Perkins-Grotzer, Teaching Intelligence

8/17/2019 Perkins-Grotzer, Teaching Intelligence

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/perkins-grotzer-teaching-intelligence 1/9

Teaching ntel l igence

D a v i d N . P e r k i ns a n d T i n a A . G r o t z e r

Harvard University

Efforts to improve human intelligence and thinking have

a long history and a lively presence in a number of

programs and approaches. Many studies have demon-

strated that targeted interventions can teach people to

think better within particular subject matters and in some

general ways as well, with transfer beyond the kinds

of tasks used in instruction and moderate persistence.

Effective interventions reorganize learners thinking with

strategies, metacognition, and other means, not just

practice-up skills. However, do such improvements genu-

inely constitute gains in intelligence? They only some-

times and modestly advance intelligence in the sense of

IQ, but the authors argue that this essentialist sense of

intelligence is flawed. Taking a more eclectic view of

intelligence, the interventions reviewed here and others

like them teach intelligence because they provide people

with the psychological resources to think better across a

range of contexts.

r i s t o t l e l o o k e d t o w a r d a b e t t e r w a y o f t h i n k i n g .

n his Analytics ( R o s s , 1 8 7 7 / 1 9 6 5 ) , A r i s t o t l e i n -

o d u c e d t h e l o g i c al f o r m o f t h e s y l l o g i s m a s a

g u i d e t o r e l ia b l e i n f e r e n c e . F r a n c i s B a c o n p o n d e r e d t h e

p r o c e s s o f r e a c h i n g r e l i a b le c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e e m p i r -

i c a l w o r l d a n d f o r e g r o u n d e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s e e k i n g

d i s c o n f ir m a t i o n . A l f r e d B i n e t t h o u g h t t h a t c h i l d r e n c o u l d

b e c o m e m o r e a b l e t h i n k e r s . O f s l o w e r l e a r n e r s , h e h a d

t h i s t o s ay : W h a t t h e y s h o u l d l e a r n f i r st i s n o t t h e s u b -

j e c t s o r d i n a r i l y t a u g h t, h o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t t h e y m a y b e ;

t h e y s h o u l d b e g i v e n l e s s o n s o f w i l l , o f a t t e n t i o n , o f

d i s c i p l i n e ; b e f o r e e x e r c i s e s i n g r a m m a r , t h e y n e e d t o b e

e x e r c i s e d i n m e n t a l o r t h o p e d i c s ; i n a w o r d t h e y m u s t

l e a r n h o w t o l e a r n ( a s c i t e d in G o u l d , 1 9 8 1 , p . 1 5 4 ) .

T h e s p i r i t o f A r i s t o t le , B a c o n , a n d B i n e t t h r i v e s t o d a y i n

a h o s t o f p r o g r a m s a n d a p p r o a c h e s d e s i g n e d t o b e t t e r t h e

t h i n k i n g o f c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s .

S u c h e f f o r t s a r e m o t i v a t e d b y t h e w i d e s p r e a d r e c o g -

n i t i o n t h a t w e o f t e n d o n o t u s e o u r m i n d s a s w e l l a s i t

a p p e a r s w e c o u l d . L a n g e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p h e -

n o m e n o n s h e c a l l s mindlessness--the s h a l l o w p r o -

c e s s in g o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t a l l o w s o u t r a g e o u s a n o m a l i e s

t o p a s s b y u n n o t i c e d . D w e c k a n d h e r c o l l e a g u e s

( D w e c k & B e m p e c h a t , 1 9 8 0 ; D w e c k & L i c h t , 1 98 0 ) h a v e

d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w t a c it b e l ie f s i n t h e l i m i t at i o n s o f o n e ' s

i n t e l l i g e n c e b e c o m e s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y . S e v e r a l i n -

v e s t ig a t o r s h a v e p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e o f t h e s h a ll o w , o n e -

s i d e d r e a s o n i n g p e o p l e u s e i n e v e r y d a y i s s u es , s o m e t i m e s

w i t h d e m o n s t r a t i o n s t h a t p e o p l e c a n e a s i l y d o b e t t e r i f

p r o m p t e d ( e . g . , B a r o n , G r a n a t o , S p r a n c a , & T e u b a l ,

1 9 9 3 ; K u h n , 1 9 9 1 ; M e a n s & V o s s , 1 9 9 6 ; P e r k i n s , 1 9 8 5 ;

P e r k i n s , F a r a d y , & B u s h e y , 1 9 9 1 ) . S t a n o v i c h ( 1 9 9 4 ) r e -

f e r r e d t o a p e r s i s t e n t s y n d r o m e o f dysrationalia: T h e

k e y d i a g n o s t i c c r i t e r i o n f o r d y s r a t i o n a l i a i s a l e v e l o f

r a t i o n a l it y , a s d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h i n k i n g a n d b e h a v i o r , t h a t

i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e l o w t h e l e v e l o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e ll e c -

t u a l c a p a c i t y ( p . 11 ) . P e r k i n s ( 1 9 9 5 ) s u m m e d u p t h e

s i t u a t i o n w i t h f o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d e f a u l t t e n d e n c i e s : A l -

t h o u g h g e n e r a l l y f u n c t i o n a l , t h i n k i n g t o o o f t e n t e n d s t o

b e h a s t y ( i m p u l s i v e , in s u f f i c i e n t i n v e s t m e n t i n d e e p p r o -

c e s s i n g a n d e x a m i n i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s ) , n a r r o w ( f a i l u r e t o

c h a l l e n g e a s s u m p t i o n s , e x a m i n e o t h e r p o i n t s o f v i e w ) ,

f u z z y ( c a r e l e s s , i m p r e c i s e , f u l l o f c o n f l a t i o n s ) , a n d

s p r a w l i n g ( g e n e r a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , f a i l u r e t o a d v a n c e o r

c o n c l u d e ) . T h e f o u r d e f a u l t s c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e p a t-

t e r n -d r i v e n c h a r a c te r o f c o g n i t i o n a s w e l l a s e g o d e f e n s e

a n d o t h e r m e c h a n i s m s .

P e r h a p s e d u c a t i o n c a n h e l p . G e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n h a s

a c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p a c t o n I Q ( e . g ., B r o d y , 1 9 9 2 ) . I n t e r v e n -

t i o n s t h at a r e f o c u s e d o n t h i nk i n g m i g h t h e l p p e o p l e t h i n k

b e t t e r i n v a r i o u s w a y s a n d e v e n r a i s e t h e i r I Q . B u t c a n

b e t t e r t h i n k i n g b e t a u g h t , a n d d o a n y g a i n s a m o u n t to

b e c o m i n g g e n u i n e l y m o r e i n t e l l ig e n t ?

T h e i d e a t h a t p e o p l e c a n l e a r n t o t h i n k s u b s t a n t i a l l y

b e t t e r i n a g e n e r a l l o n g - l a s t i n g w a y i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l , r e -

f l e c t i n g a v i g o r o u s d e b a t e a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f i n t e l l i -

g e n c e . T o d a y , d i v e r s e t h e o r i e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e v i e f o r r e c -

o g n i t i o n , i n c l u d i n g c l a s s i c g t h e o r y ( e . g . , J e n s e n , 1 9 8 0 ) ,

n e u r a l m o d u l e v i e w s ( e . g . , M . A n d e r s o n , 1 9 9 2 ) , S t e r n -

b e r g ' s ( 1 9 8 5 ) t r i a r ch i c t h e o r y o f i n t e ll i g en c e , G a r d n e r ' s

( 1 9 8 3 ) t h e o r y o f m u l t i p l e i n t e l l i g e n c e s , a n d m a n y m o r e .

T o o r g a n i z e t h e d i v e r si t y , P e r k i n s ( 1 9 9 5 ) i d e n t i f ie d t h r e e

b r o a d s t y l e s i n t h e o r i z i n g a b o u t i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d t h i n k i n g :

n e u r a l , e x p e r i e n t i a l , a n d r e f l e c t i v e . O f c o u r s e , t h e o r i s t s

David N. Perkins and Tin a A. G rotzer, Graduate School of Education,

Harv ard U niversity.

Much of the thinking behind this article was supp orted by grants

from the Jo hn D. and C atherine T. MacA rthur Foundation and the

Spencer Foundation, for w hich we are g rateful. Of course, the views

expressed are ours and do not necessarily reflect those of the founda-

tions. We appreciate the counse l of Jonathan Baron, John B ruer, and

How ard Gardner on the first draft of this article.

Correspondence concerning this article shou ld be addressed to

David N. Perkins, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University,

Longfellow Ha ll 315, Cambridge, MA 02138. Electronicmail may be

sent via I ntera ct to d avid perkins@ pz.harvard.edu or to tina._g@pz.

harvard.edu.

