,
ujian bebanan tarik keluar, ujian daya mendatar dan ujian lalu lintas dipercepatkan
telah dilakukan dengan menggunakan Highway Accelerated Loading Instrument
(HALI). Satu turapan kawalan dan dengan corak ikatan usungan dipilih untuk tujuan
perbandingan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa alur segi tiga memberikan
kekuatan mampatan yang paling baik manakala alur segi empat tepat berfungsi
dengan lebih baik di bawah lenturan, masing-masing dengan peningkatan sehingga
25 % berbanding blok kawalan. Kedalaman alur optimum adalah 15 mm dan USCB
Shell mempunyai sifat mekanikal yang terbaik serta berdaya tahan di bawah semua
keadaan kerana bentuknya yang unik. Fungsi alur dan web sebagai pemakuan telah
meningkatkan sifat mekanikal USCB dan memperbaiki sifat penguncian antara CBP
dan lapisan pasir pengalas. Kajian ini telah menunjukkan USCB merupakan sejenis
blok konkrit yang berpotensi untuk meningkatkan prestasi turapan.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xvi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xxiv
LIST OF APPENDICES xxvii
CHAPTER 1 1
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of Study 1
1.3 Problem Statement 2
1.4 Aim and Objectives 3
1.5 Scope of Study 4
1.6 Limitations of Study 6
viii
1.7 Significance of Study 7
CHAPTER 2 8
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Pavement Components 8
2.2.1 Subgrade 10
2.2.2 Subbase 10
2.2.3 Base Course 11
2.2.4 Bedding Sand 11
2.2.5 Jointing Sand 13
2.2.6 Edge Restraint 14
2.3 The Advantages of Concrete Block Pavements 15
2.4 Factors Affecting the Structural Performance of CBP 17
2.4.1 Block Strength 17
2.4.2 Block Thickness 19
2.4.3 Block Shape 20
2.4.4 Laying Pattern 26
2.4.5 Compaction 27
2.5 Causes of Pavement Failures 28
2.6 Concrete Block Manufacture 30
2.6.1 Dimension Tolerance 31
2.7 Pavement Construction 33
2.8 Interlocking Mechanism 34
2.8.1 Vertical Interlocking 35
2.8.2 Horizontal Interlocking 36
2.8.3 Rotational Interlocking 37
2.9 Mechanical Properties of Concrete Blocks 38
ix
2.10 Type of Trafficking Test on Concrete Block Pavement 39
2.10.1 Static Loading Tests on Prototype Pavements 40
2.10.1.1 Push-In Loading Test 40
2.10.1.2 Pull-Out Loading Test 43
2.10.1.3 Horizontal Loading Test 46
2.10.2 Accelerated Trafficking Test on Prototype
Pavements 47
2.10.2.1 Axle and Wheel Loads 50
2.10.2.2 Contact Tyre Pressure 53
2.10.2.3 Permanent Deformation and Rutting 56
2.11 The Importance of Grooves 57
2.12 Concluding Remarks 60
CHAPTER 3 61
3 METHODOLOGY 61
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Determination of USCB Dimensions 65
3.3 Block Manufacturing Process 71
3.4 Engineering Properties 74
3.4.1 Mechanical Properties 75
3.4.1.1 Concrete Block Compressive Strength 77
3.4.1.2 Concrete Block Flexural Strength 79
3.4.1.3 Density and Absorption Test 82
3.4.2 Physical Appearance 84
3.4.2.1 Block Dimension 84
3.4.2.2 USCB Mode of Failures 85
3.5 Laying Procedure 86
3.6 Interaction Between USCB and Bedding Sand Layer 91
x
3.6.1 Push-In Loading Test 93
3.6.2 Pull-Out Loading Test 97
3.6.3 Horizontal Loading Test 100
3.7 Trafficking Test Under HALI 103
3.7.1 Wheel Applied Load 107
CHAPTER 4 109
4 EFFECT OF UNDERSIDE SHAPED CONCRETE
BLOCK (USCB) ON ENGINEERING PROPERTIES 109
4.1 Introduction 109
4.2 Materials 110
4.2.1 Bedding Sand and Jointing Sand 110
4.2.2 Fine Aggregate and Coarse Aggregate
for Concrete 112
4.2.3 Cement 115
4.2.4 Water 115
4.3 Moisture Content 116
4.3.1 Bedding Sand 116
4.3.2 Jointing Sand 117
4.4 Dimensional Geometrical Shape
of Manufactured USCB 117
4.5 Mechanical Properties of USCB 120
4.5.1 Density and Water Absorption for USCB 121
4.5.1.1 Density 121
4.5.1.2 Water Absorption 122
4.5.2 Compressive Strength 124
4.5.2.1 Effect of Groove Depth 126
4.5.2.2 Effect of Groove Volume 128
xi
4.5.2.3 Effect of Groove Shape 131
4.5.2.4 Approach for the Development
of Compressive Strength
Enhancement Model 133
4.5.3 Flexural Strength 137
4.5.3.1 Effect of Groove Depth 140
