Photography's Role in Tourism

7/21/2019 Photography's Role in Tourism

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P H O T O G R A P H Y S R O L E I N T O U R IS M

Som e Unexp lored e la tionships

Richard M Chalten

D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h ro p o l o g y

Te m p l e U n i ve rs i t y

Ph i lade lph ia , USA

A B S T R A C T

C h a l f e n , R i c h a r d M . , P h o t o g r a p h y ' s R o le i n T o u r i s m : S o m e

U n e x p l o r e d R e l a t i o n s h i p s ,

A n n a l s o f T o u r i sm R e s e a r c h

O c t o b e r / D e -

c e m b e r 1 9 7 9, V I ( 4 ): 4 3 5 -4 4 7 . W h i l e p h o t o g r a p h y i s o n e o f t h e m o s t

c o m m o n a t t r i b u t e s o f t o u r i s t b e h a v i o r , i ts r o l e i n to u r i s m h a s n e v e r b e e n

s t u d i e d . T o u r i st p h o t o g r a p h y i s u n d e r s t o o d a s b o th p h o t o g r a p h s m a d e b y

t o u r i s t s a n d p h o t o g r a p h s m a d e a v a i l a b l e t o t o u r i s t s b y m e m b e r s o f t h e

h o s t c o m m u n i t y . T h i s p a p e r d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h r e e u n e x a m i n e d t o p i c s :

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c e r t a i n t o u r i s t t y p e s a n d p a t t e r n s o f

p h o t o g r a p h i c b e h a v i o r a n d / o r c o n t e n t o f p h o t o g r a p h s ; t h e c u l t u r a l l y

v a r i a b l e s t a n d a r d s o f a p p r o p r i a t e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d c a m e r a u s e i n

d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d ; a n d t h e v a r i e t y o f r e s p o n s e s e x h i b i t e d b y h o s t

c o m m u n i t i e s to b e i n g p h o t o g r a p h e d . E x a m p l e s a r e g i v e n o f h o s t

s e n s i t i v i ti e s a n d c a m e r a r e l a t e d d i s t u r b a n c e s . A t r e n d i s n o t i c e d i n w h i c h

h o s t c o m m u n i t i e s s p e c i f y w h i c h i m a g e s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e a n d i n a p p r o p r i a t e

f o r t o u r i s t p h o t o g r a p h y . K e y w o r d s : pho togra phy travel tour is t behavior

interact ion im age sensi t iv i ty auth entic i ty cul ture .

Richard Chelfan

i s an Assis tan t P ro fessor o f An th ropo logy a t Temple Un ivers i ty . P ro fessor C ha l fen rece ived h i s

Ph.D. f rom the Annen berg Schoo l a t the Un iver s i ty o f Pennsylvan ia . H is p r imary research in te rests i nc lude the

study o f cu l tu re and communica t ion , v i sua l an th ro po logy, and the socio logy o f non-pro fess iona l pho tograp hy

and f i lmmaking .

A N N A L S O F T O U R I S M R E S E A R C H O c t / D e c 7 9 4 3 5


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RICHARD M CHALFEN

THE STUDY OF TOURIST PHOTOGRAPHY

For purposes of this investigation, a tou ris t is characterized as one who

ventu res away from home, alone or in a group, to see or do something that is unusual

relative to the daily round of life. Following Davydd Greenwood, tourism is unders tood

as basica lly a form of recreation expressed either through travel or through

tempora ry change of resi denc e (1972:80). Away -from -hom e is mea nt to be taken

literally. One can fulfill the role of tourist in one 's own country, s tate, city, or even

neighborhood. To see or do something includes witnessing a particular event,

place, person or group of people as well as exp eri enc ing a particular envi ronm ent or

activity. Accordingly, people can not be tourists while at h ome . This restriction

excludes vicarious tourism: reading travelogues, novels,

National Geographic

or

viewing slides, films or television shows about other parts of the world.

Additionally, the perspective of social interaction is used for the study of types of

tourist-host relationships. Here Sutton's work is useful because he emphasizes

enc ount ers and i nterac tions in which

one or more visitors, or outsiders interact with one or more hosts, or

insiders, in a network of supplementary goals and sets of expectations.

Touring means the juxtaposition, at each of a series of different locations,

of visitors who are on the move to enjoy themse lves and see the world ,

and hosts who are relatively stationary and who have the function of

catering to those visitors' needs and wishes (1967:220).

This perspective ass umes additional significance when att ention is given to special

qualities of interaction in which cameras are involved.

It is also necessary to mention briefly the kinds of photography under

consideration. Tourist photography includes two broad categories of photograhic

images: (1) photographs ta ken

by

tourists an d (2) photographs

produced for

tourists by

members of a host community.

Given these orientations, study of tourist photography begs consideration of

several related phen omen a: (a) types of tourists as related to types of photographs, (b)

the co ntent and composition of photographs

per se

and (c) responses by members of

the host community.

Relationship of Tourists and Photograph Collections

Sociological treatments of tourism have suggested a segmentation of the

tou ris t collective into sub-categories. For instance, separation of tourists and

travellers is suggest ed by John Forster. It is one thing as traveller, to tour a country

on a bicycle, or a Greyhound bus, campin g or staying at hotels. It is another as a tourist

to travel in at least minimum luxury and enjoy the facilities and opportunities of a

resort (1964:221).

Readers are re minde d that it is just as likely that tourists a nd travelle rs both carry

cameras with them. In another instance, four types of tourists are suggested by Erik

Cohen: organi zed mass tourist, individual mass tourist, explore r, and

dri fte r (1972). Cohen asserts it is highly likely that each role establi shes different

kinds of social relationships with host communiti es. The most elaborat e classification

system has been developed by anthropologist Valene Smith. She offers a scheme of

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PHOTOGRAPHY' ROLE IN TOURISM

s e v e n t o u r i s t t y p e s : ( 1) e x p l o r e r , ( 2) e l i t e , ( 3) o f f - b e a t , ( 4 ) u n u s u a l , ( 5 ) i n c i p i e n t m a s s ,

( 6) m a s s , a n d ( 7 ) c h a r t e r . A g a i n , e a c h t y p e o f t o u r i s t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y , v a r y i n g i n d e g r e e o f a d a p t a t i o n t o l o c a l

n o r m s . F o r in s t a n c e , at o n e e x tr e m e , t h e e x p l o r e r i s s a i d t o f u l ly a c c e p t lo c a l n o r m s

w h e r e a s t h e m a s s to u r i s t e x p e c ts W e s t e r n a m e n i t i es a n d t h e c h a r t e r t o u r i s t

d e m a n d s W e s t e r n a m e n i t i e s ( 1 9 7 7 : 9 ) .

