Personality Testing

Definitions: J.P. Guilford (1959)An individuals personality, then, is his unique pattern of traits.

A trait is any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from others.

Definitions: Mackinnon (1959)Personality refers to factors inside people that explain their behavior

The sum total of typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that makes a person unique.

Definitions: DSM-IV-TR (2000)Are enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal context.

Definitions: R.B. Cattell (1950)The personality of an individual is that which enables us to predict what he will do in a given situation

3 Facts to Consider When Defining PersonalityIndividuals are unique

Individuals behave differently in different situations

Although individuals are unique and behave inconsistently across situations, there is considerable commonality in human behavior

HistoryWW-I: saw the first real organized assessment of personality- seeing if new recruits could make adjustment to the military.Just focused on one facet of personalityVery specific (e.g., ability to follow orders, submission to authority, degree of comfort when socializing with others)

Over the next 2 decades multiscaled test emerged that examined assertiveness, anxiety, impulsiveness

History1930s and 1940sAllport and Murray began writing about personality and theories of personality

Then came two camps:Objective empirically derived tests Projectiveproduced items and interpretations based on the theory of personality. This method was more unstructured and less defined (e.g., TAT)

HistoryEmpirically based tests used statistics and a criterion to develop test itemsItem correlationsFactor analytic approachCriterion-referenced approachThese two branched from empirically based tests of the early part of the century

TodayNew tests have emerged but most tend to be variants of the original themes and theories of personalityMost excepted to use a theory and to test out items on a criterion as well as using statistics

Personality as a construct may include:Emotional responsesSocial behaviorEmotional thoughts and behaviourMotivationsValuesInterests

Methods of Measuring Personality:Paper & pencil tests: questionnaires, inventoriesSituational exercisesField or natural observationsProjective measures

Value of Personality QuestionnairesValue to the individual (face validity)

Self-insight

Points of discussion

Norms provide comparison info

Value of Personality QuestionnairesValue to research (construct validity)Study relationships of personality w/ other variablesStudy changes over time

Value for Counseling - marital therapy - university counseling centers

Value for personnel management ScreeningPrediction of successPlacement & counseling

Disadvantage of Personality TestsSocial DesirabilityFaking GoodFaking BadRandom Responding

Two Main Personality Theories

1. Trait theory: people differ based on stable attributes (called traits)characteristics lie on a continuume.g., the Big Five

2. Type theory: people can be sorted into categories (either one type or the other)

There are many different personality inventories that measure traits or types

The Big Five OCEAN

Openness to ExperienceConscientiousnessExtraversionAgreeablenessNeuroticism

Personality Tests Using TraitsNEO Personality Inventory Revised (NEO PI-R, 1992)

- Unaware of the Big Five, Costa & McCrae built the NEO Inventory in 1978Assessed Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to ExperienceAdded Agreeableness and ConscientiousnessItems are behavioral statements

The NEO PI-R (cont.)Examples of Items:Neuroticism - Frightening thoughts sometimes come into my head.Extroversion - I dont get much pleasure from chatting with people.Openness - I have a very active imaginationAgreeableness - I believe that most people will take advantage of you if you let them.Conscientiousness - I pay my promptly and in full.

The NEO PI-R (cont.)Example Neuroticism facet: Anxiety

I am not a worrier. I am easily frightened.I rarely feel fearful or anxious. I often feel tense and jittery.I am seldom apprehensive about the future. I often worry about things that might go wrong.I have fewer fears than most people. Frightening thoughts sometimes come into my head.

Personality Tests Using TraitsNEO Personality Inventory Revised (NEO PI-R, 1992)5 traits x 6 facets each x 8 items each = 240 totalItems are all very face valid - anchored by SD to SANo Validity ScalesRaw scores for the domain converted to T scoresNorms provided for adults (21 and up) & college age individuals (17 - 20)Norms come from 500 men and 500 women (U.S)

List of Domain and Facet ScoresNeuroticismExtraversionOpennessAnxietyWarmthFantasyAngry HostilityGregariousnessAestheticsDepressionAssertivenessFeelingsSelf-ConsciousnessActivityActionsImpulsivenessExcitement-SeekingIdeasVulnerabilityPositive EmotionsValues