O c t o b e r 1 9 9 7 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t

Copyright 1997 by the American P sychological Association, Inc. 0003-066X/97/ 2.00

Vol. 52, No. 10, 1125-1133

1125



i n t h e s a m e s t y l e o f t e n d i s a g r e e v e h e m e n t l y a b o u t t h e

p a r t i cu l a r s e v e n a s t h e y sh a r e t h e b r o a d c o m m i t m e n t s o f

the s ty l e , and some theor i s t s adopt a pos i t i on tha t com-

bines two or even a l l t h ree of t hese s ty l e s .

Neura l i n t e l l igence re fe r s t o the cont r ibu t ion o f b io-

log ica l va r i a t ions in neura l e f f i c i ency (g loba l o r some-

t i m e s m o d u l a r ) t o i n t e l l i g e n t b e h a v i o r a n d i n c l u d e s t h e

b e l i e f o f so m e i n v e s ti g a t o r s th a t g h a s a b a s i s i n n e u r a l

e f f i c i ency (e ,g ., M. And erson , 1992; Her rns t e in M ur-

ray , 1994; Jensen , 1980) . I t should be no ted tha t advo-

ca te s o f t h i s pos i t i on a re no t gene ra l ly neurosc i en t i s t s ,

and the ev idence impl i ca t ing spec i f i c r i eura l mechani sms

i s qu i t e ind i rec t (Brody , 1992; C ec i , 1990) . Ex per i en t i a l

i n t e ll i g e n c e r e f e rs t o t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a n d

e x p e r i e n c e t o i n t e ll i g e n t b e h a v i o r, a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e

ro le o f c rys t a l l i zed in t e l l i gence (Ca t t e l l, 1963) and

k n o w l e d g e a n d c o g n i t i v e sk i l l s t h a t a r e h i g h l y t u n e d t o

pa r t i cu la r f i e lds and endeav ors (e .g ., Be re i t e r Sca rda m-

al ia , 1993; Cec i , 1990; Eric sso n Sm ith, 1991). F inal ly,

re f l ec t ive in t e l li gence re fe r s t o the cont r ibu t ion of know l -

edge a bout t h ink ing and re f l ec t ive se l f -gu idance to in t e l li -

gen t beha vior (e .g . Baron , 1985; Baro n S te rnbe rg ,

1986; N icke rson , 1989; N icke rson , Pe rk ins , Smi th ,

1985; Perkins, 1995; Sternberg , 1985). Mo st inst r uct io nal

e f for t s t o enhance in t e l l i gence focus on re f l ec t ive

inte l l igence.

A g a i n s t t h i s b a c k d r o p , o n e c h a l l e n g e t o t he i d e a o f

t e a c h i n g i n t e ll i g e n c e c o m e s f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n ti a l c a m p ,

where re sea rche rs have of t en a rgued tha t cogni t ive sk i l l s

a re inhe ren t ly con tex t bou nd (c f . Cec i , 1990; D e t t e rman,

1992; Lave , 1988) . But t he l a rge r cha l l enge comes f rom

t h e n e u r a l c a m p a n d f r o m o t h e r s w h o f o c u s o n I Q a s t h e

index of success . Jensen (1983 , 1989), H er rns t e in and

M u r r a y ( 1 9 9 4 ) , a n d B r o d y ( 1 9 9 2 ; n o t a n e u r a l a d v o c a te )

a s se s se d i n t e r v e n t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o e n h a n c e c o g n i t i v e

f u n c t i o n i n g t h r o u g h t h e i r i m p a c t o n I Q . A f t e r r e v ie w i n g

a n u m b e r o f c a se s , t h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t i n t e r v e n t io n s u su -

a l ly h a v e a n i m p a c t m a g n i t u d e o f h a l f a s t a n d a r d d e v i a-

t i o n o r l e s s , te n d t o e n h a n c e t e s t m a n sh i p m o r e t h a n g e n -

e ra l cogni t ive e f fi cacy , and y i e ld e f fe c t s t ha t dwindle and

v a n i sh w i t h i n a f e w y e a r s ( s e e C a m p b e l l R a m e y , 1 99 4 ,

for a ra re and pa r t i a l except ion) .

W i t h t h e sk e p t i c s a c k n o w l e d g e d , i t b e c o m e s i m -

p o r t a n t t o l o o k a t t h e e m p i r i c a l p ic t u r e. W h a t h a v e p r o -

g r a m s a c h i e v e d t h a t w e r e d e s i g n e d t o e n h a n c e p e o p l e ' s

th ink ing? In appra i s ing the i r accompl i shment s , i t i s use -

f u l to b e a r i n m i n d t h r e e i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n s o f su c c e s s

tha t a re h igh l igh ted by the skep t i c s : the magn i tude , gene r -

a l i t y , and pe rs i s t ence of impac t on th ink ing .

So m e Po s i t ive in d in g s

A n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e t h a t

t a rge ted a t t empt s to t each people to th ink be t t e r can be

w o r t h w h i l e . W e r e v i e w a sm a l l s a m p l e h e r e ; t h i s s a m p l e

w a s c h o se n t o p r o v i d e a s e n se o f t h e d i v e r s i t y o f a p -

p r o a c h e s , p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d m e t h o d s b u t n e c e s sa r i l y

l e a v e s o u t m a n y i m p o r t a n t a n d i n f o r m a t i v e w o r k s .

T h i n k i n g n G e n e r a l : r o i e c t I n t e l l i g e n c e

P r o j e c t I n t e l l i g e n c e , a l so k n o w n a s O d y sse y , a c o u r se

tha t can eas i ly f i l l a yea r o r more , seeks to t each bo th

t h e s t r a t e g i e s a n d sp i r i t o f g o o d t h i n k i n g i n r e a so n i n g ,

p r o b l e m so l v i n g , d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , i n v e n t i v e t h i n k i n g ,

and o the r a reas . S ix ins t ruc t iona l un i t s des igned for sev-

en th grade rs i n t roduce and e l abora t e s t ra t eg ie s and pro-

v i d e a b u n d a n t p r a c ti c e .

A f o r m a l e v a l u a t io n w i t h s t u d e n t s i n 2 4 c l a s se s f r o m

f a m i l i e s o f l o w so c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s ( S E S ) a n d p a r e n t a l

e d u c a t i o n in a m a t c h e d s a m p l e d e s i g n sh o w e d p r o m i s i n g

resu l t s (Her rns t e in , N icke rso n , Sanche z , Swe t s , 1986) .

I n t e r v e n t i o n s t u d e n t s m a d e h i g h e r p e r f o r m a n c e g a i n s

than cont ro l s i n gene ra l ap t i t ude (e f fe c t s izes o f d = .43 ,

p < . 0 01 , o n t h e O t i s - L e n n o n S c h o o l A b i l i t y T e st

[Ot is Le nn on , 1977]; d = .11, p < .02, on the Ca t te l l

Cu l ture Fair Test [Cate l l Cat te l l , 1961]; and d = .35,

p < .001 , on the Test o f Genera l Abi l i t i e s [Manue l ,

1962] ). The y a l so show ed grea t e r ga ins on t e s t s o f t he

t a rge ted ab i l i t i e s ( i . e . , p rob lem so lv ing [d = .46] , dec i -

s ion mak ing [d = .77], r eason ing [d = .64] , l anguag e [d

= .62] , and invent ive th ink ing [d = .50], w i th each be ing

s ign i f i can t a t p < .001). In t e rven t ion s tudent s ou tpe r -

f o r m e d c o n t r o l s o n a n o p e n - e n d e d d e s i g n p r o b l e m ( d =

.70 , p < .001) and on an eve ryd ay reason ing t a sk (d =

.50 , p < .01) t ha t a ssessed s tuden t s ' ab i l i t y t o t r ansfe r

w h a t t h e y h a d l e a r n e d t o n e w c o n t e x t s . A l t h o u g h t h e

pe rs i s t ence o f e f fec t s was no t t e s ted , t hese pos i t i ve re su l ts

su g g e s t t h a t th e i n t e r v e n t io n e n h a n c e d t h e m a g n i t u d e a n d

reach o f s tudent s ' i n t e l l i gen t behavio r a t l eas t i n t he shor t

t e rm.