4.5.3.2 Effect of Groove Volume 143
4.5.3.3 Effect of Groove Shape 145
4.5.3.4 Approach for the Development
of Flexural Strength Enhancement
Model 148
4.5.4 Relationship of Flexural Strength and
Compressive Strength 152
4.6 Summary 153
CHAPTER 5 157
5 INTERACTION BEHAVIOUR OF USCB PAVEMENT
UNDER VARIOUS LOADINGS 157
5.1 Introduction 157
5.2 Compaction of USCB onto Bedding Sand Layer 158
5.2.1 Settlement and Thickness of Bedding
Sand Layer 158
5.2.2 Density of Bedding Sand Layer 163
5.3 Push-in Loading 167
5.3.1 Load-Deflection Behaviour 167
5.3.2 Vertical Interlocking Mechanism and
Load Transfer Mechanism 170
5.3.3 Rotational Interlocking Mechanism 173
xii
5.3.4 Effects of Groove Depth, Volume and
Groove Shape 174
5.4 Pull-out Loading 180
5.4.1 Load-Displacement Behaviour 181
5.4.2 Vertical Interlocking and Load Transfer 183
5.4.3 Rotational Interlocking 186
5.4.4 Effects of Groove Depth, Volume and Shape 188
5.5 Horizontal Loading 195
5.5.1 Horizontal Resistance Behaviour 196
5.5.2 Effects of Groove Depth, Volume, and
Shape on Horizontal Resistance 199
5.6 Summary 207
CHAPTER 6 209
6 STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF USCB
PAVEMENT 209
6.1 Introduction 209
6.2 Compaction of USCB Pavement 210
6.2.1 Density of Bedding Sand Layer 210
6.3 USCB Pavement Permanent Deformation 212
6.3.1 The Effect of USCB to Rut Depth under
Wheel Path 213
6.3.2 Longitudinal USCB Pavement Deformation 215
6.3.3 Transverse USCB Pavement Deformation 218
6.4 Two-dimensional and Three-dimensional View
of Deformed Pavement 220
6.5 Summary 224
xiii
CHAPTER 7 226
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 226
7.1 Conclusions 226
7.2 Recommendations 228
REFERENCES 230
Appendices A - L 240 - 284
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Study limitations 6
2.1 Grading requirements for bedding sand and jointing
sand (BS 7533, 2009) 13
2.2 Minimum flexural strength (Meyer, 1980) 19
2.3 Specification for concrete blocks (Shackel, 1990) 32
2.4 Mechanical properties of normal block 38
2.5 Typical maximum single axle loads (Shackel, 1994b) 51
2.6 Standard axle loads (Shackel, 1994b) 51
2.7 Load equivalency exponents (Shackel, 1994b) 52
2.8 Damaging effect of different axle loads (AASHTO road test)
(Croney and Croney, 1991). 52
3.1 USCB groove shape dimensions 67
4.1 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate 112
4.2 Fineness modulus for fine aggregate 113
4.3 Sieve analysis of aggregate 114
4.4 Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate 115
4.5 Average of USCB dimensional geometrical shape 118
4.6 Dimensional average tolerance range 119
4.7 USCB dimensions analysis (standard deviation of
shape dimension) 119
4.8 USCB dimensions analysis (coefficient of variation of
shape dimension) 120
4.9 Density of USCB 122
xv
4.10 Comparison of concrete block density between USCB
and previous study 122
4.11 Average of water absorption 124
4.12 Comparison in compressive strength 125
4.13 Compressive strength enhancement model 128
4.14 Enhancement of compressive strength 130
4.15 Dimensional limit 135
4.16 Verification of compressive strength model to
compressive strength experimental data 136
4.17 MOR enhancement model 143
4.18 MOR enhancement model 145
4.19 Dimensional limit for USCB 150
4.20 Verification of MOR model to the MOR experimental 151
4.21 Ratio of flexural strength to compressive strength 153
4.22 Summary of USCB features and corresponding
mechanical properties 156
5.1 Settlement percentage range of bedding sand layer 161
5.2 Settlement of bedding sand model 163
5.3 Maximum displacement of USCB at tested point 170
5.4 Maximum pull-out loading and pull-out movement
of USCB at tested point 182
5.5 The number of blocks moved at maximum
horizontal load 200
5.6 The sustained horizontal load comparison at 1.5 mm
displacement USCB 205
6.1 Density of bedding sand layer for HALI and small
scale steel frame 211
7.1 Proposed guideline and potential application of USCB 229
