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South Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1991 49

Perspectives on Change in Australian TeacherEducation: suggestions for action

GEOFFREY W. BEESON, Victoria College

Teacher Education Under Pressure

There are at present very significant forces for change in teacher education inAustralia. These forces have the potential to alter fundamental aspects of existingpolicy and practice, including course length, nature and balance of content. They arerepresented in print by a number of recent reports, including the Discipline Review ofTeacher Education in Mathematics and Science (Department of Employment, Educa-tion and Training, 1989), the Schools Council paper on Teacher Quality (NationalBoard of Employment, Education and Training, 1989a), the Discussion Paper onCourse Length and Nomenclature (National Board of Employment, Education andTraining, 1989b), the Federal Government's Strategy on Rural Education and Train-ing (Minister for Employment, Education and Training, Minister for Primary Indus-tries and Energy, 1989) and, perhaps most significantly, the Report of the AustralianEducation Council's (1990) Working Party on Teacher Education. It is worth notingthat these reports all have been published within the space of 12 months and all haverequired responses from teacher educators. These publications followed a series ofothers which appeared over the previous year, including the Commonwealth Govern-ment's White Paper on Higher Education (Dawkins, 1988a), the Report of theCommonwealth Schools Commission's In-Service Teacher Education Project (Com-monwealth Schools Commission, 1988), and Minister Dawkins' paper entitledStrengthening Australia's Schools (Dawkins, 1988b). All of these papers publishedover the 2-year period have significant implications for teacher education. All have thecapacity to change in fundamental ways the work of teacher educators, whether ininstitutions of higher education or in schools.

One characteristic of the current pressures for change is that they originateoverwhelmingly from governments, and from governments holding far more interven-tionist intentions than has been the case in the past. Another characteritic is that thesorts of changes implied are not confined to Australia. Similar pressures exist andsimilar actions are being taken by governments in other countries, particularly theUSA and GB, with which we usually compare ourselves.

The purpose of this paper is to place the current Australian situation in the contextof trends elsewhere, to raise some issues for consideration, and to suggest actions thatmembers of the Australian Teacher Education Association might take in the interestsof their profession.

Current Trends in the USA

A preoccupation with the quality of teachers and the nature of teacher educationprograms, especially preservice teacher education, existed in the USA throughout the

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1980s, and especially in the second half of that decade. Of the many illustrations ofthis preoccupation, only a few can be referred to here. A National InvitationalConference held in October 1984 at the Research and Development Center forTeacher Education in Texas addressed policies, practices and research in the majorphases of teacher education—preservice, induction and inservice (Hall, 1985). Itresulted in three propositions for which there was unanimous agreement: that teachereducation should be viewed as occurring across the professional continuum, thatimprovement in teacher education is directly tied to improvements in the conditionsand status of teaching, and that close and effective collaboration amongst the partiesinvolved—policymakers, teacher educators, teachers and researchers—is essential(Hall, 1986). In addition, recommendations and critical warnings were made in allmajor areas. The National Commission on Excellence in Teacher Education (1986)urged reform in the preparation of teachers in order to make teaching a morerewarding and desirable profession. The report focussed on five issues: the content ofteacher education programs; the supply and demand for quality teachers; account-ability in teacher education; resource requirements for teacher education; and condi-tions necessary to support teaching of the highest quality.

Two particularly influential reports appeared in 1986, the reports of the HolmesGroup (1986) and the Carnegie Task Force on Teaching as a Profession (1986). TheHolmes Group, made up of deans of prestigious schools of education, called for morerigorous academic preparation of teachers, the abandonment of major studies ineducation at undergraduate level, reorganisation of the teaching profession into stratato include instructors (who have had less than 5 years of teaching experience), fullyfledged teachers, and 'career professionals' who have had significant experience andhave passed rigorous professional examinations. The Carnegie Report made somesimilar recommendations, including the elimination of undergraduate programs ofteacher education and the restructuring of the teaching profession to accommodatehighly trained 'master' teachers. Specifically the Task Force recommended that initialteacher education should require a Bachelors Degree in the arts and sciences as a pre-requisite for the professional study of teaching, and that there should be developed anew professional curriculum in graduate schools of education leading to a Master inTeaching degree, based on systematic knowledge of teaching and including internshipsand residencies in the schools.