T h i n k i n g n G e n e r a l. T h e P h i l o s o p h y o r C h i l d r e n

P r o g r o m (P F C )

T h i s w e l l - k n o w n p r o g r a m b y p h i l o so p h e r M a t t h e w L i p -

m a n d i r e c t ly i n v o l v e s s t u d e n ts i n m e t a c o g n i t i o n ( L i p m a n ,

1976; L ipm an, Sha rp , Osc any an , 1980) . Vers ions for

d i f fe ren t leve l s , f rom k inde rga r t en to h igh scho ol , use

Socra t i c d i scuss ion to he lp s tudent s cons ide r such ideas

as the process o f i nqui ry , i nduc t ive reasoning , and the

n a t u r e o f e x p l a n a t i o n t h r o u g h s t o r ie s t h a t a r e f o c u se d o n

everyday event s .

T h e E d u c a t i o n a l T e s t i n g S e r v i c e c o n d u c t e d e x t e n -

s iv e e v a lu a t io n s o f t h e P F C P r o g r a m , w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e d

pos i t i ve e f fec t s o f t he weekly 2 .25-hour in t e rven t ion . For

ins t ance , i n a s tudy of 400 f i f th to e igh th grade rs , PFC

student s show ed s ign i f i can t ga ins (p < .0001) in ma the -

ma t i c s pe r formance ( inc rease in score of 6 .11 po in t s )

w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h c o n t r o l s ( u p 4 . 5 0 p o i n t s ) a n d i n

r e a d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e ( u p 8 . 3 3 p o i n t s ) w h e n c o m p a r e d

w i t h c o n t r o l s ( u p 5 . 0 0 p o i n t s ) o n t h e s t a n d a r d s c o r e s o f

the Met ropol i t an Achievement Tes t s (Psychologica l Cor -

pora t ion , 1978) . A l though d i f fe rences in reasoning a re

repor t ed , such a s d rawing in fe rences , i dea t iona l f l uency ,

and cur ios i ty ( s ign i f i can t a t p < .05 , o r l e ss ) , e f fec t s izes

a re no t p rov id ed , so i t is d i f f i cu l t t o a ssess the m agni tu de

of change ( see L ip m an e t a l. , 1980). La te r s tud ies re -

por t ed transfe r o f l ea rn ing (e .g ., Io r io , Weins t e in , Mar -

1 1 2 6 O c t o b e r 1 99 7 • A m e r i c a n P sy c h o l o g i s t



t i n , 1984; Sh ipm an, 1983). An ea r l i e r s tudy by L ipm an

a n d B i e r m a n ( a s c i te d i n L i p m a n e t a l. , 1 9 80 ) f o u n d

s ign i f i can t , pe rs i s t en t ga ins in read ing 2 .5 yea rs l a t e r

(p < .01).

T h i n k i n g n M a t h e m a t i c s : S c h o o n f o l d s H e u r i s t i c

I n s t r u c t i o n

S c h o e n f e l d ( 1 9 8 2 ; S c h o e n f e l d H e r r m a n n , 1 9 82 ) t a u g h t

c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s h e u r i s t i c s f o r m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b l e m

so l v i n g a l o n g w i t h a m a n a g e r i a l , s e l f - m o n i t o r i n g p r o c e s s

tha t , he a rgued , s tudent s nee ded to org anize the i r pa t t e rns

o f p r o b l e m so l v i n g a n d u se h e u r i s t i cs w e l l .

S c h o e n f e l d ( 1 9 8 2 ) c o m p a r e d t h e p r e - a n d p o s t t e s t

p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e 1 1 c o u r se p a r ti c i p a n ts w i t h 8 c o n t r o l

s t u d e n t s i n a s i m i l a r c l a s s b y h a v i n g t h e m w r i t e d o w n

t h e a p p r o a c h e s t h a t t h e y t r i e d f o r so l v i n g p r o b l e m s a n d

r e a so n s w h y t h e y t r i e d t h e m . I n t e r v e n ti o n s t u d e n ts so l v e d

s i g n i f ic a n t l y m o r e p o s t t e s t p r o b l e m s ( 2 .6 4 o f 5 . 0 0 ) t h a n

cont ro l s (0 .38) . They ga ined 48 po in t s , whereas cont ro l s

los t 2 po in t s on a t r ansfe r t e s t o f recogniz ing re l a t ed

p r o b l e m s . I n t e r v e n t i o n s t u d e n t s m a d e g r e a t e r g a i n s i n

g e n e r a t in g p l a u s ib l e a p p r o a c h e s t o p r o b l e m s ( 5 1 .4 o n a

0 - 1 0 0 - p o i n t s c a l e ) t h a n c o n t r o l s ( 1 0 . 0 ) a n d r e p o r t e d

g r e a t e r g a i n s i n sy s t e m a t i c i t y a n d t h o u g h t f u l n e s s , su c h

a s k n o w i n g h o w t o s t a r t ( 4 4 ) w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h c o n -

t r o is ( n o c h a n g e ) . P v a l u e s w e r e n o t r e p o r t e d . S c h o e n f e l d

a n d H e r r m a n n ( 1 9 8 2 ) f o u n d t h a t i n t e r v e n t i o n s t u d e n t s

so r t e d t r a n s f e r p r o b l e m s o n t h e p o s t t e s t in w a y s t h a t m o r e

c l o se l y c o r r e la t e d ( . 7 2) w i t h h o w e x p e r t s so r t e d p r o b l e m s

than on the pre t e s t ( .54) . Thi s ga in was s ign i f i can t ly

h ighe r (p < .01) t han tha t o f con t ro l s (p re t e s t = .55 ,

pos t t e s t = .42) . Schoenfe ld (1982) repor t ed pa ra l l e l r e -

su i t s on a l a rge r , p rev ious s tudy wi th no cont ro l g roup

i n j u s t i f y i n g t h e sm a l l n . A l t h o u g h n o i n f o r m a t i o n e x i s t s

o n t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e e f f e c t s , t h e i r m a g n i t u d e a n d

g e n e r a l i t y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e n h a n c e a b i l i t y o f i n t e l l i g e n t

behavior .

T h i n k i n g n S c i e n c e : C o g n i t iv e A c c e l e ra t io n

T h r o u g h S c i e n c e E d u c a t io n C A S E ) P r o g r a m

I n t h e C A S E P r o g r a m , A d e y a n d S h a y e r ( 1 9 9 3 ) t a u g h t

l e s so n s o n p a t t e r n s o f t h i n k i n g i n s c i e n c e ( su c h a s t h e

i so l a t io n a n d c o n t r o l o f v a r i a b l e s ) w h i l e a t t e n d in g t o m e t -

a c o g n i t i o n a n d t r a n s f e r o f k n o w l e d g e a n d s t r at e g ie s . T h e y

i n t r o d u c e d c o g n i t i v e d i s so n a n c e a r o u n d p a r t i c u l a r p u z -

z l e s so s tu d e n t s w o u l d e x a m i n e a s su m p t i o n s a n d r e t h i n k

p r i o r c o n c e p t i o n s .

A form a l eva lua t ion of 194 pa r t i c ipan t s (11- to 12-

yea r -o lds) i n a two-yea r i n t e rven t ion and 230 cont ro l s tu -

d e n t s w a s c o n d u c t e d . A l t h o u g h f e w s i g n i f ic a n t r e su l ts

e x i s t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n , m e a su r e m e n t s a

yea r l a t e r sho wed s ign i f i can t imp rovem ent s fo r 12-year -

o ld boys (d = .72 , p < .05) and 11-yea r -o ld g i r l s (d =

. 6 0, p < . 0 2 5 ) f r o m t h e C A S E g r o u p o n s c h o o l s c ie n c e

achievement t e s t s . Two yea rs l a t e r , d i f fe rences ex i s t ed

(s ign i f i can t a t p < .05 , o r le ss ) fo r 12-yea r -o ld boy s

and 11-yea r -o ld g i r l s i n sc i ence (d = .96 and d = .67 ,

re spec t ive ly) , ma th (d = .50 and d = .72 , r e spec t ive ly) ,

and Engl i sh (d = .32 and d = .69 , r e spec t ive ly) be tw een

C A S E s t u d e n t s a n d c o n t r o l s o n t h e G e n e r a l C e r t i f i c a t e

o f S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n E x a m ( G C S E ) . ( T h e G C S E i s

a n e x a m i n a t i o n t a k e n i n E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s a n d i s e x -

p la ine d in Ad ey Shayer , 1994, p . 92 . ) S ign i f i can t e f -

fec t s were a l so found for 12-yea r -o ld-g i r l s i n Engl i sh (d

= . 4 4) . T h e p e r s is t e n c e a n d i n c r e a se d m a g n i t u d e o f e f -

fec t s f rom the in i t i a l pos t t e s t ing to two yea rs l a t e r a s we l l

a s t he t ransfe r t o o the r sub jec t ma t t e r s sugges t t ha t t he

s t r a te g i e s t a u g h t h e l p e d s t u d e n ts b e c o m e m o r e i n t e ll i g e n t

learners.