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Pavement components 9
2.2 Poly-vinyl chloride (PVC) and steel edge restraints
(Dimex Corporation, 2002) 14
2.3 Block shape categories (Shackel, 1990) 21
2.4 Description of paving blocks (Westcon Precast Inc, 1990) 23
2.5 Various block shapes 24
2.6 Laying pattern 27
2.7 Vertical interlocking mechanism (O’Grady, 1983) 35
2.8 Creep and opening joint 36
2.9 Rotational interlocking mechanism (O’Grady, 1983) 37
2.10 Movement of blocks under load (O’Grady, 1983) 37
2.11 Push-in loading test setup (1) A steel frame, (2) A hydraulic
jack, (3) A load cell, (4) Displacement transducers, (5) CBP,
(6) Bedding sand, (7) Sub-base, (8) Cell pressure gauges,
(9) Steel plate of 250 mm in diameter (Marios et al., 2011). 41
2.12 Applied stress versus plate displacement (Marios et al., 2011) 41
2.13 Deformation of CBP under loading. (a) Deformed cross
section of CBP. (b) Hinges required for collapse
mechanism (Marios et al., 2011) 42
2.14 Principal of the collapse mechanism of 3-pin arch
(Marios et al., 2011) 42
2.15 Layout of push-in loading test (Emery and Lazar, 2003) 43
2.16 Pull-out loading test graph (O’Grady, 1983) 44
xvii
2.17 Tongue and groove block (Emery and Lazar, 2003) 44
2.18 Pull-out loading test equipment (Ling, 2008) 45
2.19 Relationship between pull-out loading and
displacement (Ling, 2008) 46
2.20 Contact surface between pavement and vehicle tyre. 54
2.21 Structure of pavement under compression and tension 54
2.22 The spreading of load from vehicle tyre to the pavement layer 55
2.23 The distribution of loading to pavement layer 55
2.24 Spreading stress during compaction action
(Handy and Spangler, 2004) 58
2.25 Boundary effect of (a) Infill-rough joint and (b) Infill-
smooth joint (Mohd For et al., 2008) 59
2.26 Pile-supported mat 59
3.1 Research programme flowchart 63
3.2 Experimental programme flowchart 65
3.3 Categories of groove shape 67
3.4 Movement of sand to fill in the groove/shell area 68
3.5 Bending stress in flexure 69
3.6 Bending stress in flexure (shell groove) 70
3.7 Manufacturing method for concrete blocks 72
3.8 Engineering properties measurements test flowchart 75
3.9 Position of strain gauge 76
3.10 Compression test for concrete block 78
3.11 Schematic diagram of USCB flexural test with
centre-point loading 80
3.12 Flexural test for concrete block 80
3.13 Absorption and density test method 83
3.14 Measuring the USCB dimension 85
3.15 Measurement of cracks 86
3.16 Moisture content test 87
3.17 Measurement of the bedding sand height and
blocks displacement 87
xviii
3.18 Weighing the bedding sand (left) and measuring the
thickness of bedding sand in steel box (centre) and
in HALI steel frame (right) 88
3.19 The USCB laying procedure in the steel box and HALI
steel frame 89
3.20 Layout of push-in loading test and pull-out loading test 91
3.21 Detailed LVDTs locations for push-in loading test and
pull-out loading test 92
3.22 Detailed LVDTs locations for horizontal loading test 92
3.23 Push-in loading test flowchart 95
3.24 Push-in loading test procedure 96
3.25 Pull-out loading test flowchart 98
3.26 Pull-out loading test procedure 99
3.27 Horizontal loading test setup 101
3.28 Horizontal loading test flowchart 101
3.29 Horizontal loading test procedure 102
3.30 Grid points of test setup for HALI 104
3.31 Trafficking test flowchart 105
3.32 Trafficking test procedure using HALI 106
4.1 Sieve analysis of bedding sand 111
4.2 Sieve analysis of jointing sand 111
4.3 Sieve analysis of aggregate 114
4.4 Distribution of moisture content 117
4.5 Water absorption of TG-2R category 123
4.6 The average compressive strength of USCB 126
4.7 Relationship between compressive strength and
USCB groove depth 127
4.8 Effect of groove depth to compressive strength
enhancement 128
4.9 Relationship between compressive strength and
USCB groove volume 129
4.10 Effect of groove volume to compressive strength
enhancement 130
4.11 Failure mode of USCB web 132
xix
4.12 Failure mode of USCB 133