H y p o t h e t i c a l l y , e ac h t o u r i s t t y p e m a y b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t a k i n g d i f f e r en t k i n d s o f

p h o t o g r a p h s w h i c h, i n t u r n , i l l u s t r a t e a l t e r n a t i v e h o s t - t o u r i st r e l a t i o n s h i p s . O n e

e x a m p l e o f a p o t e n t i a l c o r re l a t io n b e t w e e n t o u r i s t t y p e a n d p h o t o g r a p h s i s h i n t e d a t

w h e n N e l s o n G r a b u r n d i s c u s s e s t h e t o u r i s m o f t h e t i m i d - - t o u r i s t s w h o tr a v e l

s u r r o u n d e d b y th e c o m f o r t s o f t h e i r ow n c u l t u r e a n d l i f e st y l e . T h o u g h u n d o u b t e d l y

e n c h a n t e d b y t h e v i e w o f G o d ' s h a n d i w o r k t h r o u g h t h e p a n e o f t h e a i r c o n d i t i o n e d b u s

o r t h e p o r t ho l e , t h e y w o r s h i p p l u m b i n g t h a t w o r k s a n d s a f e w a t e r a n d f o od .

T h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e u n f a m i l i a r i s l i k e l y t o b e p u r e l y v i s u a l a n d , f i l t e r e d t h r o u g h

s u n g l a s s e s a n d a c a m e r a v i e w f i n d e r ( 1 9 7 7: 3 1 ).

I n th i s c o n t e x t, m u c h d e p e n d s o n w h a t t y p e o f t o u r i s t e x p e c ts f r o m h i s / h e r

e x p e r i e n c e . T h e n o t i on o f e x p e c t a t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d w h e n S m i t h d e s c r i b e s t h e n a t u r e o f

t o u r i s m i n K o t z e b u e , A l a s k a , a n d i n t e r e s t i n s e e i n g th e M i d n i g h t S u n . A f t e r t h e

d a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e f i n i s h e d a t 9 : 00 P . M . , t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f t o u r i s t s s t r o l l e d t h e

b e a c h l i n e , at t h e v e r y h o u r w h e n h u n t e r s r e t u r n e d a n d b u t c h e r i n g c o m m e n c e d .

T o u r i s t ex p e c t a t i o n s w e r e s u d d e n l y m e t - t h e s e w e r e t h e t h i n g s t h e y c a m e t o s e e , a n d

t h e p i c t u r e s t h e y w a n t e d , o f E s k im o d o i n g ' E s k i m o t h i n g s ' ( 1 97 7 :5 9 ).

R e g a r d i n g t h e m o t i v a t io n s o f t o u r i s t p h o t o g r a p h e r s , i t i s u n c e r t a i n h o w m u c h t h e y

r e l y o n t h e i r c a m e r a s t o d o c u m e n t o r p r o v e t h a t t h e y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e d e g r e e

o f a u t h e n t i c n a t i v e li f e. M a c C a n n e l l c o n c l u d e s t h a t T o u r i s t i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s

m o t i v a t e d b y i t s d e s i r e f o r a u t h e n t i c e x p e r i e n c e s ( 19 7 3: 59 7 ) a n d t h a t S i g h t s e e r s a r e

m o t i v a t e d b y a d e s i r e t o s e e l i f e a s i t i s r e a l l y l i v e d , e v e n t o g e t i n w i t h t h e n a t i v e s . . .

( 1 97 3 :5 9 2) . S i g ni f i c an t l y m a n y o f t h e b a c k r e g i o n e x a m p l e s M a c C a n n e l l o f fe r s o f

t h e s t a g e d a u t h e n t i c i t y a r e o n e s t h a t a l lo w a n d e v en p r e s c r i b e p h o t o g r a p h i c

r e c o r d i n g .

H o w e v e r , i t i s e q u a l l y u n c e r t a i n h o w s p ec i f ic e x a m p l e s o f s t a g e d n a t i v e

r e a l i t i e s s a t i sf y t o u r i s t s ' n e e d s . B o o r s t i n fe e l s t h a t t h e u n e n d i n g p r o d u c t i o n o f

p s e u d o - e v e n t s i s w e l l a p p r e c i a t e d :

A n d t h e to u r i s t d e m a n d s m o r e a n d m o r e p s e u d o - e v e n t s . T h e m o s t p o p u l a r

o f t h e s e m u s t b e e a s i l y p h o t o g r a p h e d ( p l e n t y o f d a y li g h t ) a n d

i n o f f e n s i v e - - s u i t a b l e f o r f a m i l y v i e w i n g . B y t h e m i r r o r - e f f e c t l a w o f

p s e u d o - e v e n t s , t h e y t e n d to b e c o m e b l a n d a n d u n s u r p r i s i n g r e p r o d u c t i o n s

o f w h a t t h e i m a g e - f l o o d e d t o u r i s t k n ew w a s t h e r e a l l t h e t i m e . T h e

t o u r i s t ' s a p p e t i t e f o r s t r a n g e n e s s t h u s s e e m s b e s t s a t i s fi e d w h e n t h e

p i c t u r e s i n h i s o w n m i n d a r e v e r i f i e d i n s o m e f a r c o u n t r y ( 1 9 6 1 : 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 ) .

E d m u n d C a r p e n t e r a p p e a r s t o a g r e e w i t h B o o r s t i n ' s p o s i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e

t o u r i s t ' s s e a r c h f o r p r e - d e t e r m i n e d i m a g e s :

O l d e r p e o p l e s t il l e x p e r i e n c e t h e n e e d t o tr a n s l a t e i m a g e s i n to o b s e r v e d

r e a l i ty . W h e n t h e y t r av e l , t h e y w a n t t o s e e t h e E i f fe l T o w e r o n G r a n d

C a n y o n e x a c t l y a s t h e y s a w t h e m f i r st o n p o s t e r s . A n A m e r i c a n

t o u r i s t . . d o e s m o r e t h a n s e e t h e E i f fe l T o w e r . H e p h o t o g r a p h s i t e x a c t l y as

4 8

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RICHARD M. CHALFEN

h e k n o w s i t f r o m p o s t e r s . B e t t e r s t i l l, h e h a s s o m e o n e p h o t o g r a p h h i m i n

f r o n t o f i t . B a c k h o m e , t h a t p h o t o g r a p h r e a f f i r m s h i s i d e n t i t y w i t h i n t h a t

s c e n e (1 9 7 2 :6 ) .

