Philosophy in curriculum: Move Toward Progressive Education

ASSIGNMENT – HMEF5073 Curriculum Development PART A

Philosophy in curriculum: Move Toward Progressive Education

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper will outline different philosophical or theoretical bases for curriculum decisions

followed by a discussion on curriculum of education in Malaysia, how the National Philosophy

of Malaysian Education and the aims of education in Malaysia related with philosophy of

progressivism. Moreover, highlights will be make on the philosophical orientation that likely to

most influence the curriculum field in the future during this Information Age and the changing

workplace demands. Most of the country in the world includes philosophy in its curriculum.

Philosophy is recommended for inclusion in national curricula by the UN–and, in particular, by

UNESCO– Philosophy is importance in creating the conditions for a free and democratic society,

and because of the vital role that it plays in developing the general capabilities of citizens

(Monica et. al. 2009).

Curriculum can mean different things to different people based on their philosophical

foundations, values, and educational experience. For some it takes on a narrow definition and

relates to the textbook or other physical materials used in the class. For others it has a very broad

meaning related to the total experience of the learner (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009). Curriculum

work will have no guidance and direction without a framework for broad issues and tasks.

Philosophy really make it crucial role in providing curriculum with this framework. As stated by

John Goodlad (1979), philosophy is the beginning point in curriculum decision-making and is

the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum.

Then, John Dewey also asserted that: “education is the laboratory which school philosophic

distinctions becomes concrete and is tested.” The great thing about philosophy is it provides

educational, curriculum, principal, committees composed of leaders, consultants, and subject-

area specialist with framework for implementing, planning, and evaluating curricula in schools.

Philosophy helps in answering what schools are for and in selecting appropriate methods and

instructional materials to use in teaching and learning. Also, the philosophy of a curriculum

planner, implementer, evaluator reflects his or her life experiences, common beliefs, social, and

economic background, and educational views. (Avelina et. al. 2012).

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1.1 Philosophy influence curriculum development

Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching and learning process. Curriculum will establish and

determine the development of programs of study, lesson plans, assessment, school activities,

learning and teaching resources. According to De Coninck (2008), curriculum, more than ever

before, is now viewed as being at the centre of daily life and the responsibility of society as a

whole. Levin (2007) noted that curriculum documents were “a very large part of the work done

by ministries of education in creating curriculum content (para. 1).” Levin (2007) also states that

educational change is more complex and curriculum renewal has become part of a broader

strategy for change in education.

Now, a great question is how the philosophies influence curriculum development or education

reform? How the philosophy and curriculum being connected? Philosophy becomes the criteria

for determining the aims, selection, organization and implementation of the curriculum in the

classroom. (John Arul, 2011). According to Wiles, (2009), curriculum work is a Value-Laden

process. In order to determine the essential from the frivolous, a philosophy or theoretical base

would help one filter the plethora of available ideas, activities, and programs. While Sitwe,

(2010) stated that, the theories of learning or theoretical base which had been presented by

different educational psychologists. These theories of learning will influence curriculum

specialists during the development stages of the curriculum starting from the planning and design

of the curriculum where they essentially consider contents in the curriculum development

process based on the perceptions of learners and how they learn.

As posited by Sitwe,(2010), before the detailed construction of a curriculum document occurs,

curriculum developers are involved in planning and designing their proposed curriculum.

Curriculum planning is a process whereby curriculum developers conceptualize and organize the

features of the curriculum they wish to construct. This involves a broad analysis of the

curriculum intent and context, conceptualizing the curriculum's design, organizing the

sequencing of developmental tasks and arranging for the process of implementation and

evaluation. As mentioned before, curriculum planning is an integral part of the curriculum

development process which is heavily influenced by philosophy, thus, they should be a part of

the decision making process.

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2. OVERVIEW OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Ornstein (2011) stated there are four major educational philosophies that have great influence on

school curriculum in the United States: Perenialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and

Reconstructionism. These educational philosophical approaches are currently used in classrooms

the world over. These educational philosophies focus heavily on what we should teach, the

curriculum aspect. Ornstein (2011) introduces these philosophical standpoints in relation to

curriculum as traditional philosophy (Perenialism and Essentialism) and contemporary

philosophy (Progressivism and Reconstructionism).