AgreeablenessConscientiousnessTrustCompetenceStraightforwardnessOrderAltruismDutifulnessComplianceAchievement StrivingModestySelf-DisciplineTender-MindednessDeliberation

The NEO PI-R (cont.)Other test characteristics:criterion validity: conscientiousnessconstruct validity (e.g., openness to exp.)practical uses?relies on honesty of examineereliability of domain scales excellent (highest is .92 for N, lowest is .86 for A)reliability of facet scales acceptable (highest is .80 for ideas facet of O, lowest is .58 for Actions facet of O)

Personality Tests Using TraitsCalifornia Psychological Inventory (CPI)

Gough (1957)sane persons MMPIrevised in 1987based on 20 conceptsto predict behavior in social/interpersonal situations13 special purpose scales (e.g., leadership, managerial potential)

California Psychological InventoryCPI - one of the most popular personality inventory

Measures: various facets of normal personality; helps to make predictions about behaviours

Goughs theory (3 assumptions):Important characteristics in all societies and culturesUnderstandable and useful for both sidesValid predictors of future behavior in similar social contexts

CPI462 true-false items covers 20 scales:Dominance, Social Presence, Sociability, Self-Acceptance, Self-Control, Responsibility, Well-Being, Achievement vs. Conformity, Achievement vs. Independence, Psychological Mindedness, Flexibility, Capacity for Status, Empathy, Tolerance, Femininity vs. Masculinity, Independence, Good Impression, Socialization,Communality (p.380)

3 scales provide measures of test-taking attitudes

CPI (cont.)test construction: empirical approach (13 scales), internal consistency (4), combo of both (3)either high or low scoresadministration: 1 hrscores: count the true responsesprofilesextensive norms: 6000 gender specific normsconverts raw scores to T scoresCPI had factor loading on 4 of 5 - Big 5 Factors (extroversion, openness, neuroticism, conscientiousness) - not agreeableness

CPI (cont.)interpretation of profiles: (p.383)

1. profile validity2. height of scales3. high and low scores4. analyze patterns (examples)

CPI (cont.)Other test characteristicsConstruct validity: 20 scales are not independentPredictive validity: best predicts academic underachievement potential delinquencyJob performance in a number of careersPerformance in school

CPIAdvantages:1. Looks at interpersonal relating well 2. Predicts underachieving, potential delinquency, job performance 3. Has good norming sample

16 Personality Factor (16PF)Raymond Cattell developed the Cattel Sixteen Personality Factor Test (1949)Revised 4 times (1956, 1962, 1968, 1993)Survey all words in the the English language that described personal characteristics (approx. 4000)Categorized the words into 45 groups and approx. 15 factorsDesigned to measure more personality traits and conflicts than psychopathology185 items across 16 scales 3 Point Likert Scale

16PFSuggests Personality is made up of 16 independent traits - Warmth, Reasoning, Emotional Stability, Dominance, Liveliness, Rule-Consciousness, Social Boldness, Sensitivity, Vigilance, Abstractedness, Privateness, Apprehension, Openness to Change, Self-Reliance, Perfectionism, Tension (p. 389)

Each item is scored a between 0,1, or 2 depending if the item is scored correctlyRaw score are changed to standard scores know as sten (out of 10). Standard scores are calculated in reference to the norm group.

Psychometrics of 16PFReliability: test-retest (.80 x2wk; .70 x3wk)Internal consistency reliability .74Only sporadic studies found reliability below .70Most validity studies have validity coefficients above .70

16PFSupports: 1. Less time to give than MMPI-22. Has 5 global factors than correspond to the BIG FIVE3. Reliability and Validity

Criticisms: 1. Overeducated sample 2. New version more complicated to score 3. Converts raw scores to stens- hard for people to understand

16PF ApplicationsResearch and Clinical SettingsVocational PsychologyPersonnel selection and placementWith adults or adolescents (16-year-olds) and 5th grade reading level

Type Theories of PersonalityType A - Coronary-prone behavior pattern: aggressive, need to achieve more and more, workaholic, hidden lack of self-esteem (always need to prove self), always hurried, hostileType B easygoing, noncompetitive, relaxedPeople fall on a continuum somewhere between the two

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorMyers-Briggs: based on Jungian theory of personality

Classifies individuals along 4 theoretically independent dimensions.