C o p i n g T h o u g h l f u l ly ith chook P r a c t i c a l

I n t e l l i g e n c e o r choo ls ( P I FS )

T h e P I F S p r o g r a m w a s b u i l t a r o u n d t h e n o t i o n o f p r a c ti -

c a l i n t e l l i g e n c e - - t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s e t t i n g s c a l l f o r so m e -

w h a t s i t u a te d c o p i n g s t r a te g i e s ( S t e m b e r g W a g n e r ,

1986) . P IFS a t t empt s to bu i ld s tudent s ' unde rs t anding

a n d c o p i n g a r o u n d f i v e t h e m e s : k n o w i n g t h e p o i n t o f

t h e t o p i c , t e c h n i q u e , a n d a s s i g n m e n t ; k n o w i n g o n e ' s

s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s se s ; k n o w i n g t h e d e m a n d s o f d i f -

f e r e n t su b j ec t s a n d a s s i g n m e n t s ; k n o w i n g s t e ps a n d s t r a t-

eg ie s ; and re f l ec t ion in a ssess ing and rev i s ing (Wi l l i ams

et al . , 1996).

E v a l u a t i o n s sh o w e d t h a t th e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p ( E )

o f P I F S s t u d e n t s g a i n e d m o r e t h a n t h e n o n - P I F S c o n t r o l

g r o u p ( C ) . F o r i n s ta n c e , i n a n e v a l u a t io n i n c l u d i n g 2 6 0

f i f th and s ix th grade rs , P IF S s tudent s d id be t t e r on mea-

surement s o f p rac t i ca l ( f ive -po in t sca l e ) and academic

abi l i ti e s ( th ree -po in t sca l e ) i n wr i t i ng : p rac t i ca l ab i l i ti e s ,

E = 2 .70 , C - - 2 .53 , F (1 , 259) = 4 .22 ; and acad em ic

abi l i ti e s , E - - 2 .37 , C = 2 .09 , F (1 , 259) = 5 .71 . Th ey

a l so d id be t t e r on prac t i ca l ab i li t i e s in read ing , E = 3 .00 ,

C = 2 .60 , F ( 1 , 25 9) = 15 .53 ; hom ewo rk , E = 2 .94 , C

= 2 .44 , F (1 ,25 8) - - 24 .10 ; and t e s t t ak ing , E = 2 .85 , C

= 2 . 3 3, F ( 1 , 2 4 2 ) = 2 3 . 4 9 , a l l s i g n i f ic a n t a t p < . 05 , o r

l e ss except a s o the rwise no ted . P IFS s tudent s were ra t ed

more ap t t o d i sp l ay ac t ive - l ea rn ing sk i l l s and behaviors

(Chen , 1993) . A l though the pe rs i s t ence of e f fec t s i s no t

y e t k n o w n , t h e t r a n s f e r o f P I F S l e a r n in g t o s c h o o l t a sk s

a n d su b j e c t m a t t e r s a s w e l l a s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f e f f e c ts

su g g e s t t h a t t h e P I F S i n t e rv e n t i o n h e l p e d s t u d e n t s b e h a v e

mo re in t e l li gen t ly .

T h e se s t u d i e s s a m p l e d t h e p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e s t h a t

h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n t e a c h i n g i n t e l li g e n t b e h a v io r . O t h e r

re sea rche rs have a l so repor t ed pos i t i ve ou tcomes ( see ,

e . g . , E d w a r d s B a l d a u f , 1 98 3 ; P a l i n c sar B r o w n ,

1984; and such book s a s Jon es Ido l , 1990; N icke rson ,

Pe rk ins , Sm i th , 1985; Sega l , Ch ipma n, G lase r, 1985;

W h i m b e y , 1 9 75 , f o r p r o g r a m r e v ie w s ) .

O f c o u r se , n o t a l l e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n su c c e s s f u l. F o r

ins t ance , t he P roduc t ive Thinking P rogram, a se l f - in -

s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m o f 1 5 l e s so n s d e s i g n e d t o t e a c h i n -

vent ive th ink ing to f i f th and s ix th grade rs t h roug h a se r i e s

o f m y s t e r i e s , w a s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t p r o g r a m s i n t h i s

conce ptua l a rea (Cov ington , Cru tch f i e ld , Davies , O1-

O c t o b e r 1 9 9 7 • A m e r i c a n P sy c h o l o g i s t 1 12 7



t o n , 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e P r o d u c t i v e T h i n k i n g P r o g r a m m e t w i t h

mix ed re su l t s (Mans f i e ld , Busse , & Krepe lka , 1978) . S tu-

d e n t s i m p r o v e d o n p r o b l e m s t h a t c lo se l y p a r a l le l e d t h o se

i n t h e p r o g r a m b u t w i t h o u t t r a n s f e r t o o t h e r k i n d s o f

p r o b l e m s ( M o r e n o & H o g a n , 1 97 6 ). T h i s m i g h t h a v e

b e e n d u e t o t h e sh o r t l en g t h o f t h e p r o g r a m a n d p e r h a p s

t o t h e l a c k o f g e n e r a l i t y o f t h e p r o b l e m s a n d a p p r o a c h

(Nickerson e t a l . , 1985).

F o r a n o t h e r m i x e d p i c tu r e , t h e I n s t r u m e n t a l E n r i c h -

m e n t P r o g r a m m a y se r v e so m e p o p u l a t i o n s b e t t e r t h a n

othe rs . Or ig ina l ly deve loped for l ow-fun c t ion ing l ea rne rs ,

I n s t r u m e n t a l E n r i c h m e n t h a s a m e d i a t o r s c a f f o l d t h e

l e a r n e r ' s p r o b l e m so l v i n g o n o v e r 4 0 0 a b s t r ac t c o n t e x t -

f r e e p r o b l e m s o v e r a tw o - y e a r p e r i o d ( F eu e r s te i n , R a n d ,

Ho f fma n, & Mi l l er , 1980). L ow -func t ion ing , Iow-SES

1 2 - 1 5 - y e a r - o l d s i m p r o v e d o n t e s t s o f in t e r p er so n a l c o n -

d u c t , s e l f - su ff i c ie n c y , a n d a d a p t a t i o n t o w o r k d e m a n d s

a s w e l l a s o n a n A r m y i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t t w o y e a r s l a t e r

(Feue rs t e in e t a l . , 1981; Rand , Tannenbaum, & Feuer -

s t e in , 1979). However , i n an ex tens ive s tudy in a regula r

s c h o o l s e t t in g , o r d i n a r y l e a r n e rs d i d n o t sh o w i m p r o v e -

m e n t s i n a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e ( B l a g g , 1 9 9 1 ) . T h i s

m i g h t h a v e b e e n d u e t o a n A p t i t u d e × T r e a t m e n t i n t er a c -

t ion (Cronbach & Snow, 1977) . The abs t rac t na ture of

t h e t a sk s a n d t h e f o c u s o n d e v e l o p i n g u n d e r l y i n g m e n t a l

ope ra t ions might speak to the de f i c i enc ie s o f t he low-

f u n c t i o n i n g l e a r n e r s b u t n o t t o t h e n e e d s o f o r d i n a r y

s tudent s . O the r work in the broad sp i r i t o f a Trea tment

× Apt i tude in t e rac t ion sugges t s t ha t a l ign ing ins t ruc t ion

w i t h s t u d e n t s ' i n t e ll e c tu a l s t r en g t h s a n d w e a k n e s se s c a n

have a cons ide rab le impac t on l ea rn ing (S te rnbe rg , Fe r -

ra r i , Cl inkenbea rd , & Gr igorenko , 1996) .

S tud ies s uch a s these c an he lp to f i ll ou t t he p i c ture

o f w h a t e l e m e n t s a r e i m p o r t a n t i n i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t e a ch e s

for i n t e l l i gence . Clea r ly , a t t en t ion to t r ansfe r , p rogram

length , and su i t ab le popula t ion a re jus t some of t he e l e -

m e n t s t h a t d e t e r m i n e a p r o g r a m ' s su c c e s s o r f a i lu r e .

The R e or ga n i z a t i ona l ha r a c te r o f

Te a c h i ng i n t e l l i ge nc e

W i t h su c h e x a m p l e s a s t h o se g i v e n a b o v e , w h a t g e n e r al -

i z a ti o n s a b o u t m e t h o d s e e m w a r r a n t e d ? P e r h ap s t h e m o s t

sa l i en t f ea ture i s t he reorganiza t iona l cha rac t e r o f t each-

i n g t h i n k i n g . S u c c e s s f u l p r o g r a m s i n v a r i a b ly s e e k t o r e -

o r g a n i z e t h i n k i n g , n o t j u s t t o e x e r c i s e i t u p . T h e y t e a c h

s t ra t eg ie s , concept s , a t t en t ion to one ' s t h ink ing , cau t ion

about t r aps of t h ink ing , and the l i ke .