2.1 Perennialism

Perennialists are educationally conservative in the requirement of a curriculum focused upon

fundamental subject areas, but stress that the overall aim should be exposure to history's finest

thinkers as models for discovery. The student should be taught such basic subjects as English,

languages, history, mathematics, natural science, philosophy, and fine arts. George, (1971). For

Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the

great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any

era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant,

not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change.

Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their minds

need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile

education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students'

growth in enduring disciplines. Advocates of this educational philosophy are Robert Maynard

Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further

developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization. LeoNora (1999).

The answers to all educational questions derive from the answer to one question: What is human

nature? According to them, human nature is constant and humans have the ability to understand

the universal truths of nature. Thus, the aim of education is to develop the rational person and to

uncover universal truths by training the intellect. Towards developing one’s moral and spiritual

being, character education should be emphasized.

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2.1.1 Figure 1: The characteristics of Perennialism Curriculum (John Arul, 2011)

2.2 Essentialism

Essentialism is a teacher-centered philosophy. It stresses rigorous practice with the traditional

subjects for example reading, writing, science and math. Essentialists value deep knowledge on a

few core subjects, as opposed to more general knowledge on a wider array of subjects. Acording

to LeoNora,( 1999), Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to

be transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative

perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the

curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor.

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Perennialism Curriculum

i. Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but to pursue knowledge for its own sake.

The ‘Great Books’ programme or more commonly called the liberal arts will discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. (Hutchins, 1936).

Students have to discover those ideas that are most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition.

At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against reliance on textbooks and lectures in communicating ideas. At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982) in his book the Paideia Proposal, recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum.

Teaching should focus on the processes by which scientific truths have been discovered.

Not keen on allowing students to take electives subjects.

Teachers should spend more time teaching concepts and explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students.

School should teach religious values or ethics.


Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists

accept the idea that this core curriculum may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing

students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality

out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and

logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard

work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-

productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This approach was in reaction

to progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William Bagley, took progressivist

approaches to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are: James

D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).

2.2.1 Figure 2: The characteristics of Essentialism Curriculum (John Arul, 2011)

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Students are taught to be "culturally literate," that is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped society.

The ‘basics’ of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language and literature.

Elementary students receive instruction in skills.

Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast learners.

It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year, and more challenging textbooks.

Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most important for students .

Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating progress.

Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation.

Teachers need to be mature and well educated.

EssentialismCurriculum


2.3 Progressivism

Based on Gutek (1997, 301), Progressivism adheres to Naturalism, Pragmatism, and Liberalism,

where students are given the freedom to develop as a person through a curriculum that reflects

the students’ interests facilitated in a permissive environment. This educational philosophy is

experiential, practical, and self-liberating. Progressive education was deeply influenced by Jean

Jacques Rosseau, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, and Sigmund Freud’s works (Gutek 1997, 294).

Overall, the works of these men point to an education that is free from coercion and attends to

the interests and the holistic (emotions, intellect, and body) development of the child.

In respect to this, philosophy of Progressivism is matched with The National Philosophy of

Malaysian Education (NPME) which stressed that “school should be a miniature of a

democratic society. The Progressive Movement in education had a lasting impact on practice and

instructional methodology. People such as John Dewey and Maria Montessori believed that

education should be responsive to the needs and interests of children as opposed to teaching a set

curriculum proscribed by traditional practice. In addition they were opposed to strict autocratic

teaching styles that relied heavily on textbooks, memorization, and a spare the rod and spoil the

child type of mentality. Rather the educational focus of the progressives was on teaching

children how to think and learn. LeoNora,( 1999)

Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content

or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active

experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing

the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who make

meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective

teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived

from student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivism educators so

that students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. LeoNora,( 1999)

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2.3.1 Figure 3: The characteristics of Progressive Curriculum (John Arul, 2011)

2.4 Reconstructionism /Critical Theory

The reconstructionist sees things the same way as the progressive—up to a point. For example,

reconstructionists believe that students learn more, remember it longer, and apply it to new

situations better if they learn through experience, rather than through being told something. The

reconstructionist claims that truth is what works, and we arrive at truth through a process of trial

and error. The axiological question asks: “What is good and beautiful”? The reconstructionist’s

answer to this is whatever the public consensus says it is! (Sabacrismark, 2013)

Reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a quest

to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a

curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. LeoNora,( 1999). The American

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Teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological, and social developments and learning should be related to present community life.

Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction.

Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view. Teachers should not

be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time.

Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum.

The home, workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life.

Progressive Curriculum


philosopher and educator Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) is generally seen as the founder of the

reconstructionist philosophy of education. Brameld, as a result of the violence of World War II,

felt that, as a society, we had two distinct choices; either evolve and work to create a more

socially just world, or submit to potential societal and global destruction as a consequence of

oppression and war. George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of

preparing people for creating this new social order.

More recent reconstructionists such as Paulo Freire in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed

(1968) advocated a revolutionary pedagogy for poor students in which people can move through

different stages to ultimately be able to take action and overcome oppression. He argued that

people must become active participants in changing their own status through social action to

change bring about social justice. (John Arul, 2011). For social reconstructionists and critical

theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and taking social action on real problems,

such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality.

2.4.1 Figure 4: The characteristics of Reconstructionist Curriculum (John Arul, 2011)

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The curriculum should engage students in critical analysis of the local, national and international community.

Schools are obliged to educate children towards resolution of these injustices and students should not be afraid to examine controversial issues.

In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences.

Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal and internationalism.

Students be aware of global issues and the interdependence between nations.

Students had to be committed to the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about constructive change.

Reconstructionis

m Curriculum


Table 1: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION CHART

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Educational Philosophy

Perennialism: Focus: Teach ideas that are everlasting. Seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, through great literature, art, philosophy, religion.

Essentialism: Focus: Teach the common core, "the basics" of information and skills (cultural heritage) needed for citizenship. (Curriculum can change slowly)

Progressivism: Focus: Ideas should be tested by active experimentation. Learning rooted in questions of learners in interaction with others. Experience and student centered.

Reconstructionism/Critical TheoryFocus: Critical pedagogy: Analysis of world events, controversial issues and diversity to provide vision for better world and social change.

Curricular emphasis

Humankind’s great achievements in literature, history, philosophy, religion. “The classics”.

Skills and practical knowledge to prepare students for life after graduation.

Subject matter of social experience.

Subject matter of personal choice. Creation of new social order.

Teaching methods

Teach for handling ideas: lecture, discussion.

Teach for mastery of facts and basic skills: demonstration, recitation.

Problem solving: Project method.

Inquiry: Students learn by questioning the world.

Character development

Imitating examples, heroes.

Training in rules of conduct.

Making group decisions in light of consequences.

Individual responsibility for decisions and preferences.

Theory of learning

Information ProcessingThe mind makes meaning through symbol-processing structures of a fixed body of knowledge. Information is received, processed, stored, and retrieved from the mind.

BehaviorismBehavior shaped by design and determined by positive and negative reinforcement.

Social LearningLearning by observing and imitating others.

Cognitivism/ConstructivismLearner actively constructs own understandings of reality through interaction with environment and reflection on actions. Student-centered learning around conflicts.

HumanismPersonal freedom, choice, responsibility.

Control of own destiny. Child centered. Interaction with others.


3. Malaysia Educational Philosophy and education issues

The National Philosophy of Malaysian Education (NPME) as stated by Curriculum Development

Centre (CDC) 1988 is as follows:

“Education in Malaysia is an ongoing effort towards further development of the potential of

individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who are

intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious based on a firm

belief in God.” “Such an effort is destined to produce Malaysian citizens who are

knowledgeable, who possess high moral standards, and who are responsible and capable of

achieving a high level of personal well being as well as able to contribute to the harmony and

betterment of the nation at large.”

