Persuasion

We are bombarded with attempts at persuasion every day.

Can we find some in this room?

We are often persuaded by media that is NOT advertising

Attempts at Persuasion: Are these subtle / clever and indirect?

Advertising integrated into / (posing) as entertainment

The effects of media• “If it bleeds, it leads”– Over half of news programs’ content is about

suffering / conflict– Unbalanced, inaccurate perceptions of the world

• Emotional contagion– the rapid transmission of emotions or behaviors

through a crowd– coverage of topics can cause and influence later

behavior• Tylenol/cyanide poisonings • Copycat suicides• Road sign tampering

Effectiveness of Media Appeals• Very effective• Repeated exposure to anything makes us more

familiar with it and then like it more

How to increase exposure?

$$$$$$

Campaign Spending for 2008 Election

Is a message education or propaganda?• Propaganda – Systematic propagation (spread, promotion,

transmission) of a given doctrine• Education – Act of imparting knowledge or skill

• Classification depends on own values

The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986)

• Will a person think through (and be likely to elaborate on) a persuasive message?

Use peripheral route if: • Person focuses on superficial cues presented

1) person does not have ability (intelligence, time) or motivation to think

2) message is not personally relevant3) person is in positive mood

(If the cues are appealing) the resulting attitudes are changed -- but are:

• weak• not resistant to counterarguments• not predictive of behavior

An example of the peripheral route

The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986)

• Will a person think through (and be likely to elaborate on) a persuasive message?

Use central route if: • Person focuses on arguments presented1) person has ability (intelligence, time) and motivation to

think/need for cognition (personality characteristic) 2) message is personally relevant3) person in neutral or negative mood(If arguments are strong) the resulting attitudes are:• strong• resistant to counterarguments• predictive of behavior

Examples of the use of central route: Non-fiction books

Messages often use both routes

WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM?It’s source (who says it)

It’s nature (how it is said)

Audience characteristics (to whom is it said)

credibility: expert and trustworthy

logical versus emotional appeals

self-esteem

attractiveness statistical evidence versus a vivid personal example

prior experience of the audience

one-sided versus two-sided arguments

the order of presentation

What factors can affect the effectiveness (persuasiveness) of a

communication?

WHO: Credibility• Expert– Have comprehensive

knowledge or skill in an area – above/beyond what is typical

• Trustworthy– Be honest and truthful – Argue against own self-

interest– Appear that you are not

trying to influence and you will reduce resistance to the message

WHO: Attractiveness

• Have an overall likability– physical and personality qualities

• We assume that attractive people have desirable, worthy, appealing messages

• But we are persuaded only on trivial issues– This occurs even if intent to persuade is known

Luntz’s “words” affect politics and policy• “death tax” versus “estate tax”• “tax relief” versus “tax cuts”• “war on terror” versus “war in Iraq”• “climate-change” versus “global warming”

WHAT: Logical versus emotional• Have similarities with central versus peripheral

route

• Overall emotional appeals are more effective• More educated folks more likely to respond to logic

• Persuaders use classical conditioning

• We associate product with positive experience

Fear as a sales technique

Another example

Fear + instructions of how to change is more persuasive

• High self esteem folks respond with immediate action

• Low self esteem folks respond with delayed action

WHAT: Statistical evidence versus vivid personal example

• Overall: The single, vivid personal example is the winner– This is not logical!

– But the more vivid (strong, clear images) the example, the more persuasive it is

• “You would have a hole in your wall the size of a basketball!”

WHAT: One-sided versus two-sided arguments

• Effectiveness of approach depends on:

• initial position of audience

• knowledge of audience

• One-sided best if “preaching to the choir”

• Two-sided best if audience is opposed or will be / already is aware of both sides

Making the use of one-sided arguments possible

Data is collected on you when you are on social websites and

when you “Like” or “Recommend” from any other website

WHAT: The order of presentation• Primacy effect: first info is more persuasive

• Recency effect: last info is more persuasive

• Which one occurs?

• Depends on timing.

1. Between first and last message

2. Between last message and actual decision

The Order of Presentation

• Learning of first material interferes with / inhibits learning of later material

• Retention is best for information just prior to decision

TO WHOM: Self-esteem • People who have low self-esteem are more

easily influenced compared to people with high self-esteem

TO WHOM: Prior experience of the audience (frame of mind)

• More receptive / persuaded if: well fed, relaxed, in good mood

• Less receptive / persuaded if:

• forewarned, especially if message differs from beliefs

• we feel reactance: when our sense of freedom is threatened and we need to restore it

• we have time, cognitive capacity to develop counterarguments

• experience an inoculation effect: are exposed to small doses of arguments against own position, are now more immune to later attempts• we more motivated to defend our beliefs

• we gain practice in defending beliefs

Effects of TV Watching• American average: more than 7 hours/day; 30 hours/week;

1500 hours/year watched

• Heavy viewers (defined as more than 4 hours/day and compared to viewers of less than 2 hours/day):

• Express more racially prejudiced attitudes

• Overestimate number of doctors, lawyers, athletes

• Perceive women as limited in abilities and interests

• Believe violence is more prevalent than it is

• Are less happy

• Are more likely to have a dispositional view about crime