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Seafood Contamination And Human Health
After The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
By:
Woody Arnold
PH638A
4/19/2014
I. Introduction
For decades, humanity has been relying on drilling out petroleum as the main energy source for cars, ships,
planes, and other types of transportation. Despite the fact that humanity has been relying on petroleum in general for
about one hundred years, due to disasters such as big oil spills at sea, humanity is starting to re-evaluate themselves
and try to push to come up with better solutions for energy while restoring the environment. The questions that are
plaguing researchers and professionals in the field; including public health officials; are, “What are the long term
effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill that took place in 2010 in regards to human health and seafood
contamination? And are there studies needed to confirm these long term effects on human health?” Although
scientists and engineers have done some extensive research over the years to discover ways to create cleaner
versions of these petroleum based fuels, such as looking into algae, I believe that remaining reliant on petroleum
will have long term ecological effects on our environment, especially when massive oil spills occur like with the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill that took place in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. This disaster had a massive impact; not
just environmentally; but economically and socially. Because of the depth of the well blowout, deeper parts of the
Gulf of Mexico are likely impacted. It is estimated that the potential negative economic effects of this blowout and
oil spill on commercial and recreational fishing, as well as marine aquaculture in the US Gulf area, by computing
potential losses throughout the fish value chain. It is found that the spill could, since 2010 and up to now, result in
(midpoint) present value losses of total revenues, total profits, wages, and economic impact of $3.7, $1.9, $1.2, and
$8.7 billion, respectively. Commercial and recreational fisheries would likely suffer the most losses, with a
respective estimated $1.6 and $1.9 billion of total revenue losses, $0.8 and $1.1 billion in total profit losses, and $4.9
and $3.5 billion of total economic losses. (U. Rashid Sumaila et al. 2012)
On May 2, 2010, 12 days following the explosion and fire of the Deepwater Horizon, NOAA closed 6,817
square miles of the Gulf of Mexico to commercial and recreational fishing. The closure was implemented to ensure
potentially contaminated seafood would not enter markets and pose a risk to human health. The closure grew to
include portions of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida state waters. At the peak of the closure, 88,522
square miles, or nearly 37%, of all federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico were off-limits to fishing.13 The maximum
proportions of state waters closed to fishing during the spill were Alabama (40%), Florida (2%), Louisiana (55%),
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and Mississippi (95%).14 Since the flow of oil from the well-head was stopped in July, most of Louisiana state
waters and all of Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida state waters have been re-opened to fishing. As of January 24,
2011, only 1,041 square miles of federal waters immediately surrounding the well-head remain closed to
commercial and recreational fishing. (H.F. Upton 2011) The Gulf of Mexico is also has a high marine biodiversity,
with 15,419 recorded species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has a Red List of species
that are at risk globally to become endangered or extinct. IUCN Red List assessments are being expanded to
evaluate more marine species, including some in the Gulf of Mexico. The IUCN has assessed 322 species in the
Gulf of Mexico to date, 53 of which are in threatened categories; an additional 29 are listed as near threatened. The
IUCN assessments include all Gulf marine mammals (5 of 28 species threatened), sea turtles (all 5 species
threatened), sea grasses (2 of 9 threatened or near threatened), mangroves (0 of 6 threatened), reef-building corals
(11 of 60 threatened or near threatened), wrasses (1 of 20 threatened), sharks and rays (43 of 131 threatened or near
threatened), seabirds (3 of 40 threatened or near threatened), and groupers (11 of 22 threatened or near threatened).
Groupers are of particular concern; three species are classified as critically endangered on the Red List and the
Atlantic goliath grouper (Epinephelus itajara) is listed as near extinction. An oil spill of this magnitude threatens
many species. (C. Campagna et al. 2011) In addition to the threat of the Gulf of Mexico's biodiversity that this
spilled caused, the long term effects on human health are unknown despite extensive research since the disaster. The
current literature tends to focus separately on health effects in workers and health effects in communities. However,
workers who responded to the Gulf oil spill are integrated into their communities, and the ecologic, economic, and
health effects of the spill are closely interconnected. (B.D. Goldstein et al. 2011) Though there has been research so
far about the effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and chemical dispersants on marine life, on the
workers involved in the clean ups when the Deepwater Horizon oil spill took place, and even extending to studies on
how terrestrial life such as bird interactions could be have been affected long term, this paper will specifically focus
on PAHs in seafood and its toxicity to humans while addressing evidence of toxicity and possible proposals for
further research on the topic.
