Angelica Daniele

15

CONSIDERATIONS AND EFFECTS ON PERFORMANCE ABILITY FROM PREVIOUS RESEARCH INVESTIGATIONS

“What dancers already know with reference to the body, movement, creative process, and life in

general” can and has been used more frequently in stimulating further research within the fi elds of dance and dance performance studies (Minton 113). In this investigation, pertinent aspects of such research are discussed in depth as they relate to my personal experiences with dance during college.

Dance is an important aspect of culture. It derives from use of the human body, making it a universally relevant phenomenon. Ideally, this research will raise awareness about this growing fi eld and refl ect a number of developing sub-topics that should receive further consideration in the performing arts. Increased public interest in dance research is crucial to obtain a better understanding of it, with respect to education and the growth of dance audiences using artistic, intellectual, and therapeutic perspectives (113). The following information should be used not only to solidify an understanding of the impact of dance and performance on the individual, but also to understand how the most powerful aspects of dance can be applied in various performance and classroom settings.

Teaching Tools to Improve PerformanceCoaching performance is ordinarily a highly individualized activity, typically involving one dancer

being evaluated by various instructors or choreographers with particular movement style preferences. However, performance quality, for a versatile dancer, may be best addressed in the classroom by instructors who employ consistent and appropriate teaching methods geared towards artistic merit over technicality. While dancers can be taught how to execute any universal technical movement, students in different learning environments may grasp those movements more effectively.

It seems logical that better teachers produce better dancers. However, even those who teach in leading professional companies may not have the best tactics for improving performance quality in their students. Recent fi ndings in dance education research address this dilemma. The different approaches teachers use to address effective use of the body in both ballet and modern classes can affect how well the students utilize their center of gravity and natural alignment (111). Furthermore, when both timely and inspiring, the feedback that teachers provide and the imagery techniques they use may increase student learning and understanding of the art form (111).

For example, in a study by Minton and McGill in 1998, students were measured over time in shape accuracy, correct placement and posture, and sequence memorization using a number of tested scientifi c tools and unbiased observers. Students were measured in various classroom environments of similar size with different instructors. Each teacher’s method of instruction was analyzed on a two-fold dimension, which compared the time spent in actual movement presentation and feedback to the time spent on overall management of the classroom. These two categories were further separated into various specifi ed teaching tools. Planned presentation, response presentation, monitoring, performance feedback, and motivation feedback were all categories listed under overall movement instruction time (Minton and McGill 41). Management of the classroom was analyzed based on time spent beginning and ending the class, managing

Performance: The Collective and Introspective

16

equipment, organizing and grouping students, managing students’ inappropriate behaviors, and doing other miscellaneous tasks (40).

The results of the study showed that the students’ overall placement scores improved more signifi cantly than their shape accuracy scores. Additionally, those students who showed less than average ability on a skill pretest more likely improved, signifi cantly, compared to students showing above average ability on the same skill pretest (44). Once a well-trained dancer has reached an advanced level of technique, her overall skill and placement accuracy reaches a plateau until considerably more advanced instruction can be provided. For the more amateur dancers in this study, learning most likely increased rapidly because of the amount of new information presented and rehearsed in a relatively short period of time.

Regardless of the amount of improvement, two teaching tools emerged as signifi cantly infl uential in helping students learn and improve their postural and motor skills, as well as shape and sequence accuracy. The fi rst was “preinstruction,” which refers to providing a social, cultural, and aesthetic contextual introduction for the movement to be taught. As would be expected, preinstruction had a signifi cant effect on students learning the new motor skills previously uncovered in prior exercises (40). Having an understanding of why a movement exists allows the dancer to relate to it and learn it more easily. Once the dancer had a chance to internalize what was learned, less energy was spent on memory and was instead directed towards quality and accuracy in mastering the initial concept presented. As students continued to practice dance sequences, they became more second nature, and eventually, effortlessly recalled.

The second teaching tool, which contributed to enhancing student learning, was “planned presentation.” Students who showed the most statistically signifi cant improvement in performance were those taught by instructors who spent most of their time engaged in planned presentation and the least amount of time managing behavior (44). Planned presentation refers to the delivery of the teacher’s previously selected and practiced movement material to the students. This provided them some advantage of predictability. Dancers who frequently participate in auditions are aware that individuals who have previous knowledge of the choreographer or company directors’ movement style will appear to be better prepared and more confi dent at that audition than a dancer who is experiencing that particular style for the fi rst time.1 Thus, planned presentation and preinstruction demonstrate that performance quality is enhanced by a previous understanding of the movement performed.