3.1 Aims of education in Malaysia:

The aims of Malaysian education are “to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually,

emotionally and physically balanced and harmonic, based on a firm belief in and devotion to

God; so that they become Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, possess

high moral standards and are responsible and capable of achieving high level of personal well-

being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society

and nation”.

Some keywords in the NPME are : “holistic”, “intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and

physically balanced”, “knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards”, and

“responsible and capable of achieving high level of personal well-being as well as being able to

contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and nation at large”.

Based on the above keyword, we probably can match NPME to the general educational

philosophy of Progressivism, which stresses that “school should be a miniature of a democratic

society”.

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3.2 Regardless of how precious of educational philosophy in our country, we still faced some educational issues.

3.2.1 High stake of examination system lead to pressure

Under the traditional examination such UPSR, PMR, SPM and STPM, there are much “drill

and practice” in class as what the almost teachers and parent prefer to improve students result.

The demand to do well is further increased as good grades would lead one to secure entry to a

good university a good job and future. The examination pressure experienced among students

has seen the rise in suicides and deaths among school students. In 2007, a young 12-year old

S.Subashini, hanged herself in her room after receiving her UPSR results (Appendix 1).

A case in Malacca 2012, a teenager was believed to have consumed pesticide shortly after taking

his result slip and died (Appendix 2). Hence, there are no surprise and mental health problems

among school-going children. The Befriends Malaysia, a voluntary organization located in the

Klang valley, pointed out that they receive approximately 60 calls per day and from these 10 per

cent are from student under the age of 20.

3.2.2 Malaysia’s education system not in sync with workforce development - M. Lee

As stated by M. Lee in 2013, Malaysia's education system has been plagued with problems that

have damaged the workforce development. Problems include: High unemployment among fresh

graduates, lack in productivity, workforce mismatch, irrelevant education provision and Skewed

selection of students.

3.2.3 Education system not producing thinking graduates, say experts

Graduates emerging from the Malaysian education system fail to meet the expectations of

prospective employers due to a lack of critical thinking skills and poor communication.

Malaysian-based education, human resource and recruitment consultants feel that there should be

a sound foundation in critical thinking to be incorporated into the education system to prepare

future generations for the employment market. Manpower Staffing Services (M) Sdn Bhd

country manager Sam Haggag said there was a distinct gap between what the Malaysian

education system is producing and what employers are looking for. (The Star,2012, March, 4)

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3.2.4 The achievement of students in PISA 2009 is very weak.

Malaysia is currently performing below the International Average for scores in Math, Science

and Reading. PISA 2009+ results show that there is room for improvement in teaching

innovation in Math and Science skills. The result indicated that our students lack of higher

thinking skills. (Zabani KPM 2012)

4. With the challenges posed by the Information Age and the changing workplace demands,

which philosophical orientation do you think is likely to most influence the curriculum

field in the future?

4.1 The rational to practice progressivism in our education.

With the issues that appeared in our education, our education needs to develop, change and

reform to adapt education to national development needs. The essence of educational

development and reformation, as in other developing countries, has always been to provide

education for human resource development to meet the needs of the social, economic and

political development of the country. In respect to this, we need to move toward progressive

education.

With the traditional approach, teachers rely on the so-called chalk and talk method. Teacher

always ignore the interests, talents and learning styles of the students. The most important thing

is that all children mastery the knowledge taught by teacher. Mistakes are viewed as problems

that signal the need for a child to work harder. Children are evaluating by using standardized

tests. Extrinsic rewards such as grades, awards, gold stars, and public recognition are valued over

intrinsic motivation. This approach, of course, rarely allows interaction and active learning for

instance more hands-on and practical sessions. There are much “drill and practice” in class and

it is much more exam-oriented.

While in the progressive approach, children are encouraged to follow their interests, pursue

problems in a way that makes sense to them. Student didn’t scare to make mistake as it is viewed

as important opportunities for the teacher to get to know how a child understands . School base

assessment is use as evaluating tool. Each child’s evaluation is based on his or her progress over

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time. Grades, test scores are not the most important. Students always receive intrinsic motivation

in class.