It also recommended the creation of a National Board for Professional TeachingStandards, organised with a regional and state membership structure, to establish highstandards for what teachers need to know and be able to do, and to certify teacherswho achieve that standard. Shortly afterwards, the Carnegie Forum announced a largegrant to a group of researchers, led by Lee Shulman at Stanford University, for thedevelopment of the prototype of such an examination (e.g. Shulman, 1987).

An interesting summary of recent trends in teacher preparation in the USA wascompiled by Cruickshank & Cruz (1989) through an analysis of news items included inTeacher Education Reports (Feistritzer Publications) over the 32 month period fromFebruary 1986 to September 1988. This source was chosen by the authors as theyconsidered it was the only news publication claiming solely to record current events inthe preparation of teachers. It should be noted that a possible source of bias in thisanalysis is the omission of universities in the Teacher Education Reports examined.

Cruickshank & Cruz identified three 'megatrends' and 12 related 'subtrends':

Megatrend 1: Movement towards the involvement of classroom teachers in both theadvisement and governance of teacher education.

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Megatrend 2: Movement towards improving preparation programs for teachers.Among the seven subtrends identified were enhancing the subject matter compe-tence of teachers, ensuring that the necessary ancillary subject matter knowledge(e.g. computer knowledge) is present, identifying and documenting the knowledgebase of teacher preparation, lengthening the period of preservice preparation, andrecognising exemplary teacher education programs.

Megatrend 3: Movement toward improving the teaching force. The five relatedsubtrends included: encouraging entry to specific teaching areas deemed to be inshort supply; recruiting teachers by using non-traditional means; and raising thestandards for admission to and retention in teacher preparation programs.

Cruickshank & Cruz also made reference to the high level of activity of teacherorganisations in relation to teacher education, and the legislative activity of the stateswhich are, by and large, responsible for education.

One particular area referred to by Cruickshank & Cruz (1989) in which there hasbeen significant debate in the USA is the definition of a knowledge base for teacherpreparation. This debate has included discussion as to what constitutes the knowledgebase, its length and breadth, and its capacity to form a basis for teacher preparationprograms. The debate has been stimulated by the Holmes and Carnegie Reports; it hasbeen argued that the definition of a knowledge base is fundamental to the move toestablish professional standards for teaching (for example, see Beaudry, 1990; Rey-nolds, 1989). Unlike some other professions, for example, engineering and medicine,teaching has not had clearly defined standards for preparation, and this has influencedthe public perception of teaching as a sub-professional career and the view thatteachers lack expertise.

In an unusual collaboration, a set of principles for the preparation of teachers wasdeveloped recently by a group of university presidents and deans of education fromeight universities with a major commitment to teacher education (The RenaissanceGroup, 1989). The significance of this exercise lies not only in the principlesthemselves, which refer among other things to rigorous learning expectations and exitrequirements and the means of implementing these, but the notion that the universityas a whole should accept responsibility for the preparation of teachers, a commitmentexemplified by the involvement of the universities' chief executive officers in thedevelopment of the principles. The 12 principles include, amongst others: the educa-tion of teachers is an all-campus responsibility; programs for the preparation ofteachers thrive in a university culture that values quality teaching; the initial prepara-tion of teachers is integrated throughout a student's university experience and is notsegmented or reserved for the student's final year.

Two other current issues identifiable from the literature should be mentioned. Thefirst is continuing concerns over the effectiveness of the practicum, including the lackof coherence with institution-based studies, and the training of supervisors. In thisrespect, it is worth noting the Carnegie Task Force recommendation concerninginternships and residencies in schools. The second is concern over government supportof alternate routes into teaching. The fear in some states is that the alternative routes,sometimes consisting only of short, intensive skills sessions for certain academicallyqualified applicants, will become the main model. Support for alternative routes comesin terms of arguments against the school-to-university-to-school models of teacherpreparation, and the costs of extended teacher education programs.