MBTI (cont.)

1. Introversion / Extroversion(E-I) : How is your general attitude toward the world? 2. Sensing / Intuition (S-N) : How do you acquire information?

3. Thinking / Feeling (T-F) : How is information processed? 4. Judging / Perceiving (J-P): How do you make decisions?

MBTI ScalesExtroversion-Introversion Scale

E: Oriented primarily toward the outer world; focus on people and objects

I: Oriented primarily toward the inner world; focus on concepts and ideas

Sensing-Intuition Scale

S: Individual reports observable facts through one or more of the five senses

N: Reports meanings, relationships and/or possibilities that have been worked out beyond the reach of the conscious mind

MBTI ScalesThinking-Feeling Scale

T: Judgment is impersonally based on logical consequencesF: Judgment is primarily based on personal or social values

Perception-Judging Scale

P: Preference for using a perceptive process for dealing with the outer world

J: Preference for using a judgment process for dealing with the outer world

MBTI PsychometricsTest-retest intervals range from: 1. Introversion / Extroversion(E-I) : .73 to .832. Sensing / Intuition (S-N) : .69 to .873. Thinking / Feeling (T-F) :.56 to .824. Judging / Perceiving (J-P): .60 to .87

Internal Consistency intervals range from: 1. Introversion / Extroversion(E-I) : .55 to .652. Sensing / Intuition (S-N) : .64 to .733. Thinking / Feeling (T-F) :.43 to .754. Judging / Perceiving (J-P): .58 to .84

MBTI (cont.)

Uses:Career counselingTeam buildingFamily counseling

Criticisms:Profiles generally positiveBarnum effectValidation evidence is stickyFactor analysis shows Big Five solution

MMPIMinnesota Multiphasic Personality InventoryMMPI-II most widely used psychological test10 clinical scales and several Auxiliary

MMPITable 4-6

The MMPI (cont.)Scale Descriptor: Psychopathic DeviateTend to act without considering consequences. Experience absence of emotional response.May feign guilt and remorse when in trouble. Are impulsive.Are not seen as overwhelmed by emotional turmoil.

The MMPI (cont.)Example Items:I am about as able to work as I ever was.I work under a great deal of tension.I am sure I get a raw deal from life.I find it hard to keep my mind on a task or job.I am certainly lacking in self-confidence I have difficulty in starting to do things.When in a group of people I have trouble thinking of the right things to talk about.I cannot keep my mind on one thing.

Original MMPIItems on the clinical scales of the original MMPI were selected on the basis of their ability to discriminate between normal and clinical groups. Clinical groups were comprised of depressed, paranoid, schizophrenic, hypomanic, hypocrondriacalNormal groups were comprised of University of Minnesota studentsInitially items were selected from various sources clinical cases, textbooks, and previous tests

MMPI IIMMPI-II was normed on a nationally representative sample 1138 men and 1462 womenMMPI added several content and supplementary scalesA high score on a particular scale indicates the likelihood that the individual possesses those characteristics

Projective Personality Tests

The Projective TechniquesProjective tests allow the examinee to respond to vague stimuli with their own impressionsAssumption is that the examinee will project his unconscious needs, motives, and conflicts onto the neutral stimulusWord association tests, inkblot tests, sentence completion tests, storytelling in response to pictures, etc.

The Projective Techniques (cont.)Three features:Disguised: no face validityGlobal: the whole personalityReveals unconscious aspects of personality

Types:Inkblot: RorschachPicture interpretation: TATSentence completion: Rotter Incomplete SBPicture construction: DAP

The Rorschach Inkblot TestThe Rorschach Inkblot Test is the most commonly used projective testIn a 1971 survey of test usage, it was used in 91% of 251 clinical settings surveyIt is one of the most widely used tests that existsIt is widely cited in research

HistoryThe earliest use of inkblots as projective surfaces was J. Kerner's (1857)He was the first to claim that some people make idiosyncratic or revealing interpretations