T h o u g h n o t r e f e r r i n g t o p h o t o g r a p h y , M a c C a n n e l l i s c r it i ca l o f t h e B o o r s t i n - C a r p e n t e r

p o s i t io n . H e s t a t e s t h a t N o n e o f t h e a c c o u n t s i n m y c o l le c t io n s u p p o r t B o o r s t i n ' s

c o n t e n t io n t h a t t o u r i s t s w a n t s u p e r f i c i al c o n t ri v e d e x p e r i e n c e s . R a t h e r , t o u r i s t s

d e m a n d a u t h e n t i c i t y , j u s t a s B o o r s t in d o e s ( 1 97 3 :6 0 0 ).

G i v e n a l a ck o f s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h t o d a t e , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g m o t i v a t i o n s

o f al l k i n d s o f t o u r i s t s , t r a v e l e r s a n d s i g h t s e e r s a r e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t u n f o u n d e d . I t m a y

b e t h a t d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f t o u r i s t s , s u g g e s t e d b y F o r s t e r , C o h e n a n d S m i t h , h a v e

d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f m o t i v a ti o n s , e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d t h r e s h o l d s o f s a t i sf a c t i o n a n d

f u l f i ll m e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s l i k el y t h a t t h e y t e n d t o p h o t o g r a p h y a n d d o c u m e n t t h e i r

a u t h e n t i c e x p e r i e n c e s i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h u s b o th M a c C a n n e l l ' s an d B o o r s t i n ' s

o b s e r v a t i o n s m a y b e c o r r ec t w h e n r e f e r r i n g t o d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t o u r i s t s .

T h e T o u r is t P h o t o g r a p h e r ' s F r e e d o m t o S h o o t

A c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t t o u r i s t s a r e f o n d o f d o i n g p h o t o g r a p h y r a i s e s m a n y r e l a t e d

q u e s t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e i s l e d to e x a m i n e t h e k i n d s o f f r e e d o m a n d r e s t r i c t io n s

t h a t r e g u l a t e w h a t can a n d c a n n o t b e p h o t o g r a p h e d v e r s u s w h a t i s o r i s n o t

p h o t o g r a p h e d . R e g a r d i n g t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l f r e e d o m o f c a m e r a u s e , e n t h u s i a s m f o r

t a k i n g p i c t u r e s a p p r o x i m a t e s , a t t i m e s , a p o li c y o f s h o o t - n o w - a n d - a n s w e r - q u e s t i o n s -

l a t e r . O n e o b s e r v e r w r i t e s :

L i ke m a n y o t h e r w r i t e r - p h o t o g r a p h e r s , I u s e d t o li v e b y t h r e e r u l e s w h e n I

w a s t r a v e l i n g w i t h m y c a m e r a : ( 1) A l w a y s c a r r y a f u l l y l o a d e d c a m e r a . ( 2)

T a k e p i c t u r e s o f e v e r y t h i n g p o s s i b l e . ( 3 ) N e v e r l e t a n y o n e o r a n y t h i n g

s t a n d in t h e w a y o f g e t t i n g a g o o d s h o t b e c a u s e i t i s e v e r y

p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s G o d - g i v e n ri g h t to p h o t o g r a p h e v e r y t h in g w h e n a n d

w h e r e h e o r s h e w i s h e s ( G e r s t e n 1 9 7 7 ) .

T h i s a c c o u n t s u g g e s t s a s t r a t e g y f o r s t u d y i n g t h e p a t t e r n e d q u a l i t i e s o f t o u r i s t

p h o t o g r a p h i c b e h a v i o r . F o r i n s ta n c e , o n e m i g h t b e g i n b y e x a m i n i n g k i n d s o f

r e s t r i c t i o n s p u t o n t o u r i s t s u s i n g t h e i r c a m e r a s . W h o i m p o s e d t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s ? W h y

d o t h e y e x i s t ? H o w i s s uc h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s p e c if i c r e s t r i c t e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r o r

v i e w s m a d e a v a il a b l e t o t o u r i s t s ? W h a t f o r m a l a n d / o r i n f o r m a l p u n i s h m e n t s e x i s t

f o r v i o la t i n g r e s tr i c t i o n s ? H o w s e r i o u s l y a r e t h e y e n f o r c e d a n d b y w h o m ?

P r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t w h e n f o r m a l r e s t r i c t i o n s e x i s t, w r i t t e n

i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e m i s h a r d t o f in d . L i t e r a t u r e f ro m t r a v e l a g e n t s o r e m b a s s i e s ,

o r i n f o rm a t i o n f r o m t o u r g u i d e b o o k s i s r a r e . K o d a k p u b l i s h e s a s e r i e s o f p a m p h l e t s o n

p i c t u r e - t a k i n g i n 1 7 p o p u l a r t o u r i s t s i t e s , b u t t h e y a r e p r i m a r i l y p r e s c r i p ti v e - - c i t i n g

o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e v i e w s . P o p u l a r m a g a z i n e s d e v o t e d t o t h e a m a t e u r p h o t o g r a p h y

m a r k e t r e g u l a r l y o f f e r i n f o r m a t i o n f or to u r i s t s . A d v i c e c o l u m n s s u c h a s T r a v e l e r ' s

C a m e r a P o p u l a r P h o t o g r a p h y ) , T h e W e l l - T ra v e le d C a m e r a M o d e r n P h o t o g -

r a p h y ) a n d S h u t t e r T r i p p e r T r a v e l a n d C a m e r a ) d i s c u s s te c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s s u c h a s

c h o i ce o f l e n s , a v o i d i n g x - r a y d a m a g e t o f i l m s a t a i r p o r t s , o r g a n i z i n g a s l i d e s h o w a n d

t h e l i k e . H o w e v e r , s o c ia l p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o r e s t r i c t e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n t o u r i s t s i t e s i s

s e l d o m m e n t i o n e d .