4.13 Support applications in flexure action; (a) Standard
support for block without groove, (b) Roller support for
groove block and (c) Square support for groove block 137
4.14 (a) Standard and (b) Modified flexural test setup 138
4.15 Results of standard and modified flexural tests 138
4.16 The average MOR of USCB 139
4.17 Relationship between MOR and USCB groove depth 141
4.18 Effect of groove depth to MOR enhancement 142
4.19 USCB depth dimension 142
4.20 Relationship between MOR and USCB groove volume 144
4.21 Effect of groove volume to MOR enhancement 145
4.22 USCB failure mode under flexural action 147
4.23 USCB failure position; (a) TG-2R category and
(b) TG-T category 147
4.24 Relationship of flexural strength to compressive strength 152
5.1 Settlement and thickness of Shell-R25 pavement
after compaction 159
5.2 The thickness of compacted bedding sand after
complete compaction 159
5.3 Settlement and thicknesses of compacted bedding
sand layer for all USCB pavements 161
5.4 Bedding sand settlement model 162
5.5 Relationship of USCB groove volume and settlement
of bedding sand 163
5.6 Density of compacted bedding sand layer 164
5.7 Relationship of density and settlement of bedding
sand layer 165
5.8 Relationship of density and USCB groove volume 165
5.9 Relationship of density of bedding sand and groove
volume on the settlement of bedding sand layer 166
5.10 Push-in loading 167
5.11 Deflection of Shell-R15 at P1 168
5.12 Average Vertical displacement of USCB 169
xx
5.13 After push-in loading test 169
5.14 Transverse deformation of CB and Shell-R15 at point 1 171
5.15 Movement of USCB under load 172
5.16 Deflection contour of Shell-R15 at P1 172
5.17 Small vertical rotational block occurred at 30 kN loading 173
5.18 The deflection and applied load for USCB Shell
type (continue) 175
5.19 Variation in USCB deflection pattern 176
5.20 Compacted bedding sand confined in the groove 177
5.21 Correlation between USCB deflection and density
of bedding sand layer 178
5.22 Relationship between deflection and USCB groove depth 179
5.23 Relationship between deflection and USCB
groove volume 180
5.24 (a) Pull-out loading test setup arrangement; and
(b) Block displacement 181
5.25 Displacement of Shell-R15 at P1 181
5.26 The average of USCB maximum displacement at
maximum load 183
5.27 Interlocking phenomenon under pull-out loading 184
5.28 Transverse deformation of control block and
Shell-R15 USCB at point 1 185
5.29 Displacement contour of Shell-R15 at P1 186
5.30 Small vertical rotational block at maximum
displacement for Shell-R35 USCB 187
5.31 The rotational interlock developed stress concentration 188
5.32 Interlock mechanism of control block and USCB 189
5.33 Relationship between displacement and USCB
groove depth 191
5.34 Average maximum pull-out displacement of USCB 192
5.35 Displacement performance of USCB at sustained
load of 3 kN 193
5.36 Relationship between displacement and USCB
groove volume 195
xxi
5.37 (a) Before the testing; and (b) After the testing 196
5.38 Horizontal resistance behaviour under horizontal
loading for Shell type USCB 197
5.39 Block movement (a) With stress concentration – (CB);
and (b) No stress concentration – (TG-2R15) 198
5.40 The average horizontal displacement and maximum
horizontal loading at static friction stage 199
5.41 Effect of block weight on USCB horizontal resistance
at maximum static friction stage 201
5.42 Effect of groove volume to USCB horizontal
displacement at maximum static friction stage 202
5.43 Sustained horizontal load of USCB at 1.5 mm
horizontal displacement 203
5.44 Friction resistance of USCB pavement 206
6.1 Bedding sand layer density for the USCB pavements 211
6.2 Accumulated average rut depth of USCB up to
10,000 load repetitions 214
6.3 Projection values from reference line of average
deflection of 5.4 mm under 30 kN push-in loading
for all USCB and control block 214
6.4 Accumulated average longitudinal rut depth of
USCB pavement 216