Spec i f i c ev iden ce speaks to the impor t an ce o f a reor -

g a n i z a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h . S c h o e n f e l d ( 1 9 7 9 ) a n d A . L .

B r o w n a n d P a l i n csa r ( 1 9 8 9 ) r e p o r t e d s t u d i e s c o n t r a s ti n g

t h e l e a r n in g o f c o g n i t i v e s tr a t e g ie s u n d e r w h a t m i g h t b e

ca l l ed t ac i t - s t ra t egy and expl i c i t - s t ra t egy condi t ions .

L e a r n e r s i n b o t h g r o u p s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n d e m o n s t r a t i o n s

tha t were based on the s t ra t eg ie s . The s t ra t eg ie s were

made expl i c i t and foca l i n the expl i c i t - s t ra t eg ie s g roup

but no t i n the t ac i t - s t ra t eg ie s g roup . Both groups d id

prac t i ce ac t iv i t ie s . The t ac i t - s t ra teg ie s condi t ion ha d min -

ima l impac t , whereas the expl i c i t - s t ra t eg ie s condi t ion

cons ide rab le impac t .

I f r eorganiza t ion i s cen t ra l , wha t i s it t ha t needs to

b e r e o r g a n i z e d ? A r a n g e o f r e se a r c h p o i n t s t o f i v e c a t e g o -

r i e s o f cogni t ive reorganiza t ion (C OR E ca tegor i e s) : s t ra t-

eg ie s , me tacogni t ion , d i spos i t i ons , d i s t r ibu ted in t e l l i -

gence , and t ransfe r . We comment on each br i e f ly .

t ra teg ies

M o s t i n t e r v e n t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o i m p r o v e t h i n k i n g t e a c h

s t r a t e g i e s . T h e se r a n g e f r o m p r o b l e m so l v i n g , d e c i s i o n

m a k i n g , m n e m o n i c , a n d o t h e r g e n e r a l- p u r p o se s t r a t e g ie s

t o s t r a t e g i e s m o r e f o c u se d o n t h e n e e d s o f p a r t i c u l a r

d o m a i n s , su c h a s m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b l e m so l v i n g o r c o m -

p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . S t r a t e g i e s r e o r g a n i z e t h i n k i n g b y

p r o v i d i n g p a t t er n s t o f o l l o w t h a t w o r k a g a i n s t t h e d e f a u l ts

ment ioned ea r l i e r (has ty , na r row, fuzzy , and sprawl ing)

and presc r ibe e f fec t ive heur i s t i c s fo r t he k inds of t h ink ing

i n q u e s t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , m a t h e m a t i c a l i n d u c t i o n f o r

m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b l e m so l v in g .

M e t a c o g n i t i o n

T h e t e r m met cognition h a s a r a n g e o f u sa g e i n p sy c h o l -

o g y . A s u se d h e r e , i t r e f e rs t o m o n i t o r i n g a n d m a n a g e m e n t

o f o n e ' s t h i n k i n g , in c l u d i n g m a k i n g p l a n s b e f o r e a t h i n k -

ing ep i sode , r egula t ing dur ing the ep i sode , and re f l ec t ing

back a f t e rwards to rev i se and p l an fu ture prac t i ces (e .g . ,

Sca rda ma l i a & Bere i te r , 1985; S te rnbe rg , 1985; W him -

b e y & L o c h h e a d , 1 9 82 ). M e t a c o g n i t i o n r e o r g a n i z e s

t h i n k i n g b y p r o v i d i n g o n - l i n e m o n i t o r i n g a n d r e d i r e ct i o n .

D i s p o s i ~ o n s

W h e r e a s t h i n k i n g a b il i ti e s a r e f o c u se d o n w h a t a t h i n k e r

i s ab le to do , t h ink ing d i spos i t i ons focus on wha t a

th inke r i s i nc l ined to do (e .g . , Ba ron , 1985; E nni s , 1986;

Pe rk ins , Jay , & T i shm an, 1993) . W i thou t approp r i a t e d i s -

pos i t i ons , t h ink ing ab i l i t i e s can l i e fa l low. D i spos i t i ons

e m a n a t e i n p a r t f r o m u n d e r l y i n g b e l i e f s , f o r i n s t a n c e ,

b e l i e f s i n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o r u n i m p o r t a n c e o f e f f o r t i n

l e a r n i n g a n d p r o b l e m so l v i n g ( D w e c k & B e m p e c h a t ,

1980; Dweck & Lich t , 1980) . D i spos i t i ons a l so re f l ec t

w h a t D e w e y ( 1 9 3 3) c a l l e d h a b i t s o f t h o u g h t ( p. 3 5) .

Pe rk ins e t a l . (1993) a rgued tha t t h ink ing d i spos i t i ons

cons i s t o f bo th sens i t i v i ty and inc l ina t ion : Think ing d i s -

pos i t i ons reorganize th ink ing th rough the sens i t i v i ty to

de tec t occa s ions tha t ca l l fo r a pa r t i cu la r pa t t e rn of t h ink-

i n g a n d t h e i n c l i n a ti o n t o f o l l o w t h r o u g h .

D i s t r i b u t e d o g n i t i o n

Tradi t iona l ly , i n t e l l i gence i s v i ewed as a qua l i t y o f mind

a n d b r a i n , b u t i n t e l l i g e n t f u n c t i o n i n g a l so d e p e n d s o n

p h y s i c a l , so ci a l, a n d sy m b o l i c su p p o r t sy s t e m s ( S a l o m o n ,

1 9 93 ). P h y s i c a l su p p o r t sy s t e m s , f r o m p a p e r a n d p e n c i l

t o t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m M a t h e m a t i c a ( W o l f r a m , 1 9 8 8) ,

p r o v i d e sh o r t - t e r m m e m o r y a n d c o m p u t a t i o n a l a id s . S o -

c i a l su p p o r t sy s t e m s su c h a s t e a m t h i n k i n g , t h e u se o f

e x p e r ts , a n d t e l e c o n f e r e n c i n g a l lo w t h e p o o l i n g o f e x p e r-

t i se and co l l abora t ive bra ins torming . Symbol i c re sources

1128 Oc tob e r 1997 • Am er ican Psych ologi s t



f o r th i n k i n g i n c lu d e t h e e v e r y d a y la n g u a g e o f t h i n k i n g - -

t e r m s s u c h a s h y p o t h e s i s , o p t i o n , a n d e v i d e n c e , w h i c h

c a r r y s t r u c t u r e s a n d s t a n d a r d s t h a t g u i d e t h i n k i n g ( e . g . ,

O l s o n & A s t in g t o n , 1 9 9 3 ; T i s h m a n & P e r k i n s, 1 9 9 7 ) - -

a s w e l l a s m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d c o n c e p t s a n d s y m b o l s y s -

t e m s . S o m e a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h in k i n g m a k e

e x te n s iv e u s e o f g r a p h ic o r g a n i z e r s - - d i a g r a m m a t i c w a y s

o f r e p r e s e n t i n g e v i d e n t i a l a n d o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t

p r o v i d e b o t h p h y s i c a l a n d s y m b o l i c s u p p o r t ( M c T i g h e &

L y m a n , 1 9 8 8 ) . A t t e n t i o n t o d i s t r i b u t e d i n t e l l i g e n c e r e o r -

g a n i z e s t h i n k i n g b y g u i d i n g l e a r n e r s i n t h e u s e o f p h y s i -

c a l , s o c i a l , a n d s y m b o l i c s u p p o r t s .

r a n s f e r

T r a n s f e r o f l e a r n i n g i s a c r i t i c a l i ss u e i n t e a c h i n g i n t e l l i -

g e n c e . C o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h s h o w s t h a t t r a n s f e r i s h a r d

t o c o m e b y , p a r t i c u l a r l y f a r t r a n s f e r ( e . g . , D e t t e r m a n &

S t e r n b e r g , 1 9 9 2 ; S a l o m o n & P e r k i n s , 1 9 8 9 ; T h o r n d i k e ,

1 9 2 3 ). S o m e a d v o c a t e s o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y v i e w c a l l e d

situ ted le rning

a r g u e t h a t l e a r n i n g i s i n h e r e n t l y h i g h l y

c o n t e x t u a l a n d t h e p r o s p e c t s o f g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e

l e a r n i n g l o w ( J . S . B r o w n , C o l l i n s , & D u g u i d , 1 9 8 9 ;

L a v e , 1 9 8 8 ; b u t s e e J . R . A n d e r s o n , R e d e r , & S i m o n ,

1 9 9 6 , f o r a c r i t i q u e o f t h e s i t u a t e d v i e w ) . H o w e v e r , S a lo -

m o n a n d P e r k i n s ( 1 9 8 9 ) a m o n g o t h e rs a r g u e d t h a t t ra n s f e r

c a n b e , a n d h a s b e e n , a t t a i n e d w h e n t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f

l e a r n i n g f o s t e r r e f l e c t i v e a b s t r a c t i o n , t h o r o u g h p r a c t i c e

o n d e l i b e r a t e l y d i v e r s e c a s e s , o r b o t h , w h i c h a r e c o n d i -

t i o n s t h a t a r e n o t u s u a l l y m e t . A l l th e p r o g r a m s r e v i e w e d

a b o v e s h o w e d s o m e d e g r e e o f t r a ns f er . T r a n sf e r re o r g a -

n i z e s t h i n k i n g b y b r o a d e n i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a c q u i r e d

c o n c e p t s a n d b e h a v i o r s .