O n e n o t i c e a b l e e x c e p t i o n a p p e a r s i n t h e T r a v e l P h o t o g r a p h y e d i t i o n o f t h e

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T i m e - L i f e S e r i e s o n p h o t o g r a p h y ( 1 9 7 2: 8 4 - 87 ) . E n t i t l e d R u l e s a n d R e g u l a t i o n s i n

F o r e i g n L a n d s , t h i s a r t i c le l i s ts e i t h e r f o r b i d d e n o r p e r m i t r e q u i r e d o r ' n o

l i m i t o n c e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r s u c h a s (1 ) m i l i t a r y a n d b o r d e r a r e a s . 1 2)

a i r p o r t s , s e a p o r t s , r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n s , ( 3 ) v i e w s f r o m c o m m e r c i a l p l a n e s . ( 4 ) v i e w s f r o m

p r i v a t e p l a n e s , a n d ( 5 ) o t h e r r e s t r i c t e d s u b j e c t s :

T h e m o s t c o m m o n r e s t r i c t i o n s in v o l v e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . A s m i g h t b e

e x p e c t e d , a l m o s t e v e r y c o u n t r y ( i n c l u d in g t h e U n i t e d S t a t es ) p r o h i b i t s

i n d i s c r i m i n a t e p h o t o g r a p h i n g o f it s m i l i t a r y s it e s , a n d m a n y l i m i t t ak i n g

p i c t u r e s f r o m p r i v a t e p l a n e s . B u t s o m e c o u n t r i e s h a v e t a b o o s t h a t a r e n o t

s o p r e d i c t a b l e . T h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , w h i c h i s s e n s i t i v e a b o u t p o v e r t y ,

p r o h i b i t s p h o t o g r a p h i n g s l u m s a n d b e g g a r s ; H a i t i , a t t h e o t h e r e n d o f th e

s a m e i s l a n d , s a y s n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e p o o r b u t f r o w n s o n t a k i n g p i c tu r e s o f

t h e N a t i o n al P a l a c e . S w i t z e r l a n d b a n s a l l p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e i n t e r i o r s o f

i t s c e l e b r a t e d b a n k s . I c e l a n d f o r b i d s t a k i n g p i c t u r e s o f f o u r e n d a n g e r e d

s p e c i e s o f b i r d s ( s o t h e y w i ll n o t b e f r i g h t e n e d a w a y f r o m t h e i r m a t i n g a n d

n e s t i n g a r e a s ) . I n A r g e n t i n a a n d F r a n c e t h e t a b o o i n v o l v es c e m e t e r i e s

( e v i d e n t ly a m a t t e r o f r e s p e c t i n g t h e p r i v a c y o f t h e d e a d ) ; i n C h i n a ,

e n t r a n c e s t o t h e P e k i n g s u b w a y ( b e c a u s e t h e s u b w a y p l a t f o r m s a l so s e r v e

a s b o m b s h e l t e r s ) ( 1 9 7 2 : 8 4 ) .

I t a p p e a r s t h a t m o s t t o u r i s t p h o t o g r a p h y i s d o n e w i t h l i t t l e o r n o i n f o r m a t i o n o n

l o ca l r e st r i c t i o n s o r k n o w l e d g e o f l o c a ll y d e f i n e d n o r m s o f a p p r o p r i a t e c a m e r a u s e .

H o w e v e r w h e n o n l y u n w r i t t e n l o c a l s e n t i m e n t d e f i n e s a c c e p t e d c a m e r a u s e , s o c i a l

c o n f li e ts m a y d e v e l o p a f t e r a t o u r i s t h a s u n w i t t i n g l y p h o t o g r a p h e d s o m e f o r m o f

r e s t r i c t e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r . T h e n a i v e t o u r i s t - p h o t o g r a p h e r m a y e a s i ly g e t i n to d i f f i c ul t y

w h e n i n q u e s t o f a p e r s o n a l a u t h e n t i c v i e w . C o n s i d e r t h e e x a m p l e o f a h i gh s c h o o l

t e a c h e r , t o u r i n g K i e v , R u s s i a , w h o a l m o s t l a n d e d i n j a il a f t e r t a k i n g a p h o t o g r a p h o f

p e o p l e l i n e d u p i n f r o n t o f a s t o r e :

O f f i c i a l ly , w e w e r e n o t t o t a k e p i c t u r e s o f b r i d g e s o r a n y t h i n g t h a t m i g h t

b e o f m i l i t a r y o r s e c u r i ty i m p o r t a n c e . W e w e r e n o t t o t a k e p i c t u r e s f r om a n

a i r p l a n e , f o r e x a m p l e . . . W e d i d g e t a b u l le t i n fr o m t h e A m e r i c a n E m b a s s y

a d v i s i n g u s n o t to ta k e p i c t u r e s o f d e p r e s s e d a r e a s . O n e m e m b e r o f o u r

p a r t y , u n a w a r e o f t h is i n j un c t io n , s n a p p e d s o m e p e o p l e q u e u e d u p t o

m a k e s o m e p u r c h a s e s . A n i r a t e w o m a n h a u l e d h i m o f f t o t h e p o l i c e st a t io n

( R y d e r n . d . ) .

A l a n L i n n, w h i l e a f r e e - l a n c e p h o t o g r a p h e r t o u r i n g Y u g o s l a v i a i n 19 71 , w r o t e a n

a r t i c le e n t i t l e d , T a k i n g a P i c t u r e o f a G y p s y C a m p G o t M e L o ck e d U p . H e r e p o r t e d

t h a t I p h o t o g r a p h e d a sm a l l g r o u p o f S e r b i a n g y p s i e s b a r t e r i n g o v e r a c lu m p o f

s h e e p . T h e c l i c k o f t h e s h u t t e r w a s v e r y s a t i s f y i n g . T h e n I f e l t a f i r m h a n d o n m y

s h o u l d e r . S h o r t ly t h e r e a f t e r h e w a s a r r e s t e d b y t h e p o l ic e a s a n A m e r i c a n s p y . k i n n

c o m m e n t e d f u r t h e r :

1 k n e w M o s l e m s ( t h e r e a r e m a n y i n S o u t h e r n Y u g o s la v i a ) h a d a t h i n g

a b o u t p h o t o g r a p h s , b u t h a d n ' t t h e y h e a r d a b o u t t o u r i s m a n d f o r e i g n

e x c h a n g e ? E v i d e n t l y , t h e y h a d n ' t , b e c a u s e m y f i r st s i g h t t h r o u g h t h e

v i e w f i n d e r w a s o f a n o l d s h e p h e r d i n b a g g y p a n t a l o o n s m a k i n g a v e r y

o b s c e n e g e s t u r e a t t h e c a m e r a . T h e s e c o n d v i ew w a s o f a v e i le d w o m a n

l o o k i n g v e r y a n n o y e d . J u s t a s I w a s g e t t i n g t h e f o c u s , h e r g r o u n d g l a s s

i m a g e b r o k e h e r b e a d s a n d f l u n g t h e m , r a t t l i n g a g a i n s t m y l e n s ( 19 71 ).