6.5 Relationship between (a) rut depth and groove
volume; and (b) rut depth and groove depth 217
6.6 Average transverse rut depth after 100 and
10,000 load repetitions 219
6.7 Various gap sizes in the joint between blocks 220
6.8 (a) 2D view and (b) 3D view of 100 load repetitions
on the USCB pavement 222
6.9 (a) 2D view and (b) 3D view of 10,000 load
repetitions on the USCB pavement 223
6.10 Development of rut after several repeated load for
USCB and control block 224
xxii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
2D - Two-dimensional
3D - Three-dimensional
AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
BS EN - British Standard Institution European
BS - British Standard Institution
CB - Control block
CBP - Concrete block pavement
CBR - California Bearing Ratio
CF - Correction factor
Ch - Channel
CMA - Concrete Masonry Association
CMAA - Concrete Masonry Association of Australia
COV - Coefficient of variation
ESA - Equivalent standard axle
HALI - Highway Accelerated Loading Instrument
HMA - Hot Mix Asphalt
ICPI - Interlocking Concrete Institute
LL - Liquid limit
LVDT - Linear variable differential transducer
MOR - Modulus of rupture
MORC - Modulus of rupture for control block
MORG - Modulus of rupture for grooved block
MS - Malaysia Standard
OPC - Ordinary portland cement
xxiii
P - Point
PI - Plastic index
PL - Plastic limit
PVC - Poly-vinyl chloride
R2 - Regression
RCPB - Rubberized concrete paving block
rpm - Rotation per minute
SD - Standard deviation
Shell-R - Shell-Rectangular groove
TG-2R - Trench-2Rectangular groove
TG-3R - Trench-3Rectangular groove
TG-T - Trench-Triangular groove
USCB - Underside shaped concrete block
xxiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Gµ - Coefficient of groove block surface friction
maxGµ - Coefficient of groove block surface friction at maximum force
µ - Coefficient of block surface friction
SF - Friction force
Dispδ - Displacement
F - Force / damage factor - applicable to axle load
maxSF
- Friction force at maximum
NF - Normal force
dn - Number of internal web
SP - Standard axle load
y - Central axis of the area
maxBSµ Coefficient of sided and underside surface control block
friction at maximum force
A - Mass of oven-dried sample in air/ effective area of concrete
block /tyre contact area
a - Mass of tin
Ae - Groove’s effective area
ARD - Apparent relative density
b - Mass of tin and wet bedding sand
B - Mass of surface-dried sample in air after immersion
B,b - Width of specimen
BG - Groove width
C - Apparent mass in the water
xxv
c - Mass of tin and dry bedding sand
d - Internal web / average depth of specimen / distance between
groove
D - Diameter
e - Edge web
h, hc - Block thickness
h0 - Height of loose bedding sand
h1 - Height of bedding sand and USCB after laying
h2 - Height of bedding sand and USCB after first compaction
h3 - Height of bedding sand and USCB after second compaction
he - Effective thickness
hG - Groove depth
I - Moment of inertia,
J - Average connection distance
L - Span length / length
LG - Groove length
M - Bending moment,
m.g - Force of gravity
MOR - Modulus of rupture
n - Relative damage exponent
n - Notch planck
N - Traffic repetitions
NA - Neutral axis,
nb - Concrete block unit
nG - Number of groove
Øavg - Average of bedding sand density
Øc - Minimum and maximum characterization
ODD - Oven-dry density
P - Maximum load / axle load / breaking load / load
q - Load equivalency exponents
S - Equivalent standard axle
Sett - Settlement
SSD - Saturated surface-dry density
xxvi
Thk - Thickness
v - Volume of bedding sand
VC - Control block volume
VG - Groove volume
w - Mass of bedding sand
W - Load
ρ - Density
σ - Compressive strength / standard deviation
σB - Bending stress
σblock - Stress on the block
σc - Compressive strength of control block
σf - Flexural strength
σG - Compressive strength of grooved block
σHALI - Stress on highway accelerated loading instrument
σsite - Stress by tyre loading
π - Pi = 3.145
xxvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Water Absorption of USCB 240
B Dimensional Geometrical Shape of USCB 242
C Compressive Strength Result of USCB 244
D Modulus of Rupture Result, Calculation and Derivation
Model of USCB 249
E Bedding Sand Layer Thickness and Settlement of USCB
Pavement 257
F Density of Bedding Sand Layer of USCB 263
G Deflection of USCB Pavement Under Push-in Loading 264
H Example of USCB Pavement Deflection Contour 270
I Displacement of USCB Pavement Under Pull-out Loading 271
J Horizontal Resistance of USCB Pavement 278
K Deformation of USCB Pavement Under HALI 279
L Publications 284
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Concrete block pavement (CBP) is an accepted engineering product used
mainly as a paving material in pavement applications. Many previous studies on
CBP had attempted to modify the traditional rectangular concrete block, introduce
additional side interlocking features, and develop better interlocking shapes. CBP is
utilized globally because it is durable, non-skidding and dimensionally accurate;
available in many sizes; and has good structure and colour. Additionally, these CBP
can be installed by unskilled labourers and can be re-used on the same site or
elsewhere.
1.2 Background of Study
In developing countries, utilization of CBP as paving material is widespread.
Studies on traditional CBP and side shaped CBP have been widely conducted, but
2
there are still a number of research on beneath CBP and its characterizations. Such
beneath CBP, termed as Underside shaped concrete block (USCB) in this study, can
actually become a type of innovative paving material. The development of this
USCB corresponds to current research trend in modification of existing conventional
and side-shaped concrete block to increase paver interlocking and mechanical
properties and improve mechanical-laying ability as studied by Emery and Lazar,
(2003).
This study presents an innovative paver system featuring groove locking
beneath a rectangular concrete block. The overall product is the aforementioned
USCB. This new paver concept is intended to resolve known problems associated
with small element paving. This USCB is unique because it provides mechanical
interlocking additional to underside interlocking commonly provided by most
traditional rectangular pavers except sided pavers. During the USCB development
process, various groove depths had been tested to test their effectiveness in
enhancing interlocking between pavers and bedding sand with improved mechanical
properties. To investigate its interlocking performance, the push-in loading test,
pull-out loading test, horizontal loading test and accelerated trafficking test were
involved. These types of test substantiate the claim made by similar tests on the
conventional rectangular concrete block. The use of stretcher bond pattern without
edge restraint in this study has also been recognized as having substantial influence
on horizontal movement or creep.
1.3 Problem Statement
The main failure criterion for CBP is its serviceability. Most of the time,
failure may result in generalized areas of uneven settlement. Block paving reflects
movement in the substructure, thus it's very important that the sub-base layer is
adequately compacted and to a uniform level. Inadequate vibration of the blocks into
the bedding sand layer during the final construction operations can also lead to
3
problems of local settlements. Moreover, if the bedding sand layer is not of a
consistent loose density before laying the blocks, local settlement or punching may
occur. This is mainly due to voids beneath the CBP that arise with trafficking in the
bedding sand layer that will cause increased deflection. If there is an absence or
deterioration of load transfer devices, deflections at both sides of the joints will also
be worsened. To tackle this problem, the USCB is a good choice as it can reduce
deflection and develop better interlocking between the CBP and bedding sand layer.