In this paper, my field of writing is focused to the Malaysia case. Instruction in Malaysia

schools is overwhelmingly teacher-centered and exam-oriented. Teacher posed the top priority in

classroom management and activities in learning and teaching. Textbooks and lecturing are the

main tool and method to deliver the curriculum and knowledge. Learning emphasized on

recalling and most of the time involved lower thinking skill and very few of higher thinking skill.

Moreover, The National Philosophy of Malaysian Education (NPME), as mentioned above,

we probably can match NPME to the general educational philosophy of Progressivism, which

stresses that “school should be a miniature of a democratic society in which students could learn

and practice the skills and tools necessary for democratic living; which include problem-solving

methods and scientific inquiry; and learning experiences that include cooperative behaviors and

self-discipline; which are important for democratic living”. So, the (NPME) had been related

to progressive education but didn’t emphasize on it and teachers rarely teach that way . In

respect to this, back to the education issues we faced this day, that are Malaysia’s education

system not in sync with workforce development, education system not producing thinking

graduates, the achievement of students in PISA 2009 is very weak, high stake of examination

system lead to pressure, this three issues are enough to bring the disadvantage side to our

generation.

Schools with progressive curriculum not only as a place for student acquires knowledge but

serves as a place for students to communicate , learn how to get knowledge , learn from

watching others , solve the problem, work with others , and to experience first-hand the

whole field of learning as what being done in a school named Green Acres School. As reported

by Danville & Bethesda (2012), Green Acres is a coeducational, progressive school for grades

pre-kindergarten through eight, dedicated to fostering the natural curiosity of students, engaging

them actively in the joy of learning and facilitating problem solving. Based on an understanding

of child development, Green Acres’ program is cognitively, physically, and creatively

challenging. Valuing acceptance of a variety of viewpoints, this community promotes socio-

economic and cultural diversity. An environment of trust, cooperation and mutual respect

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encourages students to become increasingly independent thinkers and responsible contributors to

an ever-changing, multicultural world.

I belief most children are born curious and keen to learn. Teachers must play an important role

by applying certain methods of teaching and classroom management skills. Every student has

strengths and weaknesses. Some pupils good at art and music, some perform best in sports and

some are good at memories history. In progressive learning and teaching, teacher use different

strategies to reach every child. Teacher should recognize the needs of the students because

children learn at different rates. Progressive teacher teach them not only basic skills, but also the

creative thinker and problem solver so that they will develop a positive attitude towards

learning.

Students will learn best when they are given the opportunity to actively engaged in learning and

teaching activities. Furthermore, each child is a unique individual student who needs a safe,

caring, and stimulating atmosphere in which to grow emotionally, intellectually, physically, and

socially. It is my desire as an educator to help students meet their fullest potential in these areas

by providing a safe and progressive learning and teaching. My view is in accordance with what

being said by Hirsch cited by Labaree, (2005) in his article named Progressivism, Schools and

Schools of Education: An American Romance. Hirsch saying that the child is a special being in

its own right with unique, trustworthy—indeed holy impulses that should be allowed to develop

and run their course. Moreover, my opinion also support by Scotland’s Schools etc. Act 2000

that stressed and required the education authority to secure that school education is directed to

the development of the personality, talents and mental and physical abilities of the child or young

person to their fullest potential.

The elements to become a progressive educator are the teacher acts as a guide, allowing the

child's natural curiosity, and promoting self-learning atmosphere. Moreover in this

information age, the role of the teacher is to guide, providing access to information rather than

acting as a primary source of information. My view is supported by Csokasy and Vandeveer

study that Progressivism and adult learning theory both support the student’s ability to establish

his or her own learning needs (Csokasy, 2009; Vandeveer, 2009). In progressivism, the teacher

is viewed as a guide and facilitator who encourages critical thinking, cooperative learning, and

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social change through experiential learning (Csokasy, 2009; Spurgeon & Moore, 1997). Students

search for knowledge and seek knowledge and discovery by their own to construct knowledge.