T h e C O R E c a t e g o r i e s c o n t r i b u t e to a n a p p r a i sa l o f

t e a c h i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e i n t h r e e w a y s . F i r s t , t h e y d e s c r i b e

w h a t s u c c e s s f u l i n t e r v e n t i o n s d o . S e c o n d , t h e C O R E c a t -

e g o r i e s h a v e n o r m a t i v e f o r c e . T h e y c o n s t i t u t e t h e o r y -

b a s e d g u i d e l i n e s f o r e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n . T h i s

d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t a n e f f e c t i v e p r o g r a m h a s t o t h o r -

o u g h l y a d d r e s s a l l f iv e t o h a v e i m p a c t , b e c a u s e s p i ll -

o v e r s f r o m o n e t o a n o t h e r a r e n a t u r a l . H o w e v e r , w h e n a

p r o g r a m d o e s n o t a t t e n d e x p l i c i t l y t o a c a t e g o r y , t h e p r o -

g r a m m a y b e n e f i t f r o m s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i n t h a t a r e a .

T h i r d , t h e C O R E c a t e g o r i e s u n d e r s c o r e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f

t e a c h in g t h i n k i ng . W h e r e a s m a n y a p p r o a c h e s t o t e a c h in g

t h i n k i n g s e e m r a t h e r s i m p l i s t i c , d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , p r o b -

l e m s o l v i n g , u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d o t h e r a r e a s o f t h i n k i n g

a r e m u l t i f a c e t e d d o m a i n s , a s g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e s a n d e v e n

m o r e s o w i t h i n p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t s . P e r k i n s ( 1 9 9 5 ) d e -

s c r i b e d t h e m a s r e a l m s ( p. 2 4 9 ) o f k n o w l e d g e , a re a s

o f g e n e r a l i z e d e x p e r t i s e t h a t r e q u i r e e x t e n d e d t h o u g h t f u l

l e a r n i n g .

Teaching Cog ni tive R eorganiza t ion

Throu gE the D iscipl ines

T h e p r o g r a m s d i s c u s s e d s o f a r b y a n d l a r g e h a v e a t o p -

d o w n c h a r a c t e r : T h i n k i n g i s t h e s u b j e c t t o b e t a u g h t .

A n o t h e r p e d a g o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n i n t h i s a r e a i s m o r e b o t -

t o m - u p : T h e t e a c h in g o f t h in k i n g o c c u r s n o t o n l y w i t h i n

t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r s b u t a l s o c a p i t a l i z e s o n t h e t h i n k i n g

d e m a n d s a s t h e y a r i s e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . A l t h o u g h t h e

s t ra t e g ie s a n d c o n c e p t s i n t r o d u c e d o f t e n h a v e a s o m e w h a t

g e n e r i c t r a n s f e r a b l e c h a r a c t e r ( B e r e i t e r & S c a r d a m a l i a ,

1 9 9 3 ; B r u e r , 1 9 9 3 ; C l e m e n t , 1 9 9 1 ) , t h e i r c o n t e x t u a l i z a -

t i o n e n c o u r a g e s m o r e s i t u a t e d a n d e x p e r t t h i n k i n g . T h i s

a p p r o a c h i s a l s o o f t e n c a l l e d

infusion

(e . g . , S war tz &

P e r k i n s , 1 9 8 9 ) . S e v e r a l p u b l i s h e d a p p r o a c h e s p r o v i d e

t e a c h e r s w i t h g e n e r a l i n f u s i o n g u i d e l i n e s ( e . g . , P e r k i n s ,

G o o d r i c h , T i s h m a n , & M i r m a n - O w e n , 1 9 9 4 ; S w a r t z &

P arks , 1994; T i shm an, P e rk ins , & Jay , 1995) .

O n e p r o b l e m i n a p p r a i s i n g t h e i m p a c t o f i n f u s i o n

f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t e a c h i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e i s t h a t t h e

f o r m a l s t u d i e s te n d t o f o c u s o n g a i n s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f d i s c i p l i n a r y c o n t e n t , w i t h l e s s a t t e n t i o n t o g e n e r a l i m -

p a c t o n t h i n k i n g w i t h i n o r a c r o s s d i s c i p l i n e s . H o w e v e r ,

t h e e x i s t i n g r e s e a r c h i s p r o m i s i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e

T h i n k e r T o o l s I n q u i r y P r o j e c t i s a m i d d l e s c h o o l s c i e n c e

p r o g r a m a b o u t N e w t o n i a n d y n a m i c s i n w h i c h t h e c l a s s

b e c o m e s a r e s e a r c h c o m m u n i t y a n d s t u d en t s p r o p o s e a n d

t e s t o u t c o m p e t i n g t h e o r i e s w i t h t h e a i d o f c o m p u t e r

m o d e l s . T h e y c o m p a r e f i n d in g s a n d d i s c u ss w h i c h m o d -

e l s a n d t h e o r i e s o f f e r t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l e x p l a n a t i o n s . I t

h a s h a d a s i z a b l e i m p a c t n o t o n l y o n s t u d e n t s ' l e a r n i n g o f

p h y s i c s p r i n c i p l e s b u t a l s o o f i n q u i r y i n g e n e r a l ( W h i t e &

F r e d e r i k s e n , 1 9 9 5 ; H o r w i t z & W h i t e , 1 9 8 6 ) . R e s e a r c h o n

a s t r a t e g i c r e a d i n g p r o g r a m c a l l e d R e c i p r o c a l T e a c h i n g

( P a l i n c s a r & B r o w n , 1 9 8 4 ) o f f e r s a s e c o n d e x a m p l e . S t u -

d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s t a k e t u r n s g u i d i n g t h e g r o u p . S t u d e n t s

l e a r n t o p r o c e s s i n f o r m a t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y a n d t o r o u t i n e l y

u s e s t r a t e g i e s s u c h a s q u e s t i o n i n g , c l a r i f y i n g , s u m m a r i z -

i n g , a n d p r e d i c t i n g t o h e l p c o m p r e h e n d t e x t . R e s u l t s s h o w

t h a t s t u d e n t s n o t o n l y i m p r o v e t h e i r r e a d i n g s c o r e s b u t

t h e i r c o m p r e h e n s i o n o n o t h e r c l a s s r o o m t a s k s a s w e l l

(P a l incsa r , Ransom , & Derbe r , 1988) .

W i t h t h i s e n c o u r a g e m e n t , w e t u r n to e x a m i n i n g h o w

i n f u s i o n c a n c r e a t e a l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t f o s t e r s

g e n e r a l c o g n i t i v e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n . H e r e i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

e x a m p l e d r a w n f r o m a f i f t h - a n d s i x t h - g r a d e c l a s s i n

t h e B o s t o n a r e a . S t u d e n t s l e a r n i n g a b o u t t h e C i v i l W a r

r e c o g n i z e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o n s i d e r a k e y q u e s t i o n

f r o m t w o d i f fe r i n g p o i n t s o f v i e w : S h o u l d t h e S o u t h b e

a l l o w e d t o s e c e d e ? S o t h e t e a c h e r d i v i d e d t h e c l a ss

t o r e p r e s e n t N o r t h a n d S o u t h , a n d s t u d e nt s c o n d u c t e d

r e s e a r c h i n g r o u p s t o p r e p a r e f o r a d e b a t e ( s o c i a l l y d i s -

t r i b u t e d c o g n i t i o n ) . T h e s t u d e n t s f i r s t p r e p a r e d e v i d e n c e

o n t h e i r s i d e o f t h e c a s e o n l y , f a i l in g t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t

t h e o t h e r s i d e ' s c a s e . D u r i n g t h e f i r st p a r t o f t h e d e b a t e ,

e a c h s i d e a r g u e d t h e i r o w n c a s e b u t f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s

u n p r e p a r e d t o r e b u t t h e o t h e r ' s c a s e . A r e f l e c t i v e d i s c u s -

s i o n g u i d e d b y t h e t e a c h e r m a d e i t p l a i n t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s

h a d f a i l e d t o c o n s i d e r a n d a n t i c i p a t e e a c h o t h e r ' s c o n -

c e r n s ( m e t a c o g n i t i o n ) .