II. Contaminants in Seafood and Toxicity
Though there are many factors since the Deepwater Horizon oil spill that still may have potential long term
effects up to this day with many closures of fisheries along the Gulf of Mexico, the consumption of seafood is one of
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the biggest concerns to human health. Studies after previous oil spills have shown that seafood contamination is
determined by numerous factors, including the type and quality of the oil, the proximity of the spill to fishing
grounds, ambient temperature and weather conditions, and species- and ecosystem-specific parameters that
determine metabolism and the potential for bioaccumulation at different levels of the food chain. (J.M. Gohlke et al.
2011) Though the contaminants of main concern from the aftermath of the overall Deepwater Horizon oil spill
disaster are dispersants (Corexit 9500A), PAHs, and heavy metals, PAHs have been found in seafood. In general,
petroleum oil is primarily composed of hydrocarbons and this can represent up to 97% in some products but can be
as low as 50% in heavy oils and bitumen. PAHs comprise between 0 and 60% of the composition of oil. In general,
the lower molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons are found in greater amounts in oil relative to those of higher
molecular weight. One to three ring PAHs can account for up to 90% of the total aromatic hydrocarbons in oil while,
four to six ring PAHs are found in lower concentrations. Also, PAHs in oil are primarily alkylated and non-alkylated
congeners are found at low concentrations. Molecular weight of hydrocarbon molecules is also an important factor
determining diffusion from environmental compartments to biota. Overall, PAH solubility decreases as molecular
weight increases and higher molecular weight PAHs tend to bind more strongly to particulates and sediments. Lower
molecular weight compounds such as monoaromatic hydrocarbons and naphthalene are highly soluble and readily
diffuse through membranes (French-McCay 2004). However, these lighter compounds are also very volatile and do
not tend to persist in the environment for more than hours to days. In contrast, PAHs with three or more rings are
more hydrophobic and thus, less soluble compared to low molecular weight hydrocarbons (French-McCay 2004).
However, due to their increased persistence after a spill, these PAHs can be important components causing toxicity.
(A. Dupuis et al. 2015) When comparing benzene, which is also a contaminant of concern, since it is known to be a
hematoxicant, a hematocarcinogen, and has a subtle effect on circulating blood cells in workers exposed at sea
below the health occupational standard, PAHs are more persistent and have the ability to bioaccumulate and
potentially cause skin and lung cancer and have reproductive and developmental toxic effects. Atmospheric
photochemical activity, common in summer, converts volatile hydrocarbons into reactive aldehydes and leads to
ozone formation, which can cause respiratory irritation like asthma attacks. (B.D. Goldstein et al. 2011)
It is also believed that PAHs can cause narcosis in marine life. For example in a study done of the
interactions between zooplankton and crude oil, copepods showed signs of sublethal effects and acute toxicity.
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Narcosis was one of the sublethal effects that we observed in copepods exposed to crude oil, in agreement with other
studies. Narcotic effects in copepods may be associated to both the volatile components of petroleum (BTEX) and
the PAHs. Although narcosis in copepods is reversible after exposure to unpolluted water, if it is prolonged, it may
reduce feeding and consequently cause death, or may increase the risk of mortality by predation in nature.
Alterations in reproduction, feeding and egestion rates have been commonly observed in copepods exposed to
specific PAHs. However, there is a big discrepancy among studies regarding what physiological rates are affected,
and the results vary widely depending on the species and oil exposure concentration. (R. Almeda et al 2013)
In contrast to marine life, humans are exposed to PAHs on a daily basis due to pollution caused by
industrial processes. According to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the usual routes
of exposure are ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact dependent on occupation. Non-working sources of
exposure include diet, smoking, and burning wood and coal. Exposure may even occur via placental transfer, breast
milk, and coal tar products. Therefore, people exposed the most to PAHs would be blue-collar workers such as
machinists, roofers, asphalt workers, coal-gas workers, road pavement workers, fisherman using coal tar nets, etc.
