Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Why are oxygen bubbles a good indication of photo?Oxygen is produced as a waster products when H2O is broken down by photons. It leaves out of the stomatas. You can see the rate of photosynthesis by counting the bubbles that rise in the water. More bubbles more oxygen produced more photosynthesis.

Why is there more photosynthesis with white than green?Pigments in plants do not use green light. They reflected it so with green light there is little photosynthesis. White light is all colors mixed together so there will be a variety of wavelengths available for the pigments.

Why is it better that there is more pigments than one?When there are multiple pigments, then the plant an absorb can use multiple wavelengths. If they only had chlorophyll a then thy would only absorb the extreme of violents and reds. By having chlorophyll b and carentoids, pigments can absorb other blues oranges, and yellows. This allows the plant to absorb many more wavelengths.

Why do the leaves change color in the fall?Chlorophyll a and b reflect green and are the dominant pigments. In the fall, dissolve first leaving acessory pigments such as the carentoids which reflecy reds and oranges. SO the leaves will lose their green color first so that we can see the carentoids.

Purpose of PhotosynthesisGLUCOSE!!!!!!!!!

What Do Plants Need to Complete Photosynthesis?How Do the Materials Enter the Plant?We must learn the different parts of the cell that is important first!!!!

Light Energy Harvested by Plants & Other Photosynthetic Autotrophs6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Almost all plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, as are some bacteria and protistsAutotrophs generate their own organic matter through photosynthesisSunlight energy is transformed to energy stored in the form of chemical bonds(a) Mosses, ferns, andflowering plants(b) Kelp(c) Euglena(d) CyanobacteriaTHE BASICS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Parts of the Leaf!!!

Parts of Plant Important to PhotosynthesisParts of the LeafMesophyll - middle layer of leaf where chloroplast are concentrated.Stomata - pores on bottom of leaf where carbon dioxide enters and oxygen leaves.Chloroplasts: Organelles that contain pigments which absorbs light.

What Parts do You Know?

Stomata (stoma)Pores in a plants cuticle through which water and gases are exchanged between the plant and the atmosphere.

StomataGuard Cells open and closedepending on vacuoles!!!!

Mesophyll Cell

Mesophyll

ChloroplastOrganelle where photosynthesis takes place.

Chloroplasts PartsStroma - Thick fluid around grana where sugars are made in Calvin CycleThylakoid - membrane sacs that contains pigments and enzymes Grana - Stacks of thylakoids

Occurs in the membrane of the thylakoids

Thylakoid

The location and structure of chloroplastsLEAF CROSS SECTIONMESOPHYLL CELLLEAFChloroplastMesophyllCHLOROPLASTIntermembrane spaceOutermembraneInner membraneThylakoid compartmentThylakoidStromaGranumStromaGrana

Other Important PartsXylem vessels that carry water from roots to leaves for photosynthesis.Phloem vessels that carry sugars from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN? Plant Cells have Green Chloroplasts

The thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast is impregnated with photosynthetic pigments (i.e., chlorophylls, carotenoids).

THE SUN: WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?Source of light energy Source of heat energy Gravitational attraction Source of radiation Day and nightSource of all energy(electricity)Source of food for all organisms!!!!

What part of the spectrum do we see?Visible light 380 - 750

Suns Electromagnetic SpectrumThe Suns energy travels to Earth in waves. Wavelength - Distance between 2 crest of waves.Shorter the wave the more energy it contains.UV waves - short waves that damage organic tissue(cancer).

Electromagnetic Spectrum and Visible LightGamma raysX-raysUVInfrared & MicrowavesRadio wavesVisible lightWavelength (nm)

SUNS SPECTRUM

Different wavelengths of visible light are seen by the human eye as different colors.WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN?Gamma raysX-raysUVInfraredMicro- wavesRadiowavesVisible lightWavelength (nm)

Chloroplasts absorb light energy and convert it to chemical energyThey absorb all colors but greenLightReflectedlightAbsorbedlightTransmittedlightChloroplastTHE COLOR OF LIGHT SEEN IS THE COLOR NOT ABSORBED

Sunlight minus absorbed wavelengths or colors equals the apparent color of an object.The feathers of male cardinals are loaded with carotenoid pigments. These pigments absorb some wavelengths of light and reflect others. Reflected light

Why are plants green? Reflected lightTransmitted light

PigmentsPigments - light-absorbing molecules located in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplast.They absorb some light and reflect the others.Which would we see?Reflected!!!

Chlorophyll Molecules- IT IS A PIGMENT!!!Located in the thylakoid membranes.Chlorophyll pigments harvest energy (photons) by absorbing certain wavelengths (blue-420 nm and red-660 nm are most important).Plants are green because the green wavelength is reflected, not absorbed.

Why are Chloroplast Important? The chloroplasts absorb the Suns energy and use this energy to excite electrons which powers photosynthesis. To break apart water and carbon dioxide, you must have energy!!!!