44



7/13

RICHARD M, CHALFEN

It is undoub tedly the case that instance s of similar violations have occurred with

varying degrees of negative sanctions and explicit punishments for tourist

photographers.

Native Sensitivities and Host Community Reactions

Image Sensitivity

...the many Eskimo passengers aboard airplanes that included tour

parties overheard the departing visitors brag about the pictu res I got

and interpr eting the remark s as ridicule, which cuts deep into native

ethos. In response. Eskimo women be gan to refuse would-be tourist

photographers, then erected barricades to shield their work from tourist

eyes...(Smith 1977:59).

It is clear that not all people in the world feel the same way about either being

photographed or seeing themselves in photographs. Tourists may assume that every

person they see or every place and thing they encounter are ope n gam e. People who

avoid outsiders' cameras may do so for different reasons. In one report from

Guatemala:

In remote areas, people will often flee if a tourist's camera is aimed at

them. Mothers will hide their children behind billowing skirts or cover

their heads with shawls and chivy them out of sight like hens herding

chickens from a hawk. Often men will make the sign of the cross and shout

impr eca tion s as they scurry out of si ght (Neal, 1975).

Another instance of a camera related disturbance in Turkey:

...I found that a camera can be a blasphemous assault against the

sensibilitie s of a culture. In Turkey, for example , signs clearly spell out the

ban on photographing women (a Moslem proscription against graven

images). ut how can one pass t hese exotic phantoms, bodies fully clothed

and heads covered, without sneaking at least one shot? .... I waited at what

I thought was a respectful distanc e to snap a brilliantly clad women in a

purdah, but it turned out the distance was still not great enough. The

lady-in-focus heard the click and beg an to shriek. Soon people from all

directions converged on the scene, clamoring in Turkish. The indignant

woman pointed at me. As I rapidly retreated through a narrow

passagewa y I felt like a rustler being pursue d by a posse. Luckily I finally

lost the thump ing feet behin d me. It was a truly great shot, but I paid for

it in panic and a near heart attack. In the future, I decided I'd be more

deferential (Gersten 1977).

From Peru:

Every culture varies in the degre e to which it is camera shy. In Peru, th e

Indian women run away when you aim the camera at them... No one knows

what the tourist with the camera will do with one's image. May be when he

gets back home, he will laugh at it, use it for darts, or as a stimulus for

bizarre sexual expe rime nts (Milgram 1977:54).

And from Indochina:

Once while i was taking pictures of a Chinese shopkeeper and his wife in

44 1 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH Oct/Dec 79


8/13


Djakarta, their daughter suddenl y stepped in to be photographed between

them. Instantl y the mother flew out of the picture. "No No " she

protested. "If you photograph three people together, one of them will

die " (Mydans 1972:15-16).

Insight into these examples is gained by incorporat ing the perspectives of social

interaction and visual communication . Central to any kind of interaction is a notion of

exchange. Con sidering the relationship of tourist photographers and native subjects,

social psychologist Stanley Mil gram s uggests the following:

The photographing act is best seen as an exchange when we photograph

other people...A photographer t kes a picture...A tourist travels to a

foreign country, sees a peasa nt in the field, and takes his picture. I find it

hard to unders tand wherein the photographer derives the right to keep for

his own purposes the image of the pe asa nt' s face. "G ive it back, " the

peasant might cry, "it's my face not yours" (1977:52).

An account of attemptin g to create more of an exchange is furnishe d by a tourist

who created an "experiment" to "make friends and bring about personal

encounters."

On previous trips abroad, armed with our movie and slide cameras, we

often found that people tur ned away--or worse, ran away--from us. That

didn't happen during our recent journey to Peru, when we added a

Polaroid camera to our equipment and gave prints to our subjects on the

spot...So willing were some would-be subjects that they offered to pay us

to take picture of them .... no longer simply "tour ist a" customers, we had

become the producers of a very marketable product (Bastian 1974).

In some cases, money-for-photographs becomes important. For instance in a

report from Marrakesh, Morroco:

We move along. A man sits with pale doves wander ing among little vases

of pale plastic flowers. "T hey are holy bird s," he says. I give him a coin

and shoot. A little boy comes along with a trained monkey not much

smal ler tha n he is. He makes it do a back flip. I shoot and give him a coin.

Ten men in white are beating drums and jumping up and down while

twirling the tassels of their skull caps. I shoot and hand out coins.

I photograph a man kissing his cobra and letting it crawl over his eyes.

Then I find a medicine man sitting among little boxes of herbs and take

more pictures just as the urchins descend on me again. One holds his hand

over the lens and says I can't shoot until l pay him (Kornfield 1977).

However, the assumption that all people want to either see or have pictures of

themselve s should be questioned. The relationship of people appearing in pictures and

people looking at pictures must be treated as problematic.

We cannot assume that all people want to see themse lves in pictures. We

have to lear n what they like to see. In some cultu re pictu res of people who

have died turn the audience away. In a north India village wives are in

purdah to protect themselves from outsiders. A husband would become

very angry if you showed pictures of his wife to men outside the family.

Even though village girls are permitted to dance outside the home on

44



9/13

R I C H A R D M . C H A L F E N

f e s t i v a l o c c a s i o n s , v i l l a g e e l d e r s w o u l d n o t l i k e p i c t u r e s o f t h e i r d a u g h t e r s

d a n c i n g s h o w n i n t h e p u b l i c . N i c e g i r l s d o n o t d a n c e i n p u b l i c ( C o l l i e r

1967:15) .