Teachers have to provide students access to hands-on activities and allowing enough time and

space to use materials that reinforce the lessons learned. With all this activity, their knowledge

will be conserved in the memories and the great thing is the students did not need was

always depend on teacher in learning something new. The attitude and spirit of this are very

necessary in this modern live.

Last but not least, as cited by Labaree, (2005) in his article, Angus and Mirel found that the

progressive curriculum was increasingly being expanded to provide a wide array of academic

and non-academic courses at multiple ability levels, which were intended to meet the needs of

students with widely differing occupational trajectories and academic skills. This statement is

matched to Malaysia situation in which there are high unemployment among fresh graduates,

lack in productivity, workforce mismatch, irrelevant education provision and Skewed selection

of students. It hope that our education institution are able to provide more academic and non-

academic courses to meet the students needs and meet the changing workplace demands.

5. Conclusion

Providing a conducive learning and teaching is the role of the teacher. In this case, the

progressive teaching and learning can produce mature students that possessed high level

thinking, able to resolve the problem and have good relationship with all communities.

Progressivism is a philosophy that states the education is based on the needs and student interest.

Experiential learning or "learning by doing” is the natural progression of learning. In a

progressive learning, the children are given the freedom to explore new discoveries. They also

experienced positive reinforcement will produce better students and provide teachers with useful

teaching experience. In progressive learning and teaching, it helped teachers to control their class

and attract the students with the meaningful and interesting activities. Then, students will feel

happy, the teachers were also excited.

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6. References

Angus, David L., and Jeffrey E. Mirel. The Failed Promise of the American High School,

1890–1995. New York, 1999.

Billings & J. A. Halstead (Eds.), Teaching in nursing: The faculty role (pp. 189-226). St.

Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier.

Csokasy, J. (2009). Philosophical foundations of the curriculum. In D. M. Billings & J. A.

Halstead (Eds.), Teaching in nursing: The faculty role (pp. 105-118). St. Louis,

MO: Saunders Elsevier.

Danville & Bethesda 2012. "Green Acres School Mission." Green Acres School:

Mission & Philosophy. Finalsite.com, n.d. Web. 23 Nov. 2013.

George F. Kneller: Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, John Wiley & Sons, 1971

Hirsch Jr., E. D. (1996)The Schools We Need and Why We Don’t Have Them. New York.

John Arul Phillips (2009) HMEF 5073 Curriculum Development. Kuala Lumpur: OUM.

Labaree, D. F. (2005). Progressivism, schools and schools of education: An American

romance. Paedagogica historica, 41(1-2), 275-288.

LeoNora M. Cohen (1999), OSU - School of Education

Levin, B. (2007). Curriculum for the 21st century: Does curriculum matter?

Education Services Australia. Retrieved on November 25, 2011, from

http://www.eqa.edu.au/site/doescurriculummatter.html.

Mkandawire Benson Sitwe (2010). How theories of learning influence curriculum

specialists during the development Stages of the curriculum. Academic Paper

written for educational purposes for the Zambian Arts Academy for actors.

Ornstein, A. C. (2011). Philosophy as a basis for curriculum decisions. In A. C. Ornstein,

E.F. Pajak, & S.B. Ornstein (Eds.), Contemporary issues in curriculum (5th ed.)

(pp. 2-9). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Sabacrismark (2013, 06). Reconstructionalism - Curriculum. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 06

, 2013, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Reconstructionalism-Curriculum-

1797234.html

Spurgeon, L. P., & Moore, G. E. (1997). The educational philosophies of training and

development professors, leaders, and practitioners. The Journal of Technology

Studies, XXIII(2), 11-19. Retrieved from

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http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/Summer-Fall-1997/PDF/

Standards in Scotland’s Schools etc. Act 2000,MOE

Vandeveer, M. (2009). From teaching to learning: Theoretical foundations. In D. M.

Zabani, (2012) Status Pencapaian Malaysia Dalam TIMSS dan PISA: Satu Refleksi, KPM

7. AppendicesAppendix 1 S.Subashini, hanged herself in her room.Appendix 2 Teenager was believed to have consumed pesticide.

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Philosophy in curriculum: Move Toward Progressive Education