One fi nal conclusion from the Minton and McGill study was that in the classrooms where imagery was used, “[students] showed signifi cant postural improvement,” and different forms of imagery facilitated performance of select movements and sequences (40). “Mental imagery can be defi ned as a psychological activity which evokes the physical characteristics of an absent object or dynamic event…a method of seeing oneself in action” (Krasnow 44). This is similar to preinstruction. It allows the student to connect a certain posture or position to a precise image, which makes the desired product easier to grasp. Defi ning images, as well as identifying general moods and emotional contexts, can provide the dancer with clear

1 It should be noted that this statement was made based upon my current audition experiences to date and refl ects what I personally consider to be the norm at the college or university level.

Angelica Daniele

17

understanding of the target movement and the most effi cient and accurate method of executing it.This concept is supported in another study by Raymond in 2005. In this study, subjects were “read

a short introduction that instructed them to focus on their breathing and the feedback sounds…they were told that, when they could hear [a designated sound], they should visualize themselves dancing in the way they most wanted to” (67). This investigation supported the notion that guided imagery or visualization could be used to facilitate productive thinking patterns and provide focus and clarity in performance. Based on these facts, it seems imagery can improve focus in any performance regardless of the material projected.

Another possible teaching consideration that may be benefi cial to improving performance quality is developing kinesthetic awareness from a biological standpoint. “Heightened sensory awareness of images, and the feelings associated with those images, is critical in transforming sensory experience into motion that can be molded into a dance” (Hawkins 58). Another research study discussed in this investigation involves the administering of neurofeedback and biofeedback in facilitating improved technical performance. With these techniques, the dancer learns to fi ne tune her cortical activity to match the level of activity exuded during peak performance. In that study, those who practiced these biological methods of response showed improvement in their performance (Vernon 362). Based on these fi ndings, it seems that encouraging awareness and recognition of mental activity in relation to peak performance times facilitates development in movement quality.

Regardless of how a dancer is coached, the one skill which must be communicated to the student is acute kinesthetic awareness. “Awareness of one’s own body self is an important aspect for developing accurate perceptions of the affective dimension of experience,” as is understanding how to move effi ciently and confi dently during performance (Pallaro 158). While these are not easy skills to teach, because they are so individualized, there are a number of useful teaching tools available to instructors that can aid in the development of kinesthetic awareness as it relates to performance quality.

Effects of Learning and Performance Environments on Dancing QualityAs shown in various research studies, distinguished methods of instruction impact the level of a

dancer’s ability. However, the means by which a student is taught is not the sole contributor to refi ned technical ability. The way a dancer interprets stimuli within the learning environment may also play a distinguishing role. An artistically supportive atmosphere and pleasant physical conditions may improve how the student performs, or at least alter the dancer’s execution of specifi c movements. There is an inherent mixed mood in dance classes, “where assertive, sensual or abandoned movement is offered up via militaristic teaching modes” or any setting where the movement style differs from its delivery (Lakes 13). Depending on the style of teaching or the method of feedback delivery, dancers will follow natural bodily inclinations toward movement, which match the underlying emotional undertones of the environment.

Instructors who exhibit stricter teaching methods sometimes cause dancers to suppress their natural creativity and artistic freedoms. Paul Taylor attested to this concept when describing his experience as a student under Martha Graham, particularly to his feelings of anxiety, which arose when abiding by the “mistakes are simply unacceptable” policy. He explained that whenever a new dancer entered the

Performance: The Collective and Introspective

18

company, she was compelled by the atmosphere to prove herself, unable to hide underlying pressure and intimidation (5). It is natural for dancers to want to appear as prepared and impressive as possible, especially in the early stages of new company work. However, when the instructor manipulates this nervous energy, the dancer is bound to reach a breaking point of stress.

Some instructors use this type of intimidation to maintain the “pre-set molds into which he or she plans to encase the student” (5). Choreographers have a right to prefer their styles and to choose dancers who best match those styles. However, “learners who are full of fear and intimidation are less able and willing to investigate, question, play, explore, and take risks” (16). Such instructors may want to allow more room for interpretation and relax the environment. It is poise, confi dence, and fearlessness, which make the most dynamic performers.2

Dancers also enhance their performance quality by the way they subconsciously perceive other aspects of the environment. For instance, by accurately grasping the rhythm of movement being performed, in conjunction with the biological rhythms of the body, dancers can make their abstract performance pieces easier to relate to humankind. In many performance situations, the dancer is driven by music or some internalized rhythm, if the piece is performed in silence. “Caught up in the rhythmic movement, the dancer may become aware of an enrichment of his being, of the existence within himself” (Hayes 170). Biological rhythms can drive the dancer to perform directly from within. The more personal the performance, the more enriched and powerful it becomes. Rhythm is native to the human body and spirit; our body’s daily biological processes are governed by internal rhythms. “Any kind of excitement, no matter in what phase of life, displays a tendency to rhythmic expression…in the case of the dancer, there is a submission to rhythm, an identifi cation with it, and inventive play with it, the body itself becoming a visual rhythmic instrument” (172).