I m a g e A c c o m m o d a t i o n

I t w o u l d s e e m f r u i t f u l t o e x a m i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s d e v e l o p e d b y h o s t c o m m u n i t i e s to

a c c o m m o d a t e i n c r e a s e d d e m a n d s f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c i m a g e s . E x p l o r a t i o n i s n e e d e d o f

a l t er n a t iv e p a t t e r n s o f i m a g e a c c o m m o d a t i o n o r i m a g e a d a p t a t i o n t h a t h a v e

s e e m i n g l y s a t i s f ie d b o th h o s t s a n d c a m e r a - u s i n g g u e s t s . T h e f i r st tw o p o t e n t i a l t y p e s

o f r e s t r i c t io n r e p r e s e n t t h e u n l i k e ly e x t r e m e s o f e i t h e r c o m p l e t e r e s t r i c t io n o r c o m p l e t e

c a m e r a f r e e d o m . A h o s t c o m m u n i t y ca n s a y , i n e i t h e r f o r m a l o r i n f o r m a l m a n n e r ,

A b s o l u t e l y N o P h o t o g r a p h y A l l o w e d o r P h o t o g r a p h A n y t h i n g . I t a p p e a r s t h a t

n e i t h e r e x t r e m e o c c u r s in s i g n if i c a n t f r e q u e n c y . H o w e v e r , a r a r e i n s t a n c e o f e x t r e m e

r e s t r ic t i o n c o m e s f r o m S t a p h u r s t , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . J u l e s F a r b e r r e p o r t e d t h a t a

t o u r i s t c l i c k i n g in t h i s v i l l a g e i s a s k i n g f o r t r o u b l e . I n S t a p h u r s t , p i c t u r e - t a k i n g i s

a g a i n s t t h e l a w , a n d a s i g n i n f r o n t o f t h e C i t y H a l l m a k e s t h i s c l e a r i n f o u r

l a n g u a g e s - - D u t c h , G e r m a n , E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h ( 19 6 6) . I n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , a c o u n t r y

m a y r e q u i r e p u r c h a s e o f c a m e r a p e r m i t s , l i c e n s e s o r o t h e r f o r m s o f p e r m i s s i o n . I n

1 9 60 , it w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t E t h i o p i a w a s f o l l o w i n g t h i s p a t t e r n , l u r i n g t o u r i s t s t o u s e

t h e w o n d e r l a n d r o u t e t o A f r i c a . Y e t o n c e t h e r e , t h e t o u r i s t s m a k e d i n n e r - t a b l e

c o n v e r s a t io n o f th e w a y p o l i c e o f f ic e r s d i s c o u r a g e t a k i n g p i c t u r e s o f t h e

w o n d e r l a n d . . . T h e r e i s no l a w a g a i n s t p i c t u r e - t a k i n g . I t is j u s t t h a t t h e E t h i o p i a n s f e e l

t h a t f o r e i g n e r s t a k e p i c t u r e s o f u s s o t h e y c a n g iv e f r i e n d s a l a u g h b a c k h o m e ( W a l z

1960:6) .

I t a p p e a r s t h a t m o s t t o u l; i st c o m m u n i t i e s o r s i t e s a t l e a s t i m p l i c i t ly e n c o u r a g e

s o m e f o r m o f p h o t o g r a p h y . I n m o s t i n s t a n c e s , f o r t h e t o u r i s t w i t h o u t a c a m e r a , o r w i t h

a b r o k e n c a m e r a , l o ca l e n t r e p r e n e u r s w i ll p r o v i d e a n d s e l l a v a r i e t y o f p r o f e s s i o n a l l y

p r o d u c e d p i c t u r e s . C o m m o n e x a m p l e s a r e p o s t c a r d s an d t r a v e l b r o c h u r e s . T h e y

p r o v i d e o u t s i d e r s w i t h p r e f e r r e d v i e w s o f t h e h o s t s e t t i n g . I n o n e i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e

i n v o l v in g b r o c h u r e s :

E g y p t , f o r i n s ta n c e , h a s p r o d u c e d a c r o p o f s t o r ie s a b o u t t o u r i s t s a r r e s t e d

f o r p h o t o g r a p h i n g C a i r o b r i d g e s w h i c h a r e o n a ll t h e t o u r i s t p o s t c a r d s .

A g a i n , t h e y a r e s e n s i t i v e a b o u t p o s s i b l e a t t a c k s o n t h e A s w a n D a m . . .

T o u r i s t s w o u l d b e a s k e d t o l e a v e t h e i r c a m e r a s b e h i n d t h e m i n t h e i r h o t e l s

w h e n v i s i t i n g t h i s a t t r a c ti o n , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t th a t t h e l o b b i e s w e r e f i l l e d

w i t h b r o c h u r e s b u r s t i n g w i t h p i c t u r e s o f t h e d a m ( T u r n e r a n d A s h ,

1976:241) .

O t h e r e x a m p l e s o f n a t i v e a p p r o v e d i m a g e r y m a y i n c l u d e s e t s o f 3 5 m m s l i d e s ,

v i e w - m a s t e r s l i d es , s e ts o f w h i t e - b o a r d e d c o l or p h o t o g r a p h s , 8 r a m o r S u p e r - S t o r e

f i l m s , a n d e v e n p h o t o g r a p h s p r i n t e d o n p l a t e s , c u p s , d i n n e r p l a c e m a t s , T - s h i r t s a n d

t h e l i k e. M o r e o v e r , h o s t c o m m u n i t i e s m a y h e l p th e t o u r i s t c a p t u r e p r e f e r r e d v i e w s

w i t h o r ig i n a l p h o t o g r a p h y . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n F r a n c e r o a d s i g n s i n d i c a t e lo c a t i o n s o f l a

b e l l e v u e o r u n v u e u n i q u e w h i c h s p e c i f y a p la c e t o s t o p y o u r c a r , a n d i n s t r u c ti o n s

i n t h r e e l a n g a u g e s t o e n s u r e p r o p e r e x p o s u r e . S i m i l a r e x a m p l e s a r e a l s o f o u n d a t

e x p l i ci t l y p i c t u r e s q u e c a n y o n s i n th e S o u t h w e s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s .

C a r l M y d a n s m e n t i o n s a n o t h e r w a y o f a s s i s t i n g t o u r i s t p h o t o g r a p h e r s . W r i t i n g a n

a d v i c e ar t i c l e f o r t h e T i m e - L i f e s e r i e s o n p h o t o g r a p h y , h e r e l a t e s a n e x a m p l e o f l i t e r al

A N N A L S O F T O U R I S M R E S E A R C H O c t / D e c 7 9 44


10/13

PHOTOGRAPHY S ROLE iN TOURISM

i m a g e s u b s t i t u t io n i n w h i c h p r e f e r r e d v i e w s r e p l a c e d i n a p p r o p r i a t e o n e s :

. . . o n e f o r e i g n e r w h o w a s r e c e n t l y a l l o w e d t o t r a v e l t o N o r t h K o r e a t e l l s

t h e f o l l o w i n g s t o r y : A c c o m p a n i e d b y a g u i d e , h e t o o k s o m e p i c t u r e s o f a

s l u m i n P y o n g - y a n g a n d l e f t t h e e x p o s e d f i l m c a r t r i d g e i n h is r o o m . A f t e r

h e r e t u r n e d h o m e a n d h a d t h e f i l m d e v e l o p e d , h e f o u n d t h a t h i s e x p o s e d

r o ll h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d w i t h a n o t h e r . T h i s o n e s h o w e d n o t h i n g b u t

m o n u m e n t s ( 1 9 7 2 : 1 6 ) .