PAHs are metabolized via CYP enzymes in the liver. In addition to liver and kidneys, metabolism of PAHs occurs in
the adrenal glands, testes, thyroid, lungs, skin, sebaceous glands and small intestines. PAHs are first transformed into
epoxides then to dihydrodiol derivatives and phenols. Then the glucuronide and sulfate conjugates of these
metabolites are excreted in the bile and urine. Glutathione conjugates are further metabolized to mercapturic acids
in the kidney and are excreted in the urine as free hydroxylated metabolites conjugated to glucuronic acid and
sulfate Toxicity may vary due to differences in structure and is also dependent on the biological effective dose, or
the amount of toxins that actually reaches the cells or target sites where interaction and adverse effects occur. To
humans, the main health effect of concern is carcinogenic, but are have a low degree of acute toxicity. After chronic
exposure, the non-carcinogenic effects are usually pulmonary, gastrointestinal, and renal and many PAHs are slightly
mutagenic with some of the metabolites or derivatives being mutagens for certain PAHs. (ATSDR 2009)
In regards toxicity due to exposure, as noted by researchers on their research on seafood safety after an oil spill that
there are hundreds of different PAHs, but, the composition of PAHs from combustion is noticeably different from
that of PAHs produced by diagenetic processes (PAHs found in crude oil, coal, or shale, for example). PAHs
produced by combustion are primarily compounds with unsubstituted aromatic rings; these PAHs are often called
4
parent PAH structures. PAH compounds produced by petroleum have alkyl group substitutions on the various parent
ring structures. A small fraction of the PAHs found in petrogenic sources include unsubstituted or parent compounds.
Therefore, analytical data that include information on alkyl substitution makes it relatively easy to determine
whether the PAHs in an environmental sample are from pyrogenic or petrogenic sources, or are a mixture of both. (J.
Wickliffe et al. 2014)
In addition to the toxicity of PAHs and how each PAH differs in the level toxicity due to varying chemical
structures, the toxicity of Corexit 9500A, the chemical dispersant used during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill was
studied in a master's thesis submitted by Mengyuan Zheng from Auburn University. The study attempted to quantify
the in vitro by using cell lines from different tissues and provides data regarding the toxicity mechanisms of Corexit
9500A. It was hypothesized that Corexit 9500A in regards to cytotoxicity involves apoptosis, necrosis, oxidative
stress, and mitochondria dysfunctions. Based on literature review, limited studies were done on the toxicity of
Corexit 9500A, but it was discovered that the dispersant doesn't cause endocrine disruption. Due to inhalation by
workers on site during the cleanup of the oil spill, in a study using rats by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH), that focused on research of the acute pulmonary, brain, and skin response of the
dispersant, inhaled Corexit might spread throughout the brain through the olfactory system and influence the central
nervous system (CNS). A study was conducted on the potential neurological risk of Corexit using male rats and the
study showed that by the seventh day partial loss of olfactory marker proteins in the brain, decreased tyrosine
hydroxylase protein in the striatum, and increased expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the hippocampus
and cortex suggesting imbalances in neurotransmitter signaling after acute exposure. (Sriram et al 2011) Corexit can
also enter circulation through the dermal route and affect several organs and cells in the human body.
Mechanistically, Corexit can affect the electron transportation chain and therefore decease Complex-I activity in
cells that lead to mitochondria dysfunction. Antioxidants also respond to the stress caused by the dispersant.
