Personality in the Elderly, Does It Change as They Age - Virginia Larkin

7/27/2019 Personality in the Elderly, Does It Change as They Age - Virginia Larkin

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Running Head: AGING AND PERSONALITY CHANGES

Personality in the Elderly: Does It Change As They Age?

A Paper Presented to Carolyn R. Fallahi, Ph. D.

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Psychology 430

Virginia P. Larkin

Central Connecticut State University


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Abstract

Personality has been categorized and studied from as long ago as the time of the Greek physician

Hippocrates to the days of modern psychologists. Contemporary psychologists focus on trait

theory which categorizes personality into traits or facets and measures individuals along the lines

of those characteristics. This review looks at personality in the elderly and questions whether it

remains stable in older ages or does it change. It includes reviews of studies that show that

personality remains stable after the age of 30, personality changes in interaction with

environmental situations, and the idea that personality is both stable and changes. This review

focuses on studies using the Five Factor Method (FFM) which measures personality on the basis

of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness (O), Agreeableness (A), and Conscientiousness

(C). From the review of the literature, this reviewer concludes that personality in adulthood is

both stable and subject to change.


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Personality in the Elderly: Does It Change As They Age?

How often have you heard,He is just a grumpy old man, orShe has become so cantankerous

in her old age? Do people have personality changes as they grow older or are they simply

grouchy old people who, at earlier ages, were grouchy young ones?

A review of the literature has found different opinions, with many psychologists believing

personality does not change and remains constant over time (Block as cited in Gleitman, 1986)

and (Block as cited in Darley, Glucksberg, & Kinchla, 1991) while others believe that

personality in adulthood and later life is characterized by stability AND change (Ryff, Kwan

and Singer, 2001 p. 480). Some studies have looked at the question of consistency in personality

across the life span of study participants (Block, 1971, 1981 as cited in Darley, Glucksberg &

Kinchla, 1991). One of the longitudinal studies did show consistency in personality for people

studied first in junior high and at later intervals into their 40s. Certain personality

characteristics were found to be relatively stable in males, as were some characteristics in

females

Other studies have shown that personality does change, with older adults, indicating modest

stability and moderate change (Field, 1991, in Maiden, Peterson, Caya, and Hayslip, Jr., 2003).

Personality, broadly defined, refers to the study of individual differences in diverse human

characteristics, such as traits, goals and motives, emotion and moods, self-evaluative processes,

coping strategies, and well-being according to Ryff, Kwan and Singer, (2001) in Burrin and

Schaie (p.477),

Many psychologists discuss personality in terms of trait theory. As far back as the ancient

Greek physician Hippocrates, it was believed people could be described in terms of categories.


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Hippocrates categories were melancholic (depressive), choleric (touchy and irritable), sanguine

(cheerful and optimistic), and phlegmatic (calm, but tending to listlessness).

Later personality psychologists also described personality in terms of observable traits and

developed tests or inventories to rate people. Raymond Cattrell created the Sixteen Personality

Factor Questionnaire (Cattrell & Kline, 1937). Gordon Allport designed the test called the Study

of Values (Allport, Vernon & Lindsey, 1960). Two other tests were The Minnesota Multiphasic

Personality Inventory (Hathaway & McKinley, 1970), and Eysencks Two Personality Types and

Their Asociated Traits (1975). The test that seems to be very prominent in the literature is the

Five Factor Method (NEO-PI) (Costa & McCrae, 1978, 1985). This review is mainly focused on

the last trait theory inventory, and discusses studies that mostly used the FFM to measure

personality and the question of stability or change.

Levy, Slade, Kunkel, and Kasls study, while not directly discussing the question of

personality stability, has a focus on aging. The study looked at whether older people who have a

positive self-perception of aging, lived longer than those with less positive self-perceptions. In

an introduction to the study, the authors discussed the effect of stereotype threat, but they

discount the idea that self-stereotypes of aging appear to not fit into the usual classification of

stereotype threat. Their reasoning for this idea that older people do not subscribe to the

stereotype threat of aging is that they internalize their self-stereotypes of aging rather than having

them operate within those domains that might be a problem to them. The study goes on to

present its two hypotheses: Do those with more positive aging self-perceptions live longer and,

does will to live act as a mediator? The study examined data from the Ohio Longitudinal Study

of Aging and Retirement (OLSAR) and matched it with data from the National Death Index


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(NDI) to look at the survival rates over a 22.6 year period of those participants from the OLSAR

study, which was conducted in 1975.