Overall, it appears that, despite the flurry of discussion and publication resulting

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from them, the Holmes and Carnegie Reports have not had the impact in terms ofproducing changes in teacher education that many would have hoped for. In a paperreflecting on 6 years as research editor of the Journal of Teacher Education, Howeyobserved that: "Much of what has occurred in the name of program renewal, however,does not seem particularly thoughtful or innovative and has not engendered greaterenthusiasm for the challenging task of preparing teachers, either in teacher educatorswho daily engage in the task or in the many exemplary teachers who need to becomemore engaged in this endeavor" (Howey, 1990, p. 7). He argued that too many haveviewed reform in terms of postgraduate programs of teacher preparation rather than interms of substantive curricular change. He considers that the move by some institu-tions into postgraduate teacher preparation programs is mostly symbolic and shouldnot be confused with the real direction of teacher education. He argues strongly that atthis time it is necessary for teacher educators to "check their compass' in order todetermine the direction in which they are heading, and that a collective will is needednow if effective change leading to the improvement of teacher education is to beachieved.

Recent Trends in England and Wales

The major recent influences on teacher education in England and Wales have been:

1. cutbacks in resources available to higher education in general;2. amalgamations involving higher education institutions—universities, polytechnics

and colleges of higher education;3. the establishment of the Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education;4. the passing of the Education Reform Act in 1988.

As both the cutbacks in resources available and the amalgamation of institutions haveproceeded in waves over a long period, and are well documented and widely known,they will not be further discussed here.

The Establishment of the Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (CATE)

The Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (CATE) was established in1984 by the Department of Education and Science for the purpose of scrutinising allcourses of initial teacher training against the Government's criteria. To help CATE inits work, all initial teacher training institutions were visited and reported on by HerMajesty's Inspectors. The establishment of CATE followed publication by the Depart-ment of Education and Science of a White Paper entitled Teaching Quality (1983).The paper proposed new criteria for initial teacher education courses including criteriaconcerning subjects studied, teaching methods and links with practical experience inschools. The paper further proposed criteria for education lecturers in these courses,which included that they should have had recent substantial relevant schoolexperience.

In the period 1984-89, CATE scrutinised over 300 individual courses for compli-ance with the criteria, met representatives of each institution and advised the Secreta-ries of State on whether the government's criteria were met. From the beginning of1990, CATE has been reconstituted under the chairmanship of Professor Bill Taylor asan ongoing body and with revised criteria. The Council's terms of reference are:

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• to advise the Secretaries of State for Education and Science, Wales andNorthern Ireland on whether individual courses of initial teacher trainingmeet the criteria for course approval;

• to monitor approved courses to ensure that they meet the criteria;

• to identify and disseminate good practice in initial teacher training;

• to keep the criteria for course approval under review and to advise theSecretaries of State on possible changes to them and to advise the Secretariesof State as requested on other matters relating to initial teacher training.(Department of Education and Science, 1989)

The revised criteria are intended to be clearer in form and content than theirpredecessors. They also are directed more to output, that is, towards statements ofwhat students should be able to show they know, understand and can do by the end oftheir training. The criteria reflect the importance of the new National Curriculum andthe need for newly trained teachers to be able to contribute to its delivery uponentering employment. The criteria cover all major areas of teacher preparation,including: cooperation between institutions, local authorities and schools; students'school experience and teaching practice (including required minimum periods ofteaching practice); subject studies and subject application to pupils' learning; curricu-lum studies in primary courses (including minimum times to be devoted to theteaching of English, mathematics and science); educational and professional studies;and selection and admission to initial teacher training.

Writing of government policy changes in higher education in Britain, Turner (1990)asserts that the Department of Education and Science is now advocating two newschool-based modes of entry into the teaching profession. In both of these proposednew programs, which involve 'licensed' teachers in one case and 'articled' teachers inthe other, the trainee teacher would be regarded as an employee rather than a studentand would receive a salary less than that of a fully qualified teacher but substantiallygreater than a student grant.

The direction of inservice education in England and Wales in the late 1980s also hasbeen characterised by greater central provision and control. There is a greateremphasis on the development of knowledge and competencies immediately relevant toclassroom teaching. Turner (1990) observes that this, coupled with the funding modelscurrently used, which require inservice work to be financially self sufficient and paidfor by the consumer, has led to a marked decline in the theoretical study of curriculumissues, and there are suggestions that such study could disappear altogether—analarming prospect. He also points out that virtually no full-time students now registerfor courses in the philosophy, sociology, history or even psychology of education, andthat "The consequential change of the teacher from a professional into a tradesman,the reverse of the crusade which university departments of education have pursued formany decades, would appear to be inevitable under the present system" (p. 77).