Why is it important the plants have multiple pigmentsBroaden the amount of photons collected for photosynthesis!!!

3 Types of Pigments in ThylakoidChlorophyll a - Participates in light reaction by absorbing blue-violet and red light.Chlorophyll b - absorbs blue and orange light.Carenotiod - absorbs blue and reflects reds, yellow, and orange.

Chlorophyll a - MAIN PIGMENTChlorophyll a: This is the most abundant pigment in plants and main pigment of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll a absorbs light with wavelengths of 430nm(blue) and 662nm(red). It reflects green light strongly so it appears green to us.

Accessory PigmentsTHEY assist chlorophyll a by passing photons to it!!1. Chlorophyll b - absorbs blue and orange light.2. Cartenoids - absorbs blue and reflects reds, yellow, and orange.3. Xanthophyll: absorb blue reflect red and yellow

Chorophyll bThis molecule has a structure similar to that of chlorophyll a. It absorbs blue and orange light of 453nm and 642 nm maximally. It is not as abundant as chlorophyll a, and probably evolved later. It helps increase the range of light a plant can use for energy.

2. Cartenoids - Beta CaroteneThis is a class of accessory pigments that occur in all photosynthetic organisms. Carotenoids absorb some green light 460 nm and 550 nm and appear brown, red, orange, or yellow to us.

3. Xanthophylls Xanthophylls are a fourth common class of pigments. They are usually red and yellow and do not absorb energy as well as cartenoids.

Why Would It Be Helpful to Have More Than One Pigment?If there are more than one pigment, then it broadens the amount of pigments that the plant can use.This is why leaves can be different colors.

Different pigments absorb light differently

Why do the leaves change color in winter?Chlorophyll a and b break down first before the carentoids. So they reflect the oranges, reds, and yellows!!!!

Why is Sunlight Needed for Photosynthesis?It contains photons(energy) that are trapped by chlorophyll(pigments) from visible light!!!!It absorbs the light to use as energy. Reflected not used!!!

Energy is the ability to do work!

Cells must have the energy to continue on with cell processes and produce heat.ATP source of cell energyAutotrophs produce carbohydratesPlants, algae, blue-green bacteria, and some bacteria are autotrophs10% of Earths species are autotrophs.Heterotrophs consumer Fungi, animals, some bacteria and some protists

Photosynthesis and Cellular RespirationProcesses involved in converting sunlight into ATP.Celllular respiration is conducted by ALLLL organisms!!!!ATP energyStored in 3rd phospatePhotosynthesis is to make glucose

PhotosystemsPhotosystems: Clusters of proteins and pigments that trap the Suns energy called photons. This is where chlorophyll is located.Located in the thylakoid membranes.The photosystems trap a photon and this excited an electron to a higher level of energy.

PhotosystemsThese structures are the main structure that traps the Suns energy so that the H2O can be separated.Mixture of pigments and proteins

PhotosystemPhotosystem I and II are proteins and pigments to trap the Suns photons. Located in the thylakoid memebrane!!!

Photosystem

Important Molecules in PhotosynthesisNADP and ADP are energy carriers!!They carry the electrons which is energy!!!

2 Steps of Photosynthesis1.Light dependent reactions: Thylakoid membranes. Pigments trap photonsH2O is split

2. Calvin Cycle: Occurs in stroma. CO2 is used to make glucose

Overview of PhotosynthesisStep 1 Light dependent reaction(depends on Light)Traps the sunlight and energy is moved alongthe thylakoid membrane.Water is broken in to O and H by the electrons that are in ATP and NADPH required for dark reaction.Oxygen given off as waste.Photosystem I and photosystem II - pigmentsStep 2 Dark reaction(Calvin Cycle - stroma Carbon Dioxide now is added to cycle to build glucose.Uses ATP and electrons from light reaction to make glucose.

Describe what is happening the diagram.

PhotosynthesisStep 1 Light Dependent ReactionThe light reactions convert solar energy to chemical energy. Takes place in the thylakoid membrane.Photosystem II and electron transport1. Pigments in photosystem II absorbs the suns energy to break apart water into H, O and electrons.2. These high energy electrons are passed along the electron transport chain to photosystem I.3. H+ ions are passed to ATP synthase to make ATP. NADPH is made in photosystem I.4. Oxygen is a waste product leaves by stomata.

Electron Transport ChainSeries of electron carrier proteins that shuttle high energy electrons.High - energy electrons move down the ETC to photosystem I where it is used to pump H ions across the thylakoid membrane and into the thylakoid space.

PhotosynthesisPhotosystem I 1. Electrons from photosytem II is moved along the membrane to photosystem I.2. Electrons are added to NADPH which is the energy carrier for the rest of photosynthesis.3. The H ions are pumped through a protein channel as part of an enzyme ATP synthase to make ATP.