Traffic loading is also another major problem for block pavements in areas of
channelized traffic like bus stops, fuel terminals and freight terminals. In these areas,
failure of CBP is mostly caused by the vertical and horizontal traffic loading as well
as repetitive loading. The high pressure load imposed (vertical loading) on the CBP
can cause changes in the position of the concrete blocks and lead to undesired
settlement. Horizontal movement is induced by horizontal loading caused by vehicle
braking and accelerated action. Repetitive loading can cause some sands to break
down into finer particles. Another problem often encountered in CBP applications is
the wash-out of fine materials between the blocks by rainwater; loss of materials
accelerates the production of ruts under traffic load and creep problems.
1.4 Aim and Objectives
The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of USCB to be used as
concrete block pavement. The objectives of this study were as follows:
i. To characterize the engineering properties of different type of USCB.
ii. To examine the effects of groove depth, groove volume and groove
shape on the interlocking mechanism of USCB under various
loadings.
4
iii. To evaluate the structural performance including rutting and
deformation of USCB under Highway Accelerated Loading
Instrument (HALI).
1.5 Scope of Study
The scope of this study was established to achieve the objectives mainly
through experimental works. The testing methods and procedures were specified
according to those recommended by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), British Standard Institution (BS) and some were proposed by previous
researchers as follows:
i. Push-in loading test by Marios et al., (2011) and Emery and Lazar
(2003).
ii. Pull-out loading test by O’Grady (1983), Emery and Lazar (2003) and
Ling (2008).
iii. Horizontal loading test by Rachmat (2006).
iv. Accelerated trafficking test by Shackel (1980b) and Ling (2008).
The scopes of the study were divided into three major parts:
i. Part 1- Development of USCB to characterize their engineering
properties.
In order to establish the required information regarding USCB, the
following aspects were considered:
a. Shape development:
• Number of grooves,
• Groove depth: 15 mm, 25 mm, and 35 mm of groove depth,
5
• Groove category: Shell- Rectangular Grooved, Trench-
Triangular Grooved and Trench-Rectangular Grooved, and
• Groove area or groove volume.
b. Mechanical properties:
• Block compression behaviour (28-days compressive strength),
• Block flexural behaviour,
• Block density, and
• Water absorption.
c. Physical properties:
• Block dimension,
• Cracks assessment, and
• Mode of failures.
ii. Part 2- Interaction mechanism between USCB and bedding sand layer.
To investigate interaction between USCB and bedding sand layer,
three types of tests were considered:
a. Push-in loading test - Local settlement and deformation of USCB
pavement,
b. Pull-out loading test – Local settlement and deformation of USCB
pavement, and
c. Horizontal loading test- Horizontal resistance of USCB pavement.
iii. Part 3 - Application of USCB as a structural system to investigate the
structural performance
Investigation of USCB structural performance was based on:
a. Accelerated trafficking test:
• Longitudinal and transverse rutting profiles,
6
• Three and two-dimension surface deformation,
• Rut depth under wheel path, and
• Open joint width.
1.6 Limitations of Study
All experimental works and research programme were conducted in this
study according to some limitation parameters as listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 : Study limitations
Parameter Limitation
Concrete block thickness 80 mm
Blocks gap 2 mm to 4 mm
Laying pattern Stretcher bond
Jointing sand Passing 2 mm sieve size (dry)
Bedding sand Passing 5 mm sieve size
Bedding sand layer thickness 70 mm (loose sand)
Base course Steel base plate with 3 mm neoprene sheet
(stimulate 6 % CBR)
7
1.7 Significance of Study
The significance findings of this study can benefit researchers as follows:
i. To enhance the use of CBP as an attractive alternative to shaped pavers
or other traditional pavers in their interlocking system or other
applications.
ii. To provide database of USCB for future pavement applications.
iii. To assist the engineers and fabricators in improving the interlocking
system of concrete pavers and to provide an established database for
paver design work in the future.
iv. To develop an innovative USCB product that has better engineering
properties and comparable service performance in comparison with
existing CBP.
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