The Passing of the Educational Reform Act

The passing of the Educational Reform Act in 1988 heralded major changes ineducation across the board, including the introduction of a national curriculum,together with national examination at ages 7, 11 and 14 years, a reduction of theinfluence on schools of the Local Educational Authorities, and a devolution ofauthority, including financial control, to individual schools. These three areas of

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change (not the only changes included in the Act) are having significant effects onteacher education and on the teaching profession. Teachers, both new and experienced,have to be prepared to teach the national curriculum; the devolution of financialresponsibility and control to schools means that, ultimately, principals are faced withsuch choices as "Do I mend the leaking roof or keep the drama teacher?" It is arguedby some that the pressures inherent in such choices are pressures towardsconservatism.

The Situation in Australia

In Australia, we have a national government which has set about reforming highereducation, including precipitating the amalgamation of higher education institutions.One result of this is that teacher education that was once located in colleges ofadvanced education will now be within university faculties and departments. As part ofits new higher education policy, the Commonwealth Government is also in the processof developing standard award lengths and nomenclatures, including standards forteacher education awards. More recently, it is giving increased attention to theimplementation of policies concerning the quality of teaching and the nature of teachereducation and school curricula. Commonwealth and state governments, through theirforum, the Australian Educational Council, have established a Working Party onTeacher Education (Australian Education Council, 1990) which has made recommen-dations for sweeping change in teacher education in Australia, with greater emphasis,as far as preservice teacher education is concerned, on preparation for the practice ofteaching.

Before turning to what role teacher educators might play in relation to thesechanges, it is instructive to identify common trends in the development of teachereducation in recent years in the USA, England and Australia. These are:

• concern about teacher quality;• increased activity by governments to influence the nature, structure and direction

of teacher education;• greater recognition of the importance of viewing teacher education as a continuum,

with continuing professional development throughout the teacher's career follow-ing preservice preparation;

• more emphasis on inservice education that is focussed on the school;• greater emphasis on the preparation of beginning teachers for the practice of

teaching, including emphasis on the development of skills and the provision ofgreater periods of time and more realistic experiences in schools, possibilitythrough the use of some form of internship;

• a continuing interest in the length of preservice preparation programs;• concern about the ability to attract good quality applicants to the profession.

In addition to these, there is particular concern over the further development of acareer structure for teachers in both the USA and Australia.

The Roles of Teacher Educators

One difficulty for the individual in a climate of rapid change, or threatened change, isto know how to act. There is, for some, the temptation to retreat from the turbulenceand difficult decisions by adopting a policy of non-involvement. However, if changes

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to teacher education in Australia are to be for the better, it is essential that thoseinvolved in preparing teachers or in their continuing education continue to workpositively to improve the practice of teacher education, and take an active part ininfluencing the nature of the change decisions made. This implies actions by teachereducators individually and collectively.

Individual Actions

1. Publications and research. We need to write more about what we do, and we needto carry out and publish more research, including evaluations of innovations andprogram developments. There is a great deal of good practice in Australianteacher education now, despite difficulties and constraints in the environment.Over the past 20 or so years, there have been a very large number of productivedevelopments and innovations, many reported at Australian Teacher EducationAssociation (ATEA) and South Pacific Association for Teacher Education(SPATE) Annual Conferences. Unfortunately, too few of these have beenpublished in journals, which would have allowed the results to be shared and builton by others. We do ourselves a disservice by not doing more to build up theliterature on Australian teacher education, as the relatively low level of publica-tion retards the development of an accepted knowledge base in teacher education.It is also important to take further steps to increase research activity in teachereducation if its continued development is to be soundly based.

2. Innovation and development at the local level. We should continue innovation anddevelopment at the local level. Regardless of what overall models and structuresfor teacher education emerge from the current discussions, individual programshave to be such as to meet the varying needs of student teachers and theircontexts in the various situations that exist around Australia. In the past, a largenumber of important curriculum developments have started at the individualprogram level, and there is no reason why this should not continue to be the case.

3. Participation in association activities. Individuals can magnify the effectiveness oftheir own individual actions by active participation in their professional associa-tions, as well as helping to keep the associations active and dynamic.

