Personality

Personality Defined

Individual’s characteristic manner of interacting with the world, and other people in particular

Person’s unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, behaviors, that persist over time and across situations

Trait Theories

TRAIT: relatively stable disposition to behave a certain way

Characteristics or factors on which individuals differ

State vs. Trait Traits triggered by environmental cues which

elicit behavior Traits are dimensional, not categorical

Trait Theories

• Trait theories: specify a manageable set of distinct personality dimensions that summarize fundamental differences between people

• Focus on describing personality

Hippocrates’ Humors

1. Black Bile: sad (melancholic) personality

2. Yellow Bile: excitable (choleric) personality

3. Phlegm: slow, sluggish (phlegmatic) personality

4. Blood: relaxed, playful (sanguine) personality

Constitutional Theory

• William Sheldon: body type related to personality type

1. Ectomorphic: thin and frail

2. Mesomorphic: strong and muscular

3. Endomorphic: soft and round

Constitutional Theory

• 3 Personality Types

1. Cerebrotonic: quiet, scholarly, timid

2. Somatotonic: bold and adventurous

3. Visceratonic: cheerful, calm, relaxed

Constitutional Theory

• Ectomorphic Cerebrotonic• Mesomorphic Somatotonic• Endomorphic Viscerotonic

Raymond Cattell (1950)

Chemist Molecules to atoms Traits to personality 18,000 adjectives reduced to 170 Self report surveys & factor analysis Identified 16 central traits

Cattell’s 16 Central Traits

1. Sociable – Unsociable

2. Intelligent – Unintelligent

3. Emotionally stable – Unstable

4. Dominant – Submissive

5. Cheerful – Brooding

6. Conscientious – Undependable

7. Bold – Timid

8. Sensitive - Insensitive

9. Suspicious – Trusting

10. Imaginative – Practical

11. Shrewd – Naïve

12. Guilt proclivity – Guilt rejection

13. Radicalism – Conservatism

14. Self-sufficiency – Group adherence

15. Disciplined – Uncontrolled

16. Tense - Relaxed

Hans Eysenck (1952)

2 basic personality traits

1. Introversion – Extroversion• Tendency to avoid or seek excitement• Extroverts = sociable, adventurous• Introverts = unsociable, introspective

2. Neuroticism – Stability• Emotional stability, tendency to be upset

Hans Eysenck (1952)

3. Psychoticism – Nonpsychoticism• Proclivity for aggression, lack of concern for

others vs. cooperative, empathetic

The Big Five

1. Neuroticism – Stability

2. Extroversion – Introversion

3. Openness to experience – Non-openness

4. Agreeableness – Antagonism

5. Conscientiousness - Undirectedness

1. Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)

• High Scorers: unexcitable, unemotional, autonomous, individualistic

• Low Scorers: insecure, anxious, touchy, emotional, anxious

2. Extroversion

• High scorers: enthusiastic, gregarious, playful, happy-go-lucky, energetic, talkative, confident, optimistic

• Low scorers: unsociable, nonverbal, detached, unadventurous, moody

3. Openness

High scorers: introspective, deep, insightful, intelligent, creative, curious

Low scorers: shallow, unimaginative, unobservant, ignorant

4. Agreeableness

High scorers: accomodating, genial, understanding, leniant, courteous, flexible, affectionate

Low scorers: antagonistic, unsympathetic, demanding, irritable, distrustful, stubborn

5. Conscientiousness

High scorers: organized, efficient, reliable, persistent, cautious, punctual

Low scorers: disorganized, careless, inconsistent, forgetful, aimless, lazy, impractical

Stability of traits

Stable throughout adulthood Especially after age 30 r’s: .50 - .70 over 30-40 yrs Personality may change somewhat in

response to life changes (career, marital status, critical events)

Predictive value

Reliability vs. Validity Do personality tests predict actual behavior? YES Extroverts: less startled by loud noise,

live/work with more people, sexually open minded

Conscientiousness: better job performance, marital fidelity

Predictive value

Openness: job changes

Situationists

People behave in a certain way not because of their traits, but because of the situations we find ourselves in

Interactionism: compromise position– Acknowledges both traits and situations

Physiological Theory of Extraversion

• Eysenck – arousability hypothesis• Extroverts: brains less easily aroused,

sensation seeking• Introverts: hypersensitive to arousal,

sensation avoidant• Learning in presence of loud noise, startle

response, salivation response, tolerance for shock

Physiological impact of genetics

• Relationship between Neuroticism and gene related to increased serotonin

• Novelty seeking (impulsivity, excitability) and gene related to decreased dopamine

Heritability of Traits

Nature vs. Nurture Heritability estimate for monozygotic twins

= .50 (50% of variability) Dyzygotic twins no more similar than

unrelated individuals University of Minnesota studies

Heritability of Traits

Traditionalism – measure of conservative values (.60)

Opposition to the death penalty (.50) Genetic predispositions influence attitudes

individual attends to and adopts

Environmental Influences

Not unimportant, but less important than assumed 2 kids raised in same environment will experience

that environment very differently Scarr (1981) – compared non-twin adopted kids with

(a) bio sibs and (b) adoptive sibs Bio siblings more similar than adopted No more similar to adoptive sibs than strangers

Personality as mental processes

1 Psychodynamic2 Social cognitive3 Humanistic

Psychodynamic Theories

Emphasize the interplay of mental forcesa people are often unconscious of their

motivesb processes called defense mechanisms work

to keep unacceptable drives/urges out of consciousness

Personality differences lie in unconscious motives & how they are ultimately manifested