Superoxide dimutase activity increases and hence activates a cells self-protection mechanism and increases catalase
activity. Glutathione has been shown to decrease while reactive oxidation species increases. Therefore, exposure to
Corexit 9500A leads to cell death due to lipid degradation of the cell membrane. Cell death due Corexit 9500A is
proven to be due to apoptosis. (M. Zheng 2013)
III. Evidence of Exposure
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Along with the toxicity of PAHs to humans and its metabolic pathways, there is evidence of possible long
term exposure to seafood and humans. Human exposure can occur even from the production of plasticizers,
pigments, drying agents, and pesticides, but the environment is exposed to only a small amount, but ultimately, can
occur in indoor or outdoor environments and by all routes (inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact), regardless of the
source. PAH formed by burning of fossil fuels, smoke from forest fires, and cigarette smoking are mainly available
for inhalation, but they can also be ingested together with food (e.g., smoked foods, atmospheric deposition on
vegetables, and coal used for cooking) or saliva (smoking). For skin contact, the principal primary sources are
exposure to tar, soot, and organic solvents. (S.S. Franco et al. 2008)
Along with the possible routes of human exposure, a study published on the oil impacts on the coastal
wetlands of the Mississippi River Delta, it is stated the impacts of oil on the ecological structure and function of
wetland ecosystems may alter the resulting benefits to human well-being. (I.A. Mendelssohn et al. 2012) There is
clear, solid evidence that this oil spill showed huge impacts on economic activity and acute toxicity to marine life,
but little evidence is shown about the possible health exposures to the general public from the consumption of
seafood besides people who work in occupations related to the cleanup of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill through
exposure routes explained by Sergio Franco in his study of PAH health risk assessments in Brazil.. In a critique
assessment of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), who is mainly responsible and determines seafood
safety, the FDA's procedures were evaluated to reflect current safety procedures and vulnerable populations focused
on shellfish consumption and possible cancerous risks. Based on the study, FDA Gulf assessment contained
assumptions that were inconsistent with their own guidelines that were produced by the National Research Council
(NRC), the World Health Organization (WHO), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the
California EPA. The questionable assumptions included high consumer body weight, low estimates of seafood
consumption, failure to include a cancer risk assessment for naphthalene, failure to adjust for early life susceptibility
to PAHs, short exposure duration, and high cancer risks benchmarks. This study proposes that there needs to be
lower benchmark levels that indicate risks for PAH exposure. (M. Rotkin-Ellman et al. 2012) With a huge
environmental disaster such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, vulnerable populations such as pregnant women and
children are shown to be most at risk since it was shown that children and fetuses have greater exposure to
contaminants due to surface area. It is found that by conducting due diligence on FDA's assessments of the exposure
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and health risks of contaminated seafood, more accurate and realistic assessments can be made to determine
exposure risks. It was noted that for non-cancerous health effects, the highest level of PAH exposure is 100,000
times less than the reference dose defined by the EPA. (J.M. Gohlke et al. 2011) Current methods are increasingly
improving to be able to differentiate and distinguish chemical structures among PAHs, but also environmental
media. But the since the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, risk assessment is questionable due to sensitivity for individual
PAHs and insufficient literature for many of these compounds. Recently, research scientists funded to conduct
seafood safety assessments have now included an additional 25-50 PAHs, where most are APAHs to better define
pyrogenic and petrogenic origins of the compounds in seafood and in marine organisms. . For human exposure
assessments to PAHs, validation studies highlight urinary 1-hydroxypyrene as a methodology already validated for
monitoring exposure and PAH-DNA adducts in lymphocytes as a marker of effective dose. The most promising
biomarkers still in the validation process include cytogenetic markers of early effect, evaluation of frequency of
chromosomal aberrations, and micronucleus induction. (S.S. Franco et al. 2008)
IV. Evidence for Health Effects
To support the evidence provided by FDA's critique of their assessments, another study was done
specifically on locally caught shrimp consumption of a Vietnamese-American community in southeast Louisiana.
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) stated that the FDA assumed an average consumer
weight of 176 lbs with a daily shrimp/crab consumption of 13 g. that reflects the intake of the 90th percentile of U.S.
seafood eaters. But the problem with the assessment is that it is believed that an important 10% that represents
seafood consumers, the Vietnamese-American community living along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, is left out.