T h e t e a c h e r t o o k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o te a c h s o m e g o o d

s t e p s f o r e v a l u a t i n g d i f f e r i n g p o i n t s o f v i e w ( s t r a te g i e s ) .

S t u d e n ts t h e n c o n d u c t e d f u r t h e r r e se a r c h c o n s i d e r i n g t h e

a r g u m e n t s i n a m o r e e v e n h a n d e d m a n n er . S o o n t h e y h a d

O c t o b e r 1 9 9 7 • A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t 1 1 2 9



a m a s s e d s o m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i t w a s h a r d t o k e e p

t r a c k o f i t. T h e t e a c h e r e n c o u r a g e d t h e u s e o f c h a r t p a p e r

t o m a p o u t p o s s i b l e a r g u m e n t s a n d r e s p o n s e s ( p h y s i c a l l y

d i s t r i b u t e d c o g n i t i o n ) . I n t h e n e x t r o u n d o f d e b a t e , b y

a n t i c i p a t i n g e a c h o t h e r ' s c a s e s , t h e s t u d e n t s p u s h e d e a c h

o t h e r ' s t h i n k i n g f u r t h e r a n d e n g a g e d i n d e e p e r , m o r e i n -

t e r e s t in g c o n v e r s a t i o n ( d i s p o s i t i o n s ) . T h e y r e m a r k e d t h a t

a l t h o u g h t h e y o r i g i n a l l y r e s e a r c h e d t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e

c a s e t o c o n s t r u c t a b e t t e r a r g u m e n t , i t a l s o l e d t h e m t o

u n d e r s t a n d w h a t n e e d s t h e i r o p p o n e n t s w e r e t r y i n g t o

m e e t ( m e t a c o g n i t i o n ) . F i n al l y , t h e t e a c h e r g u i d e d s t u d e n t s

t h r o u g h a d i s c u s s i o n o f o t h e r o c c a s i o n s i n w h i c h a t -

t e n d i n g t o b o t h s i d e s o f t h e c a s e c o u l d b e h e l p f u l

( t rans fe r ) .

A s t h i s e x a m p l e s h o w s , i n f u s i o n p r o v i d e s a n o c c a -

s i o n f o r c o g n i t i v e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n p a r t b e c a u s e i t i n -

v i t e s d i s s o n a n c e a n d m e d i a t i o n . T h e s e a r e k e y m e c h a -

n i s m s f o r i n it i a ti n g c o n c e p t u a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e l i t e r a -

t u r e o n c o n c e p t u a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( e . g . , P o s n e r , S t r i k e ,

H e w s o n , & G e r t z o g , 1 9 8 2 / 1 9 9 2 ; S t r i k e & P o s n e r , 1 9 8 5 )

s u g g e s t s t h a t r e o r g a n i z a t i o n i s m o s t l i k e l y w h e n l e a r n e r s

b e c o m e a w a r e o f t h e s t re n g t hs a n d p r o b l e m s o f t h e ir

c u r r e n t b e l i e f s , u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , a n d t h i n k i n g p a t t e r n s ,

(e . g . , C lem ent , 1982; d iS es sa , 1983; Dr ive r , Gu esne , &

T i b e r g h i e n , 1 9 8 5 ; O s b o r n e & F r e y b e r g , 1 9 8 5 ) . E n c o u n -

t e r i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t a d e f a u l t th i n k i n g p a t t e r n i s p r o b l e m -

a t i c c a n i n t r o d u c e d i s s o n a n c e a b o u t t h e p a t t e r n i n t h e

l e a r n e r ' s m i n d . A t t h is p o i n t o f d i s s o n a n c e , l e a r n e r s a r e

r e a d y t o a c c o m m o d a t e d i s c r e p a n t i n f o r m a t i o n b y r e o r -

g a n i z i n g t h e i r t h i n k i n g ( B e r l y n e , 1 9 6 5 ; K u h n , 1 9 7 2 ) .

L e a r n e r s a l s o m u s t u n d e r s t a n d a n y r e p l a c e m e n t p a t t e r n

w e l l e n o u g h t o s e e i t a s p o t e n t i a l l y m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n

t h e p a t t e r n i t r e p l a c e s . M e d i a t i o n c a n p l a y a k e y r o l e h e r e

( F e u e r s t e i n & R a n d , 1 9 7 4 ; V y g o t s k y , 1 9 7 8 ) . L e a r n e r s

b e n e f i t f r o m m o d e l s , e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d g u i d a n c e i n a s o -

c i a l c o n t e x t t o g r o w w i t h i n t h e i r z o n e o f p r e s e n t p o t e n t i a l .

T h e t e a c h e r in t h e e x a m p l e p r e s e n t e d a h e u r i s t ic f o r e x -

p l o r in g o t h e r p o i n t s o f v i e w - - h e l p i n g l e a rn e r s re o r g a -

n i z e t h e i r t h i n k i n g a r o u n d a m o r e p o w e r f u l p a t t e r n .

A l t h o u g h i n f u s i o n i s a p r o m i s i n g a p p r o a c h , t h i s i s

n o t t o i m p l y t h a t i t i s d e c i d e d l y b e t t e r t h a n a s t a n d - a l o n e

p r o g r a m . A s t o a n e m p i r i c a l l y b a se d p r e f e r e n c e , w e k n o w

o f n o d a t a d i r e c tl y c o m p a r i n g t h e t w o a p p r o a c h e s . I n -

d e e d , d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n s o f p r o g r a m s d e s i g n e d t o t e a c h

i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e d i f f i c u lt . W h e t h e r s t a n d - a l o n e o r i n f u s i o n ,

p r o g r a m s t y p i c a l l y h a v e s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s

a n d t a r g e t p o p u l a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , e x p e r i e n c e t e l ls u s t h a t

s t a n d - a l o n e a n d i n f u s i o n p r o g r a m s h a v e t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s -

t i c w e a k s p o t s . S t a n d - a l o n e p r o g r a m s c a n e a s i l y n e g l e c t

t r a n s f e r o f l e a r n in g t o s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o n t e x t s . T h e y a l s o

r e q u i r e m a k i n g s p a c e i n a l r e a d y c r o w d e d s c h o o l s c h e d -

u l e s , s o m e t h i n g m a n y a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a r e l o a t h e t o d o .

I n f u s i o n p r o g r a m s f a c e d i f f e r e n t r i s k s . T h e i n f u s i o n c o m -

p o n e n t c a n g e t l o s t in t h e f o c u s o n s u b j e c t m a t t er , e i th e r

l e f t o u t f o r t h e s a k e o f c o v e r a g e o r n e v e r m a d e e x p l i c it

e n o u g h t o b e n e f i t s t u d e n ts . I s s u e s s u c h a s t h e s e h a v e l e d

s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s t o a r g u e t h a t t h e b e s t a p p r o a c h i s t o

u s e b o t h w h e n p o s s i b l e ( E n n i s , 1 9 8 9 ; S w a r t z & P e r k i n s ,

1989) .

Is T a u g h t I n t e ll i g e n c e R e a l I n t e ll i g e n c e

T h e e v i d e n c e s a y s t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s c a n

h e l p p e o p l e t o h a n d l e i m p o r t a n t k i n d s o f t h i n k i ng b e t t e r

t h r o u g h c o g n i t i v e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n . R e c a l l i n g t h e t h r e e d i -

m e n s i o n s o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s i d e n t i f i e d e a r l i e r , m a g n i t u d e

o f e f f e c t v a r i e s c o n s id e r a b ly , c o m m o n l y r e a c h i n g h a l f a

s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a n d s o m e t i m e s a p p r o a c h i n g a s ta n d a r d

d e v i a t i o n . R e g a r d i n g g e n e r a l i t y , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l i n -

s t a n c e s o f s i g n i f i c a n t t r a n s f e r a c r o s s d i s c i p l i n a r y b o u n d -

a r i e s. A p p r a i s i n g p e r s i s t e n c e c a l l s f o r l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d -

i e s, a n d , n o t s u r p r i s i n g ly , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n h e r e i s m o r e

s p a r s e. I t a p p e a r s t h a t e n h a n c e m e n t s o f t h i n k i n g c a n l a s t

f o r m o n t h s o r y e a r s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e t h a t

t h e y a r e p e r m a n e n t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f r e f r e s h e r

i n t e r v e n t i o n s .