O t h e r s t r a t e g i e s o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n i n v ol v e c a p i t al i z i n g o n t o u r i s t s ' d e s i r e f o r

p h o t o g r a p h s o f n a t i v e l i fe o r e n v i r o n m e n t . I n d i g e n o u s c a m e r a m e n m a y b e a v a i l a b l e to

p h o t o g r a p h t o u r i s t s a s t h e y v i s it p a r t i c u l a r s i t e s. T h e s e i m a g e v e n d o r s h a v e

d e t e r m i n e d p r e f e r r e d v i e w s a n d p r o c e e d t o m a k e a l i vi n g b y s a t is f y i n g t o u r i s t s ' d e s i r e

f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c s o u v e n i r s . O n e e x a m p l e i s t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r a t L a n d s E n d i n

C o r n w a l l , E n g l a n d , w h o w i l l t a k e y o u r p i c t u r e s t a n d i n g n e x t t o a s i g n t h a t p o i n t s w e s t

t o y o u r h o m e t o w n , a n d r e a d s C h i c a g o 4 72 3 m i l e s ( p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e ) .

I n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , m e m b e r s o f t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y m a y s e e k f i n a nc i a l r e w a r d s

f o r b e i n g i n t h e p i c t u r e . F o r i n s t a n c e , X i m e n a B u n s t e r w r i t e s i n Children Who Work

L i f e i n t h e S i e r r a i s h a r d a n d t h e e c o n o m i c o p t i o n s f o r w o m e n v e r y f e w .

T h e t o u r i s t t r a d e o f f e rs p o o r w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n t h e p o s s i b i l i ty o f c a s h i n g

i n o n a n a t i v e im a g e . A t t i r e d i n I n d i a n d r e s s t h e y p o s e f o r t o u r i s t s a g a i n s t

t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f a n c ie n t t e m p l e s , r u i n s a n d b e a u t i f u l l a n d s c a p e s .

I n o n e i n t e r v i e w , a g i r l n a m e d R o s i l a s a y s :

I e a r n a b o u t 1 0 s o l e s e a c h d a y h e l p i n g t o u r i s t s . I s h o w th e m t h e r u i n s o f

P u c a P u c a r a a n d I s i t o r s t a n d s t i l l w i t h m y L l a m a w h o ' s c a l l e d M a r t i n a s o

t h e y c a n t a k e p h o t o s o f t h e t w o o f us . S o m e t i m e s t h e y p a y m e , s o m e t i m e s

t h e y d o n ' t ( B u n s t e r n . d . ) .

A n o t h e r p a t t e r n o f r e s p o n s e a p p e a r s t o a c h i e v e t h e b e s t o f b o t h c i r c u m s t a n c e s - -

t h a t i s , t o e n c o u r a g e u s e o f t o u r i s t s' c a m e r a s b u t o n t e r m s e x p l i ci t l y d i c t a t e d b y t h e

h o s t c o m m u n i t y . T h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y a t t e m p t s t o r e g a i n a s e n s e o f p r i v a t e l if e o ut o f

c a m e r a r a n g e w h i l e i t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p r o v i d e s v i s i to r s w i th a p p r o p r i a t e , e x p e c t e d a n d

a u t h e n t i c s c e n e s o f l o ca l e n v i r o n m e n t , o f l o ca l i n d i g e n o u s a r c h i t e c t u r e o r o f lo c a l

n a t i v e b e h a v i o r . A n e x a m p l e o f s u c h f a b r i c a t i o n c o m e s f r o m A f r i ca :

T h e t h o u g h t l e s s c u r i o s i ty o f s om e t o u r i s t s i n A f r ic a , w h e r e t r a v e l e r s o f t e n

i n s i s t o n p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e a p p e a r i n g p e o p l e - - n o t n e c e s -

s a r i ly th e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s u b j e c t s - - h a s f o rc e d a t l e a s t o n e g o v e r n -

m e n t t h e r e t o c o n s id e r d e s p e r a t e m e a s u r e s . A n a d v i s o r to t h e t o u r i s t

i n d u s t r y h a s p r o p o s e d a r t if i c a l v i l l a g e s c o m p l e t e w i th c o lo r fu l b u t

a c c e p t a b l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d v i l l a g e r s t o p o s e f o r p i c t u r e s. I t m a y b e

f a k e , h e s a y s , b u t i t ' s a l ot l e s s a g g r a v a t i o n o n b o t h s i d e s ( E d i t o r s o f

T im e -L i fe 1 9 7 2 :1 7 9 ) .

V a l e n e S m i t h d i s c u s s e s m o d e l c u l t u r e s a s o n e s t r a t e g y o f a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e

d i s r u p t i v e ef f e c ts o f i n c r e a s e d t o u r i sm . M o d e l s a p p e a r t o m e e t t h e e t h n i c e x p e c t a -

t i o n s o f t o u r i s t s , a s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e l i f e s t y l e t h e y h o p e d t o s e e , t h a t a l s o a c c o r d s

t o t h e m t h e f r e e d o m t o w a n d e r a n d t o p h o t o g r a p h a t w i l l ( 1 97 7 :7 0 ). F o r i n s t a n c e ,

w h e n M a x S t a n t o n d e s c r i b e s t h e P o l y n e s i a n C u l t u r a l C e n t e r , h e r e m a r k s T h e v i s i to r

c a n b r i e f l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n a s i m p l e d a n c e i n t h e S a m o a n v i l l a g e , l o ok o v e r t h e s h o u l d e r

o f a p e r s o n m a k i n g Tapa i n t h e T o n g a a r e a , a n d i s e n c o u r a g e d t o t a k e p i c t u r e s o f

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Polynesian s in Polynesian sett ings (1977:196).