In addition to the aspect of natural rhythm, there has also been testimony of the human body’s tendency to have an inborn appeal, motivation, or “calling” toward a particular environment, action, or person. This cannot necessarily be defi ned or understood through scientifi c study, because “bodies initiate, create, and probe playfully their own physical and semantic potential” (C. Carter 187). This inner drive could be cultivated through improvisational exercises and other free acts of creativity, using the environment to stimulate the dancer. These tools may not be the best for improving technique, but they may revive the performer by allowing the dancer to rekindle her natural inclination to share the beauty of movement with an audience.

Dancers also associate movements they are creating or performing with images present in their performance space, as they evoke personal memories or relevant thoughts; subsequently, this may set a new tone for how the dancer moves from that moment forward. This process is closely related to that of chaining, which is “the combination of separate components in a movement pattern used as a stimulus to reinforce prior responses and provide conditions for learning following movements” (Minton and McGill 40). When dancers fi nd associations between the environment and specifi c movements and between specifi c movements within a single sequence, the sequence becomes more cohesive and meaningful. “Becoming more perceptive and able to see detail, relationships, and form not only enriches lives and 2 See personal defi nition for “excellence in performance” as noted in the INTRODUCTION.

Angelica Daniele

19

stimulates creative responses” but also allows dancers to internalize the creativity of the choreographers they represent and the appeal of the audiences they perform for (Hawkins 27).

The Effects of Structure and Function of the Self-Concept in Dance and Other Performing Arts StudentsChanging the way a dancer perceives and internalizes the movements she performs can certainly

improve performance quality. The way the dancer perceives the depth of her talent may contribute signifi cantly to enhancing her performance skill as well. This concept relates to the idea of self-fulfi lling prophecies: if the dancer believes she is a quality performer, the more likely she will, in fact, become a high quality performer. Perception of talent is an extension of one’s perception of self. “An individual’s perceptions of self are formed through experiences with the world and interpretations of those experiences. These perceptions are thought to be organized into multifaceted, hierarchal, categorical systems” (Vispoel 134). Thus, the way dancers evaluate individual movement, through introspection, and the method by which they organize their perceptions, may have an effect on overall performance ability.

In a study by Marsh and Roche in 1996, a number of practicing dancers were observed and tested to determine how they structured their artistic selves and how this structure differed from those who were not practicing artists. In addition, the dancers’ artistic self-concepts were analyzed to better understand how they altered the perception of personal talent and the importance of achievement in their art areas. Students were believed to form their artistic self-concepts by “comparing their skills in the corresponding school subject with skills of other students…and by comparing their competence in that school subject with their skills in other school subjects” (Marsh and Roche 462). Thus, their artistic ability was measured against the standards set by other peer arts students and by the individual’s competence in other academic areas. This study, among others, concluded that dance as a self-concept is markedly different in structure and hierarchy than any other self-concept. The performing arts self-concepts are in a class of their own (Vispoel 134).

However, more specifi c conclusions were made in the Marsh and Roche study. Performing arts (“PA”) students had much more focused and intact self-concepts than non-PA students. Additionally, the “highest self-concepts occurred for each PA group in its particular specialty” (Marsh and Roche 466). In other words, music students had overall self-concepts defi ned primarily by their role as musicians; dancers had self-concepts defi ned, most specifi cally, by their dancing skills. Furthermore, the amount of the dancers’ self-concepts defi ned by their art (their “dance self-concepts”) was substantially higher than equivalent self-concepts in all other arts students (466). This demonstrates that dance is more esoteric or personal among the arts, and it requires an innate skill or passion uniquely different than that required to succeed in the other arts.

Additional fi ndings of this study concluded that “dance students also have substantially higher physical self-concepts, and…have higher verbal self-concepts” (471). Dancing requires intimate connection with the human body in addition to the intuition and creativity often seen in the verbally competent. Also, the strongest correlations “linking artistic and non-artistic facets of the self-concept were between dance skill and…physical appearance (r = .37) and opposite sex relations (r = .35)” (Vispoel 139). This is consistent with the nature of dance, since visual appearance and a compelling relationship with the audience are both