I n s t r u c t i o n c a n h e l p p e o p l e t o t h i n k b e t te r , b u t h a v e

t h e y t h e r e b y b e c o m e m o r e i n t e l l ig e n t ? C h a m p i o n s o f t h e

n e u r a l v i e w o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i d e n t if i e d e a r l ie r w o u l d s a y

n o ( H e r r n s t e i n & M u r r a y , 1 9 9 4 ; J e n s e n , 1 9 8 3 , 1 9 8 9 ) .

T h e y m i g h t a d m i t t h a t p e o p l e c a n l e a r n t o t h i n k b e t t e r

i n s o m e w a y s , b u t s u c h e f f e c t s w o u l d n o t h a v e t h e b r o a d

g e n e r a l i t y o r t h e p e r s i st e n c e o f I Q . T h i s p a t t e r n o f a r g u -

m e n t r e f l e c t s w h a t m i g h t b e c a l l e d a n e s s e n t i a l i s t p o s i t i o n

o n t h e n a t u r e o f i n te l l i g e n c e : I Q i s a n i n d e x o f g e n e r a l

n e u r o l o g i c a l e f f ic i e n c y m o r e t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e a n d t h e

e s s e n c e o f i n t e l li g e n c e . T o a p p r a i s e t h e m e r i t s o f t h e e s -

s e n t i a l i s t p o s i t i o n , l e t u s c o n s i d e r t w o q u e s t i o n s : H o w

g o o d o f a n e s s e n ti a li s t v i e w d o e s g t h e o r y p r o v i d e ? A n d

h o w a p p r o p r i a t e i s a n e s s e n t i a l is t v i e w o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ?

A s t o t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n , g t h e o r y o f f e r s a l e s s t h a n

i d e a l e s s e n c e i n s e v e r a l w a y s ( B r o d y , 1 9 9 2 ; C e c i , 1 9 9 0 ) .

I t is a n o l d a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a g f a c t o r n e e d

n o t i m p l y a s i ng l e m e c h a n i s m o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e

( T h o m s o n , 1 9 1 6 ) . T h e e v i d e n c e l i n k in g g t o b a s i c c o g n i -

t i v e o p e r a t i o n s t h a t s u p p o s e d l y r e f l e c t n e u r a l e f f i c i e n c y

i s e q u i v o c a l , w i t h l o w t o m o d e r a t e c o r r e l a t i o n s a n d m a n y

a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n s t h a t l e a d t o

t h e g f a c t o r a r e m u c h w e a k e r i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e o f I Q s ,

s u g g e s t i n g t h a t g m a y n o t h a v e t h e u n i f o r m m e a n i n g

a c r o s s t h e I Q r a n g e u s u a l l y a s c r i b e d t o i t ( D e t t e r m a n &

D a n i e l , 1 9 8 9 ) . I Q g e n e r a l l y a c c o u n t s f o r o n l y a q u a r t e r

o r l e s s o f t h e v a r i a n c e i n s c h o o l a n d w o r k p e r f o r m a n c e

m e a s u r e s , n o t a h i g h s c o r e f o r a n e s s e n c e . A r g u m e n t s

t h a t a r e b a s e d o n h e r i t a b i l i t y c e r t a i n l y s u g g e s t a b i o l o g i -

c a l b a s is f o r p a r t o f I Q , a c c o u n t i n g f o r 5 0 o r 6 0 o f

t h e v a r i a n c e , b u t t h e r e s t o f t h e v a r i a n c e r e m a i n s , a n d ,

a l s o , h o w m u c h v a r i a n c e h e r e d i t y e x p l a i n s is n o t a n a b s o -

l u t e b u t d e p e n d s o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o l e a r n i n t h e c u l t u r e

( H e r r n s t e i n & M u r r a y , 1 9 9 4 ; S c a r r , 1 9 8 9 ) . W i t h o u t a

c l e a r s t o r y a b o u t w h a t g r e a l l y r e p r e s e n t s , i t i s j u s t a

n u m b e r f o r a tr e n d . E s s e n t i a l i s m i s a r i s k y p o s i t i o n w h e n

o n e d o e s n o t k n o w w h a t t h e e s s e n c e i s.

A s t o t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n - - h o w a p p r o p r i a t e i s a n

e s s en t i al i st v i e w ? - - a n a n a l o g y o f f e r s a c a u t i o n a r y n o te .

S u p p o s e a n e l a b o r a t e f a c t o r a n a ly s i s o f b a s k e t b a l l p l a y -

1 1 3 0 O c t o b e r 1 9 9 7 • A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t



e r s ' p e r f o r m a n c e d i s c l o s e s o n e o v e r a r c h i n g c o m m o n f a c -

t o r t h a t a c c o u n t s f o r t h e l a rg e r p a r t o f t h e v a r i a n c e . I t

t u r n s o u t t o b e h e i g h t - - H i Q s o t o s p e ak . P l a y e r s w i t h

a g r e a t e r H i Q t e n d t o p l a y b e tt e r. A p e r s o n o f e s s e n t i a l i s t

l e a n i n g s m i g h t c o n c l u d e t h a t b a s k e t b a ll a b i l i t y is m o s t

f u n d a m e n t a l l y a m a t t e r o f H i Q , w i t h s o m e o t h e r p e ri p h -

e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a c k n o w l e d g e d . B u t a m o r e e c l e ct i c

v i e w c o u l d - b e a d o p t e d . B a s k e t b a l l p l a y i n g is a c o m p l e x

f u n c t i o n c a l l i n g f o r a ll s o rt s o f h u m a n r e s o u r c e s . T o m a p

t h e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s i n t r o d u c e d e a r l i e r o n t o b a s k e t b a l l ,

g o o d b a s k e t b a l l a b i l i t y i n v o l v e s i n i t i a l e n d o w m e n t

( h e i g h t a n d l i k e f a c to r s ) , t h e l e g a c y o f e x p e r i e n c e ( f i n e -

h o n e d m o t o r s k il ls , ra p i d r e c o g n i t i o n o f h a z a r d s a n d o p -

p o r t u n i t i e s , e t c . ) , a n d r e f le c t i v e r e s o u r c e s ( s t r a t e g i c p l a n -

n i n g , r e fl e c ti v e p r ac t i ce , d e l i b e r a te l y p u m p i n g u p o n e ' s

e n e r g y a n d a t ti t u d e , e t c .) . W h e r e a s s o m e a t t r i b u t e s m i g h t

b e m o r e i n f l u e n t i a l t h a n o t h e rs , a n y m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i n g

r e s o u r c e w o u l d c o u n t a s p a r t o f t h e a b i l it y .

I n s u m m a r y , a n e s s e n t i a li s t v i e w o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a s

I Q s e e m s u n w a r r a n t e d : I t i s i n h e r e n t l y f l a w e d a n d o n l y

p a r t o f t h e s t o r y b e h i n d i n t e l l ig e n t b e h a v i o r i n t h e r e a l

w o r l d . I t a p p e a r s a t le a s t a s r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s e rt a n e c l e c -

t i c v i e w o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a s i n v o l v i n g n e u r a l e f f i c i e n c ie s

o f s o m e s o rt , t he l e g a c y o f e x p e r i e n c e i n a d o m a i n , a n d

i n f o r m e d r e fl e c ti v e m a n a g e m e n t o f o n e ' s t h i n k i n g .

G a u g e d b y a n e c l ec t i c v i e w o f i n t e ll i g e n c e , i n t e l l i g e n c e

c a n b e t a u g h t t o a t l e a s t a l i m i t e d e x t e n t , w i t h m o r e

r e s e a r c h r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e h o w f a r i t i s p o s s i b l e t o

g o . I n s t r u c t i o n c a n h e l p p e o p l e t o e n h a n c e r e f l e c t iv e i n t e l-

l i g e n c e w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t g e n e r a l i t y a n d p e r s i s t e n c e . T h e

k e y t o e f f e c t i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n s a p p e a r s t o b e c o g n i t i v e r e o r -

g a n i z a t i o n t h a t is a t t e n t iv e to s u c h m a t t e r s a s t h i n k i n g

s t ra t e g ie s , m e t a c o g n i t i o n , d i s p o s i t io n s , d i s t r i b u t e d c o g n i -

t i o n , a n d t r a n s f e r .

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Documents

Perkins-Grotzer, Teaching Intelligence