For the first hypothesis, the authors found that the median survival of those who were

considered to be in the positive perception of aging group was 7.6 years longer than the median

survival of those in the negative self-perception aging group. For the second hypothesis, it was

found that the will to live partially mediated the relationship between positive self-perceptions

of aging and survival (Levy, Slade, Kunkel, and Kasl, 2002, p.267). The authors also

contrasted the results of this study, which had found an improvement in life span of 7.6 years

was greater than that found in studies of low blood pressure and low cholesterol, each of which

had shown a longer life span of 4 years or more. In closing, the authors proposed that a

comprehensive remedy requires that the denigrating views and actions directed at elderly targets

undergo delegitimization by the same society that has been generating them (Levy, Slade,

Kunkel, and Kasl, 2002, p.268).

In the Maiden, Peterson, Caya, and Hayslip, Jr. longitudinal study of 74 elderly women, they

looked at the question of personality stability in the very old. The mean age for this study was

80. This study begins with an introduction that current research has found personality traits are

stable and change very little after age 30 (Costa & McCrae, 1997; McCrae, 2002, as cited in

Caprara, G. V., Caprara, M., Steca, 2003). McCrae and Costa also proposed an explanation

based on biology for personality stability (McCrae & Costa, 1997, and McCrae et al, 1996).

They went on to posit a genetic basis for the determination of personality that it is universal, and

that personality unfolds across the life span according to a predetermined plan (p.32). It is

affected neither by environmental change nor by culture.


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They further say that people change their environment to suit their personality. Additionally,

Conley, 1985 as cited in Maiden, Peterson, Caya and Hayslip, Jr., (2003) did a meta-analysis of

many prior studies and found that personality traits did remain stable but additional correlational

studies showed that personality organization may erode over time providing for the possibility

that personality can change in adulthood. The authors two major hypotheses were that

participants would evidence stability on the personality traits of Neuroticism, Extroversion, and

Openness to Experience over time. For their second hypothesis they expected that changes in

such traits would be associated with negative life events experienced by the participants as they

become very old. Their study looked at the changes in 78 women who were mean age 74 in

1987 and mean age 80, 6-7 years later. Findings from the study supported their hypotheses as

they found moderate stability in the three traits while finding moderate change in those same

traits. In particular, more Neuroticism and less Extroversion were associated with negative

events in later life.

G. V. Caprara, M. Caprara, and Stecas introduction begins by stating that personality traits

are stable in adults and they reach a plateau around age 30 (Costa & McCrae, 1997; McCrae,

2002, as cited in G.V. Caprara, M. Caprara, & Steca, 2003). They go on to say that change is

more the rule than the exception in later years (Helson, Jones & Kwan, 2002 as cited in G.V.

Caprara, M. Caprara, & Steca, 2003, p.131). Additionally, they reported that personality has a

reciprocal interaction with the environment, causing both stability and change (Caprara

&Cervone, 2000). The article reported the findings of three studies that incorporated the Big

Five personality traits and self-efficiency beliefs into broad domains of functioning. In the first

study, the Five Factor Theory, which explains coherence in cognition, affect, and action in

terms of five basic tendencies that some scholars consider the genotypes of personality (McCrae


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& Costa, 1996, 1999, as cited in G.V. Caprara, M. Caprara, & Steca, 2003, p.133). There is also

an influential role of self-efficacy beliefs in various domains of functioning. The study reported

significant gender and age differences for four of the FFM traits. For Friendliness and Openness,

there is a decline from the younger to the older respondents. The traits of Energy (Extroversion),

Friendliness (Agreeableness) and Openness to Experience were down in older participants,

Conscientiousness remained stable, and Emotional Stability (Neuroticism) was reduced for

women, only showing that Personality is both stable and subject to change over time. The

discussion reported that there is both change and stability in personality over the course of life

but they noted that aging does not always imply a decline, and that it may occasionally imply an

improvement (p.143).

Costa and McCraes six-year longitudinal study focused on using the Five Factor Model

(FFM) of personality traits as a taxonomy of personality (Digman & Inouye, 1986; Goldberg,

1981; McCrae, Costa & Busch, 1986). The FFM consists of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E),

Openness to Experience (O), Agreeableness (A), and Conscientiousness (C). In studying the

related traits of the FFM, the authors posited that it would be a systematic approach to determine

whether personality was stable or changed over time. The authors had previously concluded

that mean levels of most personality traits neither increase nor decrease substantially in

adulthood and that individuals retain their relative standing over periods as long as 40 years

(Costa & McCrae, 1986, p.853). The authors study also looked to test the reliability of self-

reports as a means of evaluating personality traits by using spouse ratings to verify the validity of

self-reports. Based on their analysis, they concluded that despite the normal aging events of

disease, divorce, unemployment, and loss of a loved one, personality remains stable over a

lifetime. An additional finding was that self-reports are accurate as compared to spouse ratings


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when evaluating personality. They made the point that this was a good thing since many studies

use self-reports for their information.