According to Mark Wilson, the study leader who is also an environmental toxicologist at Tulane University
hypothesized, “The Vietnamese-American population in eastern New Orleans, Louisiana, is a worst-case scenario
for risk because they eat more shrimp and weigh less than the average citizen.” But in contrast to Wilson hypothesis,
the studies found that there was no health risks from seafood consumption. According to Gohlke in a research
conducted on a Vietnamese- American community in Louisiana, the amount of PAHs found to in seafood no sign of
serious health risks to humans and that people who are more than likely to gain serious health risks are those who
work in blue-collar occupations like the workers involved in the cleanup of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill who
were exposed to PAHs daily. In Mark Wilson's targeted study on the Vietnamese-American community that showed
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there was no health risks to humans from the locally caught shrimp in the Gulf of Mexico, it was decided to use
white tailed shrimp in this study because of a consensus by 50 people in community meetings and six sites were
picked by the local shrimp catchers themselves to conduct this study. To support how this study was conducted the
sites were picked because the shrimp from these areas were consumed by the targeted community. Shrimp samples
were picked and quantitative PAH analysis was done on shrimp abdominal tissues to test for 81 different PAHs using
gas chromatography in selected ion monitoring mode and Vietnamese-Americans working in the shrimping sector
were surveyed via telephone and online surveys created by the Social and Economic Sciences Research Center
(SESRC) at Washington State University. The sampling frames consisted of 375 men and women, even among the
same household. The risk assessments that conducted also analyzed bodyweight, intake rate, and exposure duration.
(M.J. Wilson 2014) In another study on the federal response on seafood safety during the aftermath of the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill that support the findings from the targeted study on the Vietnamese-American
community, 13 PAHs and their alkylated homologs were selected as human health risk indicators by crude oil
residue in seafood with the intention of developing a human health risk assessment. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) used ships and contract vessels to collect seafood via trawls, hand lines, and
long lines. By June 2011, more than 8000 seafood specimens were in federal waters which had been processed and
subjected to sensory testing and chemical analysis. The specimens were brought frozen to NOAA's National
Seafood Inspection Laboratory (NSIL) in Mississippi for processing. When it comes to human health risk concerns,
the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries and the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals
determined that the average consumer could eat 63 lbs of peeled shrimp, 5 lbs of oyster meat, or 9 lbs of finfish
everyday for 5 years and have minimal risk of health effects. (G.M. Ylitalo et al. 2012)
Based on the findings from this study that showed no health risk, since the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the
Vietnamese-American community, despite the fact that this community is most likely vulnerable due to lower
bodyweights and higher consumption of shrimp on average, decease their amount of shrimp consumption and like
studies on the critique of the FDA's method of risk assessment, children, pregnant women, and other vulnerable
populations of this community weren't surveyed and analyzed. To help support the fact their maybe possible health
risks from PAH ingestion, a study was done on prenatal exposure and cognitive dysfunction in children. The study is
ongoing on the health effects of prenatal exposure to air pollution on infants and children in Krakow, Poland. The
8
strong effect of prenatal PAH exposure is consistent with human studies showing that the fetus and infants in general
are more sensitive to toxicants in the environment than adults. It is also noted that although in this particular study
the had the limitation of a small size sample of children, the study accounted for factors that are known to affect
intellectual development, such as tobacco smoke and breastfeeding. Strength of this study, though not related to the
aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, showed that there is a need for pregnant women to reduce their
exposure to air pollution. (W.A Jedrychowski et al. 2015) In comparison to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, along
with the use of chemical dispersants on the oil in the ocean, oil was burned off as well and may have the possibility
of going toward the general community, but could be applicable to the consumption of seafood when actual studies
in this area aren't found. According to the same study that conducted a critique on the FDA's assessments, they
found that in their revised version of the assessment, 53% of the Gulf's shrimp samples were above the levels of
concern for pregnant women. In the case of past oil spills, such as the Erika and Prestige oil spills, studies in cells
and in laboratory animals suggests that bioaccumulation and biomagnification of crude oil components like PAHs
can occur in seafood. (B.D. Goldstein et al. 2011) In addition to concerns and health risks to pregnant women and
children, a study of human fecal microbiota showed that health risks may arise due to the fact that dispersed oil
exposure in the microbiota increases the amount of E. coli with increased susceptibility to Salmonella enterica
infections.