In 1896, Alfred Binet suggested that inkblots might be used to assess personality (not psychopathology)

HistoryHerman Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, was the first to suggest (1911) the use of inkblot responses as a diagnostic instrumentIn 1921 he published his book on the test, Psychodiagnostik (and soon thereafter died, age 38)

HistoryRorschach's test was not well-received, attracting little noticeDavid Levy brought it to the United States - thought it was scientifically unsound.His student, Samuel Beck, popularized its use here, writing several papers and books on it starting with Configurational Tendencies in Rorschach Responses (1933)Several other early users also published work on he RorschachSeveral offered their own system of administration, scoring, and interpretation, leading to later problems in standardization

What is the Rorschach?The stimuli were generated by dropping ink onto a card and folding itThey are not, however, random: the ten cards in the current test were hand-selected out of thousands that Rorschach generated

Ten blots 5 black/white, 2 red/gray (II & III) and 3 color (VIII X)

Thought to tap into the deep layers of personality and bring out what is not conscious to the test taker

The following are the inkblots

Administering the RorschachThe test is usually administered with as little instruction and information as possible

The tester asks 'What might this be? and gives no clues or restrictions on what is expected as a responseAnxious subjects often do ask questions, and vague answers are offeredSome advocate sitting beside the subject to avoid giving clues by facial expressionIf only one response is given, some hint to find more may be offered: "Some people see more than one thing.

Administering the RorschachThe cards are shown twice:

The first time responses are obtained - free association phase

The second time they are elaborated inquiry phase

Rorschach (cont.)Exners Comprehensive Scoring System1. Location - W = whole (intellectual potential)- D = subdivisions (common sense)- Dd = details (compulsive tendencies) - DW (confabulated detail)2. Content (i.e., general class to where response belongs)- people, part of a person, clothing, animal, part of an animal, nature, anatomical

Rorschach (cont.) 3. Determinants (i.e., specific property of the blot)- F = shape/outline (rational approach)- M = movement (imagination)- C = color (emotional reactions)- Y = shades of grey (depression) 4. Form Quality 5. typical vs. unusual response 6. time

Rorschach (cont.)norms = unrepresentativeinter-rater reliabilitytest-retest reliabilityconstruct validitycriterion validity

Psychometric Properties of the RorschachThe Rorschach is a popular test, however, it has been plagued by low reliability and validity.

Obviously, it is difficult to measure any of the usual psychometric properties in the usual way

Validity and reliability are usually low because of the open-ended multiplicity of possibility that is allowed and by the lack of universally-accepted standardized instructions, administration protocol, and scoring procedure

Interpreting the RorschachUses norms for five groups: nonpatient, outpatient nonpsychotic, inpatient character problem, inpatient depressive, inpatient schizophrenics one

Deviation from norms can mean an invalid protocol, or brain damage, or emotional problems, or a low mental age (or just an original person)

Psychometric Properties of the RorschachReliability studies that have been done find r-values varying from 0.1 to 0.9

Parker (1983) analyzed 530 statistics through meta-analysis (9 studies) and found an internal reliability of .83

W responses has been linked to general intelligence (r = 0.4); Movement responses are said to suggest strong impulses or high motor activity; DW (confabulatory) responses are taken as signs of a disordered state; low response rate is associated with mental retardation, depression, and defensiveness

Overall, more research is needed to determine the reliability and validity of the Rorschach.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Construct a story about what you see on the following picture

Describe: - what led up to the scene - what is happening - what the characters in the story might think or feel - how the story will end

Thematic Apperception TestsThe Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): 30 grayscale pictures + one blank for elicitation of stories each contain a dramatic event or critical situationMost subjects see 10-12 cards, over two sessionsBased on Murray's (1938) theory of 28 social needs (sex, affiliation, dominance, achievement, attitudes etc.)People would project into their story their needsAttention is paid to the protagonist in each story and his/her environmental stressorsMany variations on this 'story-telling' test exist

TAT (cont.)Administration: not standardizedNot the same 20 cardsNot the same orderSeldom 2 sessionsInstructions differ

Scoring is MinimalLow Reliability & Validity

TAT scoring/interpretationScoring Congruence with picture stimuliConformity with directionsConflict

Psychometric properties: internal consistency is low; high reliability but diminishes with time, 2 months, r = .80; 10 months r = .50; Inter-rater reliability vary with studies: range .3 to .9

Examples of ProjectivesRotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB)

Complete the following sentences to express your real feelings:I like ..My greatest fear ..This PSY 3090.D instructor is ..