In the study by Kling, Ryff, Love, and Essex, the authors looked at the influence of

personality on adjustment to a life transition of moving to a new community. The study

measured personality traits in study participants using the Five Factor Model (FFM) of

personality (Costa McCrae, 1989; Goldberg, 1992; John, 1990). The traits measured were

Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness to Experience (O), Agreeableness (A), and

Conscientiousness (C). The study focused on the effects of the traits (N) and (O) which can

predict an increase in depressive symptoms while (E) and (O) predicted increases in Self-Esteem

in relation to the participants adjustment to the stress of moving. Essentially, the report found

that personality traits were stable, and that certain traits could be used to predict reaction to

stress. The study also looked at possible mediators in the study, investigating whether particular

facets of personality would influence move adjustment over time. This longitudinal study

interviewed participants before the move and several times after the move. While not focusing

specifically in the consistency of personality over time, this study provides important

information as to how personality affects the adjustment process.

In the last review, Pervin seems to moderate the trait theorists view of the description of

personality through the use of the Five Factor Method (NEO-PI). According to Pervin, FFM

theory is actually a dynamic process describing personality as the dynamic psychological

organization that coordinates experience and action (McCabe & Costa, 1999 as cited in Pervin,

2001, p.173). He further goes on to discuss his views of the concept of a dynamic systems

approach to personality by referencing a number of authors who have similar views including

Lewin (1935) who viewed the person as a complex energy system that is in constant interaction


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with the environment. Other authors have written about the interplay of the environment with

the personality with some viewing it as not affected by changes in the environment and even

arguing that people change the environment to suit their personality (McCrae & Costa, 1997, and

McCrae et a., 1996) as cited in Maiden, Peterson, Caya, and Hayslip, Jr., 2003). Pervin

discussed three general systems principles which he believes are important. The first,

mutidetermination, involves the interplay of multiple determinants and Pervin suggests that it

requires systematic investigation of the interplay of multiple motives or goals as the person

confronts various situations. The second principle. equipotentiality, suggests that different

outcomes are possible coming from the same starting point, due to different situations. The third

concept, equifinality, means that the same action can be expressive of different motives in the

person at different times or in the actions of different people in the same situation. Pervins

further review of the concept of levels does not have implications for the discussions here.

While not discounting the trait theorists who focus on the stability of personality, Pervisns

views have implications for looking at whether that stability should be explored as part of a more

dynamic systems approach to personality.

In closing, an editorial by Abrams seems to best describe the status of the question of

Personality in the Elderly: Does it Change As They Age? (Abrams, R. C., 1991). In Abrams

words, Although the aging personality has been extensively discussed (Bee, 1986; Schaie,

1983; Gynther, 1979), there has been no closure on the question of whether or in what ways

people change over time in their dealings with the world (p.1). In his opinion there is even

uncertainty how best to evaluate personality in the elderly. While it is possible to say there is

stability in personality throughout lifetime (the grouchy old person was probably a grouchy

young person), it is likely that there can also be evidence of change, particularly that brought on


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by significant events in older adults lives such as illness, death of loved ones, and economic

distress.

References

Abrams, R. C., (1991). The aging personality. [Editorial. Electronic version.] International

Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 6:1-3.

Caprara, G. V., Caprara, M., & Steca, P., (2003). Personalitys correlates of adult development

and aging. [Electronic version.]European Psychologist, 8, 131-147.

Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R.R., (1988). Personality in adulthood: a six-year longitudinal study

of self-reports and spouse ratings on the NEO personality inventory. [Electronic version.]

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 853-863.

Darley, J. M., Glucksberg, S., Kinchla, R. A., (1991). Psychology (5th ed.). (pp. 464-467).

Englewood, NJ: Prentice Hall

Gleitman, H., (1986). Psychology (2nd ed.). (p. 623). New York: W. W. Norton & Company

Kling, K. C., Ryff, C. D., Love, G., & Essex, M., (2003). Exploring the influence of personality

in depressive symptoms and self-esteem across a significant life transition. [Electronic

version.]Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 922-932.

Levy, B. R., Slade, H.D., Kunkel, S.R., & Kasl, S. V. (2002). Longevity increased by positive

self-perceptions of aging. [Electronic version.] Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 83, 261-270.

Maiden, R. J., Peterson, S. A., Caya, M., & Hayslip, Jr., B., (2003). Personality Change in the

Old-Old: A longitudinal study. [Electronic version.] Journal of Adult Development, 10,

(1).


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Pervin, L., (2001). A dynamic systems approach to personality. [Electronic version .] European

Psychologist. 6 (3), 172-176.

Ryff, C. D., Kwan, M. L., & Singer, B. H.(2001). Personality and aging, flourishing agendas and

future challenges. In J. F.Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.),Handbook of the Psychology of

Aging(5th ed.). (pp. 477-499). San Diego: Academic Press.

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Personality in the Elderly, Does It Change as They Age - Virginia Larkin