Collective Actions

If teacher educators are to have a significant influence in the current climate, and areto deal effectively as a profession with current pressures for change, it is essential thatthey take some collective as well as individual actions. Howey's (1990) observationsconcerning the need for a collective will to bring about desirable change in USAteacher education, referred to above, are of relevance here.

As a profession, teacher educators need to be able to answer with a high degree ofconsensus a number of important questions:

1. What are the kinds of knowledge and experience to which all intending teachersshould have access during their preparation programs? We ought to be able to provideto this question a useful and meaningful response to which all teacher educators wouldsubscribe. Such a response would not imply uniformity of programs. It would facilitatefurther debate on program development and would enhance the standing of teaching(and teacher education) as a profession.

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Some years ago, colleagues and I proposed that we attempt the definition of acommon curriculum for preservice teacher education, that is, a curriculum whichwould result from answering the above question (Beeson, 1983; Edmonds, 1983;Gough, 1983). This did not get a great deal of support at the time, probably because ofthe rather restricted interpretation that was put by some on the term 'commoncurriculum'. Perhaps we did not do enough to convey an understanding of ourmessage. In the light of current developments, I am inclined to regret that we did notpress this concept further or that others did not take it up. It could have left us in astronger position to argue on a unified front the essential requirements of initialteacher education programs, one goal being a better outcome of the current discussionsstimulated by the Australian Education Council.

2. Assuming that opportunities for continuing professional development will be avail-able to teachers, what distribution of knowledge and experiences between preservice andinservice education is appropriate? If it can be assumed confidently that effectiveperiods of inservice education will be available to teachers, that formal teachereducation will not end at the completion of the initial period of preparation, it shouldbe possible to set about answering this question with some confidence.

3. As is the case for trainee engineers and doctors, trainee teachers need time workingand interacting with members oftheprofession in complex, multifaceted ways. How long?In what way or ways? How can this be organised? What activities and arrangements arepossible and acceptable? The problem of providing effective practice for traineeteachers has been a persistent one, constrained by many factors, not the least of whichare the total time available and the nature of the relationships between institutions,schools and employing authorities.

4. What form or forms of partnership between the higher education institutions, schoolsand employers are appropriate and feasible in order to facilitate the effective preparation,induction and continuing professional development of teachers? How should responsi-bility for the various phases be distributed among the parties? One of the persistentdifficulties in the past has been constructing an acceptable and workable answer to thisquestion. Further, one of the key criticisms contained in the Australian EducationCouncil Working Party Report (1990) is the practicability of its interim proposalsrelating to associateships. Similar difficulties have been found in the past with attemptsto improve the provision of inservice education (Coulter & Ingvarson, 1986).

If teacher educators were able collectively to answer these questions, they would bein a position to deal at any time more effectively with new proposals such as thosecontained in the Australian Education Council Working Party Report. There thenwould be available a common measuring stick, an established and agreed base on whichto argue for or against. Without such answers, it is difficult to respond as effectively tonew proposals, especially on behalf of teacher educators as a whole. It is important tobear in mind that the effective way to have influence on a national level is to respondcollectively.

Concluding Comment

In this paper, I have attempted to gain a better perspective on the current pressures for

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change in Australia by placing them in the context of recent changes in the USA andBritain.

What we need at present is to develop an agenda for collective action, focussed onthe immediate future and in the interests of teacher education, the teaching professionand the schools. Such an agenda needs to address the questions posed above. We mustdevelop ways of networking more effectively in order to share current knowledge andthe best of our current ideas, and to influence government decision makers at the stateand national levels.

Writers in both the USA (Howey, 1990) and the UK (Turner, 1990) have warnedof the danger of teaching being confirmed as a trade and teacher education as anapprenticeship if substantial changes for the better are not made to the currentsituation. Whether we let such a situation develop in Australia, or whether wecollaborate to develop a stronger future for teacher education, will be dependentlargely on the nature and level of individual and collective action which we decide totake.

Correspondence: Geoffrey W. Beeson, Victoria College, Rusden Campus, 662 Black-burn Road, Clayton, Victoria, 3168, Australia.

NOTE

An edited version of this paper was presented as the Presidential Address at the 20th Annual Conferenceof the Australian Teacher Education Association, Adelaide, July 1990.

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