In the study of human fecal microbiota on dispersed oil, fecal samples were obtained from six healthy
males ranging in ages 50 to 60 years old and where tested immediately after donation and Deepwater Horizon crude
oil and the dispersant used in the spill, Corexit 9500, were obtained from the FDA's Gulf Coast Seafood Laboratory,
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. The study conducted with the approval of the FDA Research
Involving Human Subjects Committee. The methods used for this study were nucleic acid extraction, DGGE
analysis, quantitative real-time PCR, and pyrosequencing analysis of 16S rRNA genes. The bacteria that were used
for this study were Escherichia coli (E. coli), Bacteroides uniformis, Bifidobacterium adolescentis, uncultured
Faecalibacterium EF402172, and Eubacterium biforme. There were in vitro cultures of feces exposed to oil and the
dispersant and was shown that dispersed oil affected the microbiota more than either oil or dispersant alone. It is
stated that this could be due to the dispersed oil's increased solubility which provides more surface area of
hydrophobic and toxic compounds for microbial contact and studies show that chemical dispersants may increase
9
the concentration of PAHs in the water column. Most of the bacterial species were more influenced by the disperant-
oil mixture than with oil alone. To further support the evidence of the effects of the main oil spill contaminants,
PAHs and chemical dispersants, the changes in bacterial populations could change the nutrient compositions that
could affect bacterial groups within the gastrointestinal tract. (J.N. Kim et al. 2012) Although there are compelling
evidence of health effects on humans due to the effects on the microbiota, like with the study of the Vietnamese-
American community on shrimp consumption in Louisiana, there are no adverse health effects on the health of the
general population due to PAH contamination alone. Our microbiota work and live in symbiosis with humans and
anything that has negative effects on our microbiota could have negative effects on our immune system.
V. Conclusion
Although there are may be obvious long term effects for people in occupations who have worked in the
cleanup of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the long term effects are still questionable in regards to contaminated
seafood in relation to human health. It has been shown the chemical dispersant, Corexit 9500A, increases the PAH
concentration in the water. Therefore increasing the likelihood of exposure. To support the research of Zheng on
toxicity pathways of Corexit 9500A, there was a debate on whether the dispersant was effective at doing its job of
dispersing the crude oil in the ocean. Claire Paris, an oceanographer at the University of Miami in Florida concluded
in a paper she coauthored titled, Chemical Engineering Science, the dispersant only reduced the amount by 1% to
3%. In addition, some scientists question whether pumping 2.9 million liters of the chemicals into the deep sea did
any good; even harming marine life in the process. (W. Cornwall 2015) So far, in the case of the study with the
Vietnamese-American population in Louisiana, there was evidence of exposure, but way below the threshold for
actual health risk concerns set by the FDA. A human, like in the case of industrial workers would need to be
chronically exposed to PAHs and the chemical dispersant daily to actually be susceptible to serious health risks such
as carcinogenic effects. The difficulty of this particular topic when it comes to PAHs is that different PAHs have
varying effects to humans which makes it difficult to find any solid evidence of PAHs on the long term effects of the
health of the general population eating seafood coming from the Gulf of Mexico, but several of the PAH compounds
have the ability to cause carcinogenic effects out of all of the PAHs found in crude oil. But despite the lack of
knowledge, a study done on the bioaccumulation of contaminants in diploid and triploid Eastern oysters showed the
promise of being able to detect PAHs short- and long-term for monitoring oil spills within the environment as a good
10
bioindicator. (M.S. Miles et al. 2014) Throughout literature review, not many studies have been found on
toxicological and epidemiological effects of contaminated seafood on human health, especially with the long term
effects on pregnant women, infants, and children. Most of the studies found were mainly on marine life and their
interactions with the environment and if there are studies on the effects on the health of the general public, assuming
there is a huge health risk due to the disastrous oil spill on commercial fisheries, studies show there isn't any health
concern, but some researchers, like Miriam Rotkin-Ellman and company with their critique on FDA assessments
believes that they are leaving out vulnerable populations in their assessments and the level of concern is set too high.