Psychodynamic Theories

Freud - to understand patient’s problems/personality, must learn about content of unconscious

Conscious thought a poor reflection of true wants, needs, desires

unconscious “leaks” (Freudian slips, dreams, free associations)

Psychodynamic Theories

Drives equivalent to physical forms of energy build up, must be released to function in society, must learn to direct

sexual/aggressive drives in acceptable ways Defense mechanisms serve to reduce

anxiety by keeping unacceptable drives out of consciousness

Defense mechanisms

Repression: anxiety-produc9ing thoughts pushed and kept out of consciousness

“I don’t remember much about my childhood” repression dams up mental energy “leaks” are dealt with via other defense

mechanisms

Defense mechanisms

Displacement: unconscious wish/drive that would be unacceptable to conscious mind is redirected toward acceptable alternative

breast feeding --> cigarette smoking, eating Sublimation: channeling one’s energies

towards behaviors valued by society E.g., corporate killers, surgeons

Defense mechanisms

Reaction formation: turning a frightening wish into its safer opposite

Norman Bates - Hate Mom vs. Love Mom Homophobia “The lady doth protest too much”

Defense mechanisms

Projection: person consciously experiences an unconscious drive or wish as though it were someone else’s

Holden Caulfield - Catcher in the Rye Rationalization: use of conscious reasoning

to explain away anxiety-provoking thoughts/feelings

“I only hit you because I love you”

Neo-Freudians

Karen Horney - focused on security as inborn need– parents influence kid’s personality via ways in

which they succeed/fail at alleviating kid’s anxiety– 3 unhappy personality styles1 Moving away from people (Avoiding others)2 Moving towards people (Giving in to others)3 Moving against people (Dominating others)

Neo-Freudians

Alfred Adler: drive for competence, striving for significance, sense of achievement

we all begin with sense of inferiority (helpless, dependent)

Inferiority complex: act inadequate, dependent

Superiority complex: better than others, overcompensation

Social-Cognitive theories

Personality has a lot to do with our own perceptions of ourselves and our abilities

Social learning theory learned beliefs and habits become ingrained

and automatic (unconscious) learned beliefs/habits in thinking increase or

decrease ability to take control of own life

Julian Rotter - Locus of Control

Locus of control: beliefs about whether outcomes are under internal vs. external control

Internal: belief that one controls one’s own fate– takes credit for successes– responsibility for failures

Julian Rotter - Locus of Control

External: belief that one’s fate is governed by luck, chance, or forces beyond one’s control

Internal generally better than external preventive health care measures, resist

group pressures in social situations (jury), prefer games of skill over chance

promotes hard work, perseverance, success

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Personality is behavior, and behavior is dependant on our expectancies

expectancies: what a person thinks will result from behaving in a certain way under certain circumstances

self-efficacy - expectation that one will be successful in his/her efforts

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Reciprocal determinism: we act as a stimulus on the social environment and the environment, in turn, acts on us

attractive, socially adept child is well received and valued by peers, which in turn increases self-esteem and self-efficacy, which makes him more well liked

reverse also true

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Self efficacy vs. locus of control Self efficacy - person’s sense of own ability Locus of control - subjective sense of

whether or not that ability will produce rewards

Child-rearing that emphasizes abilities/successes lead to future success

Humanistic theories

Any personality theory that asserts the fundamental goodness of people and their striving toward higher levels of functioning

Carl Rogers self-actualizing tendency: drive of all

humans to fulfill their potential fully functioning person: congruence between

actual and ideal self

Humanistic theories

Unconditional vs. Conditional positive regard the individual’s perception/experience is the

only one that really matters “I am not being my real self” “I don’t want people to know the real me” Natural tendency for self-actualization

stunted by demands and judgments the world places on us

Maslow’s Hierarchy

Self-actualization needs (self expression, creativity, connectedness with the “broader universe”)

Esteem needs Belongingness and love needs Safety needs Physiological needs

Personality as adaptation

Personality in terms of function, ruvival value Diversification of investment - reduces

potential for dramatic loss, maintains likelihood of long term gains

Alternative niches

Sibling contrasts

Parents and individuals emphasize sibling differences

sibling contrast: if sibs seen as having different abiliities, needs, etc, less likely to compete, more likely to be valued for uniqueness

split parent identification: reduces competition for parental investment

Birth Order

Earlier born are bigger, stronger, wiser, more competent

First borns tend to adopt parental roles and values

respect for authority and conservative attitudes

Later born, higher on Openness factor

Sex Differences

Nature vs. Nurture Agreeableness - Antagonism (females more

concerned about establishing/maintaining relationships)

Women higher on Conscientiousness and Neuroticism

Men tend to be higher on sensation seeking (decreases with age)

Cummulative Material for Final Exam

PSYCO 106

Correlation coefficients

What are they? How to interpret them? Direction & magnitude correlation vs. causation

Classical & Operant Conditioning

Terms (e.g., reinforcement, punishment, conditioned & unconditioned stimulus, extinction)

Process Reinforcement schedules (e.g., fixed ratio) Little Alberta experiment (Watson)

Erik Erickson stages of social development

What are they? What are the key conflicts at each stage?

Stress & Coping

Definition and types subjective nature of stress frustration-aggression hypothesis compliance with medical recommendations Constructive coping vs. defense mechanisms Selye’s G.A.S.

Social development

Gender differences Kohlberg’s moral development parenting styles attachment styles Piaget Vygotsky

Memory

3 primary components (function and characteristics)