Examples in the United States i nclude a mocked-up display chocolate factory built

for tourists in Hershey, Pennsyl vania and aut hen tic restorations of Amish Farms,

Amish Villages and old Covered bridges in Lancaster County, Penns ylvan ia (Mac-

Cannell 1976:167). In these cases, photogra phers are kept away from the real t hin g

and offered artifacts of fabric ated authent icity for photographic consumpt ion.

Other examples are derived from tourists' need to find, witness and photograph

local color. Davydd Greenwood describes local color as not hin g less than a

commoditized version of local culture... (1974:2). Fabricated behavior organized for

the camera such as staged voodoo ceremonies, re-e nactme nts of great battles, and

typical dances performed by Native American s and gypsies are cited. Daniel

Boorstin notes that sigh tsee ing items can not be the real ritual or the real festival;

that was neve r originally plan ned for the tourists. Like the hula dances now staged for

photographer- tourists in Hawaii (courtesy of the East man Kodak Company), the widely

appearing tourist attractions are apt to be those specially made for tourist consump-

tion (1961:108).

Host communiti es seem to be taking a more active role in determ ining the content

of the tourist's photographs. In these examples of fabricated scenery and image

substitution, natives seek stronger regulation of the host-tourist relationship by not

elimin ating the tourist' s interest and revenu es (by restricting camera use) while

simultaneously establishing a sense of relative privacy.

CONCLUSIONS

The foregoing observations have been presented to illustrate three relationships

of tourism and photography. However, readers might be led to two premature and

unfounded conclusions. It is not implied that all tourists use cameras without any

sense of social or personal regard for their subject matter. The point is that tourists

and/ or hosts may be exercising conflicting ethnocentric judgemen ts when determining

appropriate camera use.

Secondly, it is incorrect to claim that incre ased num bers of camer a-using tourists

will function as the primary change agent in an accelerated process of culture

modification, adaptation, acculturation and the like. The observation that many

societies are under going increased touristic visitation is primarily significant. The fact

that most visitors carry and use cameras is important with respect to how natives/

hosts feel about bei ng looked at with or without still and motion picture cameras. In

this sense, the use of cameras must be considered as a contributing agent to

behavioral modification and social change.

Several trends appear to indicate stronger indigenous control over what gets

looked at and/ or s ubseq uentl y photographed. Tourists may find an increas ed freedom

to photograph but on the native's terms. MacCannell has drawn attention to the

creation of a series of special spaces desig ned to accommodate tourists and to

support their beliefs in the authenticit y of their ex perien ces (1973:589). This can be

interpreted in two ways: (1) as the creation of staged back regions that keep tourists

away from the re al back regions that must remain private and inaccessible to all

outsiders; or (2) as the production of phon ey folk cultu re as suggest ed by John

Forster (1964:226-227). In either or both in stances, fabricated p resent ations of native

A N N A L S O F T O U R I S M R E S E A R C H O c t / D e c 7 9

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culture are dev eloped for tourist consumption. Just as some art historians have studied

the deliberate transformation of indigenous art into hybrid forms that satisfy values,

motives, perceptions and aesthetics of Western art markets, one may now be seeing

manipulation and re-creation of native life for the sake of tourists' photographic

recreation. [] []

BIBLIOGR PHY

Bastian, Lois Brunner

1974 Instant Pictures, Instant Response. New York Times June 23.

Boorstin, Daniel

1961 The Ima ge - A Guide to Pseudo-Event s in America. New York: Harp er

Colophon Books.

Carpenter, Edmund

1972 Oh, Wha t a Blow That Phantom Gave Me New York: Holt, Rinehart &

Winston.

Cohen, Erik

1972 Toward a Sociology of International Tourism. Social Research 39(1):164-182.

Collier, John Jr.

1967 Visual Anthropology: Photogra phy as a Research Method. New York: Holt,

Rinehart & Winston.

Editors of Time-Life

1972 Travel Photography. New York: Time-Life Books.

Farber, Jules

1966 No Snap for Photog raphers . New York Times April 24.

Forster," John

1964 The Sociological Consequences of Tourism: Intern ational Journal of Compar-

ative Sociology 12:217-227.

Gersten, Leon

1977 Use with Discretion. The New York Times June 26.

Graburn, Nelson E. E.

1977 Tourism: The Sacred Journey. n Hosts and Guests, V. Smith ed., pp. 17-32.

Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Greenwood, Davydd J.

1972 Tourism as an Agent of Chang e: A Spanish Basque Case . Ethnology 11(1):80-

91.

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Commoditization. Paper given at the 1974 Annual Meetings of the American

Anthropological Association, Mexico City.

Kornfield, Robert

1977 Morocco From a F resh Viewpoint. The New York Times De cembe r 11.

Linn, Alan

1971 Taking a Pi cture of a Gypsy Camp Got Me Locked Up. New York Times August

29.

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MacCannell, Dean

1976 The Tourist - A New Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books.

1973 Staged Authent icity: Arr angem ents o f Social Space in Tourist Settings.

American Journal of Sociology 79:589-603.

Milgram, Stanley

1977 The Image Freezing Machine. Psychology Today January : 50, 52-54, 108.

Mydans, Carl

1972 An Expert s Advice to the Tourist-Photographer. Travel Photography. New

York: Time-Life Books.

Neal, Avon

1975 It s a Big Deal Posing for Camera in Guatemala. The Smithsonian March.

Ryder, Sarah

n.d. A Teacher Tells Ups and Downs of Soviet Tour. New York Times.

Sontag, Susan

1977 On Photography. New York: Delta Books.

Smith, Valene L., ed.

1977 Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of

Pennsylvania Press.

1977 Eskimo Tourism: Micro-Models and Marginal Men. n Hosts and Guests, V.

Smith, ed., pp. 51-70. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Stanton, Max E.

1977 The Polynesian Cultural Center: A Multi-Ethnic Model of Seven Pacific

Cultures. n Hosts and Guests, V. Smith, ed., pp. 193-206. Philadelphia:

University of Pennsylvania Press.

Sutton, Willis, A. Jr.

1967 Travel and Understanding. Notes on the Social Structure of Tourism. Inter-

national Journal of Comparative Sociology 8(2):218-223.

Turner, Louis and John Ash

1976 The Golden Hordes: International Tourism and the Pleasure Periphery New

York: St. Martin s Press.

Walz, Jay

1960 Ethiopians Curb Visitor s Camera. New York Times February 7.

Submi t ted November 16 , 1978

Revis ion subm i t ted Fe bruary 28 , 1979

Accepted Apr i l 11 , 1979

Refereed anonymously

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Photography's Role in Tourism