Based on literature reviews, if there are no health risk concerns from eating the contaminated seafood after a huge
oil spill, the question that should be asked is, “What future studies are needed to really check and be sure that in the
long term, there aren’t health risks to the general population?” There needs to be more studies, besides the prenatal
study of PAH exposure from air pollution in Poland on pregnant women and infants, specifically on ingesting
contaminated seafood. In relation to the effects of the contaminants found in seafood from the spill, when studying
human fecal microbiota, it is shown that the dispersant-oil mixture had more of an impact on enterobacteria than
with the samples with either dispersant or oil alone. As stated, the many bacteria that comprise the human
microbiota live in symbiosis and makes up 70% of the strength of our immune system. Despite no real evidence that
eating contaminated seafood poses no risk to human health, there also needs to be more studies in this area regarding
long term effects on human health.
11
Biography
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Dupuis, A., & Ucan-Marin, F. (2015). A literature review on the aquatic toxicology of petroleum oil: An overview of oil properties and effects to aquatic biota.
Gohlke, J. M., Doke, D., Tipre, M., Leader, M., & Fitzgerald, T. (2011). A review of seafood safety after the Deepwater Horizon blowout. Environmental health perspectives, 119(8), 1062.
Wilson, M. J., Frickel, S., Nguyen, D., Bui, T., Echsner, S., Simon, B. R., ... & Wickliffe, J. K. (2014). A Targeted Health Risk Assessment Following the Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure in Vietnamese-American Shrimp Consumers. Environmental health perspectives.
Kim, J. N., Kim, B. S., Kim, S. J., & Cerniglia, C. E. (2012). Effects of crude oil, dispersant, and oil-dispersant mixtures on human fecal microbiota in an in vitro culture system. MBio, 3(5), e00376-12.
Wickliffe, J., Overton, E., Frickel, S., Howard, J., Wilson, M., Simon, B., ... & Kane, A. (2014). Evaluation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using analytical methods, toxicology, and risk assessment research: seafood safety after a petroleum spill as an example. Environmental health perspectives,122(1), 6.
Zheng, M. (2013). Evaluation of Toxicity Levels and Cytotoxicity Mechanisms of Corexit 9500 (Doctoral dissertation, Auburn University).
Miles, M. S., Malone, R. F., & Supan, J. E. (2014, May). Evaluation of Triploid Oysters as a Tool to assess Short-and Long-term Seafood Contamination of Oil Spill-impacted Areas. In International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings (Vol. 2014, No. 1, pp. 1958-1971). American Petroleum Institute.
Ylitalo, G. M., Krahn, M. M., Dickhoff, W. W., Stein, J. E., Walker, C. C., Lassitter, C. L., ... & Dickey, R. W. (2012). Federal seafood safety response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(50), 20274-20279.
Campagna, C., Short, F. T., Polidoro, B. A., McManus, R., Collette, B. B., Pilcher, N. J., ... & Carpenter, K. E. (2011). Gulf of Mexico oil blowout increases risks to globally threatened species. BioScience, 61(5), 393-397.
Sumaila, U. R., Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M., Dyck, A., Huang, L., Cheung, W., Jacquet, J., ... & Pauly, D. (2012). Impact of the Deepwater Horizon well blowout on the economics of US Gulf fisheries. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 69(3), 499-510.
Almeda, R., Wambaugh, Z., Wang, Z., Hyatt, C., Liu, Z., & Buskey, E. J. (2013). Interactions between zooplankton and crude oil: toxic effects and bioaccumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. PloS one, 8(6), e67212.
Mendelssohn, I. A., Andersen, G. L., Baltz, D. M., Caffey, R. H., Carman, K. R., Fleeger, J. W., ... & Rozas, L. P. (2012). Oil impacts on coastal wetlands: implications for the Mississippi River Delta ecosystem after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. BioScience, 62(6), 562-574.Franco, S. S., Nardocci, A. C., & Günther, W. M. R. (2008). PAH biomarkers for human health risk assessment: a review of the state-of-the-art. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 24, a569-s580.
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Franco, S. S., Nardocci, A. C., & Günther, W. M. R. (2008). PAH biomarkers for human health risk assessment: a review of the state-of-the-art. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 24, a569-s580.
Jedrychowski, W. A., Perera, F. P., Camann, D., Spengler, J., Butscher, M., Mroz, E., ... & Sowa, A. (2014). Prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and cognitive dysfunction in children. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-9.
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