RISB (cont.)Designed to screen for emotional maladjustmentInfo about wishes, desires, likes, dislikes, fears, and locus of control40 items: easy to administer (group or ind.)Rigorous scoring system: high interrater rScoring ranges from 0 to 6Responses are scored as to the degree of conflict expressed, optimism shown, length of responses, omissionsPsychometrically sound but less used

Draw-a-Person Test

Originally to assess childrens intelligenceNow: a screening procedure for emotional disturbanceCannot constitute a diagnosis

The administration:Draw a personDraw a person of the opposite sexDraw yourself

Draw-a-Person TestAdministrator Asks:

Can you please draw a person?Draw whatever you like in any way you like?

Administrator Then Asks:

- Draw a person of the opposite sex?

Draw-a-Person Test (cont.)Subjective vs. quantitative scoring systemClinician looks for:Sequence of body partsVerbalizations during the drawing processSize & placement of figures on the pageAmount of action depictedSystematization in doing the taskNumber of erasuresShadingGender of pictureOver attention to certain body parts

Draw-a-Person Test (cont..)Among the plausible but empirically untrue relations that have been claimed:

- Large size = Emotional expansiveness or acting out- Small size = emotional constriction; withdrawal, or timidity- Overworked lines = tension, aggression- Distorted or omitted features = Conflicts related to that feature- Large or elaborate eyes = Paranoia

Other common projective testsCAT Children Apperception Test (Bellak, 1975)Word Association Test Rapaport et al. (1946, 1968) 60 words: neutral and traumatic scored: popularity, RT, content, test-retest responsesSentence Completion Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank 40 sentences evaluated on 7 point scale by need for therapy to extremely good adjustmentHouse-Tree-Person Test (Buck, 1948) & Draw-A-Person (Machover, 1949): Subject is asked to drawScoring is on absolute size, relative size of elements, omissions

"If there is a tendency to over-interpret projective test data without sufficient empirical grounds, then projective drawing tests are among the worst offenders."Kaplan & Saccuzo, Psychological Testing, 2001, p. 467

Sources of Inaccuracy in Personality Testing

Personality assessment largely depends on self-report

Response sets may affect personality results

Social DesirabilitySome test takers choose socially acceptable answers or present themselves in a favourable light

People often do not attend as much to the trait being measured as to the social acceptability of the statement

This represents unwanted variance

Social Desirability (cont.)

Example items:

Friends would call me spontaneous.

People I know can count on me to finish what I start.

I would rather work in a group than by myself.

I often get stressed-out in many situations.

FakingFaking -- some test takers may respond in a particular way to cause a desired outcome

may fake good (e.g., in employment settings) to create a favourable impression

may fake bad (e.g., in clinical or forensic settings) as a cry for help or to appear mentally disturbed

may use some subtle questions that are difficult to fake because they arent clearly face valid

Faking Bad

People try to look worse than they really areCommon problem in clinical settings

Reasons:Cry for helpWant to plea insanity in courtWant to avoid draft into militaryWant to show psychological damage

Most people who fake bad overdo it

Random RespondingRandom responding may occur when test takers are unwilling or unable to respond accurately.

likely to occur when test taker lacks the skills (e.g., reading), does not want to be evaluated, or lacks attention to the task

try to detect by embedding a scale that tends to yield clear results from vast majority such that a different result suggests the test taker wasnt cooperating

Random Responding

Detection:

Duplicate items:I love my mother. I hate my mother.

Infrequency scales:Ive never had hair on my head.I have not seen a car in 10 years.

Impression Management

Mitigating IM:

Use positive and negative impression scales (endorsed by 10% of the population)Use lie scales to flag those who score high (e.g., I get angry sometime).Inconsistency scales (e.g., two different responses to two similar questions)(Use multiple assessment methods (other than self-report)