Summary of Light-dependent Reaction* Energy is captured from sunlight and transferred to electrons(electron transport chain).Water molecule pulled apart to provide H ions.The ions are used to make ATP and NADPH.Reactants: sunlight and water Products: ATP and NADPH which will be the energy for the Calvin Cycle!!!

Why is water needed?Water is split to replace the electrons that are used in the pigments. As water is split, it replaces the electrons.When H and split from O, it releases electrons and O as a waste.

The O2 liberated by photosynthesis is made from the oxygen in water (H+ and e-)Plants produce O2 gas by splitting H2O

Why do we need high energy electrons?To make ATP and NADPH which are the energy carriers. They are needed in the Calvin Cycle to make sugars.

The production of ATPThylakoid compartment (high H+)Thylakoid membraneStroma (low H+)LightAntenna moleculesLightELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAINPHOTOSYSTEM IIPHOTOSYSTEM IATP SYNTHASE

SummaryLight Dependent Reactions

a. Reactantslight energy, H2O. b. Products ATP, NADPH, O2.

Light Independent Reaction - Calvin CycleDuring the light - independent reaction, ATP and NADPH from the light dependent reactions are used to make high energy sugars.

Light Independent Reaction Overview1. Carbon dioxide added:Carbon Dioxide enters the plant from the atmosphere. Bonds with a 5-carbon sugar.Three-carbon molecules formed: ATP and NADPHuse enzymes in the stroma to split the six carbon into 3 carbon sugars. 3. Three-carbon molecules exit: Most 3 carbon stay in cycle. When 2 leave, they form glucose.Three-carbon molecules recycled: Energy from ATP Change 3carbon molecules back into 5 carbon to start thecycle over again. *Energy provided by Light dependent reaction.The plants uses the carbohydrates to meet its energy needs to make all of the macromolecules that it needs(proteins, lipids, carbs).

Calvin Cycle1. Carbon Dioxide is split and C is added to a 5 carbon sugar by an enzyme in the stroma of the chloroplast to make a 6 carbon sugar.2.The 6 carbon sugar is divided into 2 by the ATP and NADPH from LDR.3. One three carbon will leave and others stay in cycle.4.After 2 cycles, glucose will be formed.5.ATP is used to change the 3 carbon back to 5.

Overview Calvin CycleReactants: ATP, NADPH, and Carbon dioxideProducts: GLUCOSE!!

The end goal Make glucose from the SUN!!

Step 2 Light Independent Reaction CALVIN CYCLE Occurs in the stroma.The Calvin cycle makes sugar from carbon dioxide1.ATP generated by the light reactions provides the energy for sugar synthesis2.The NADPH produced by the light reactions provides the electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide to glucose. Carbon Dioxide is built to make a 6 carbon sugar called glucose.END GOAL to break carbon dioxide down and combine into glucose!!! Need energy to do this!! That is why ATP and NADPH was made!!AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Factors that affect Photosynthesis

1. Temperature: Enzymes will denature if do not stay in 0 -35 degree range.2. Light intensity: too little light less photosynthesis but there is a max output they will accomplish.3. Water: Water is needed for photosynthesis. No water no photosynthesis!!!

Label Diagram Belowhttp://www.google.com/search?tbm=isch&hl=en&source=hp&biw=1024&bih=865&q=leaf&gbv=2&oq=leaf&aq=f&aqi=g10&aql=&gs_smhttp://www.clker.com/cliparts/9/b/3/6/1206557847734900229torisan_chloroplast_1.svg.hi.png=e&gs_upl=2016l3203l0l3669l4l4l0l0l0l0l104l249l3.1l4l0#

Explain the role pigments play in photosynthesis.

Describe 3 factors that would affect photosynthesis.

Label picture below

Complete the chart below

Two Main ProcessesReactantsProductsLocation

Carbon Oxygen Cycle

The Purpose of Cellular RespirationBreak down glucose into ATP!!!!

You end up with ATP, H ions and electrons.

The electrons are sent to the Electron Transport Chain where they help to make ATP through ATP synthase.

Overall Equation for Cellular Respiration 6CO2 + 6H20 + e- + 36-38ATPsC6H12O6 + 6O2YIELDSCopyright Cmassengale

Why so Many Steps?Energy is released slowly.If released all at once would be released as heat!!!GOAL: TO MAKE ATP, NADH, FADH2 to send them to the electron transport chain. They pump H+ across membrane(active transport). The H+ move through ATP synthase to make ATP.

Cellular RespirationBreaking down sugars in presence of oxygen to make ATP!!!!ALL ORGANISM NEED ENERGYALL ORGANISMS DO CELLULAR RESPIRATION!!!

2 Types of RespirationGlycolysis 2 ATPSAnaerobicAerobic No O O21. Lactic Acid1. Transitional 2. Fermentation2. Kreb Cycle 3. ETC 36 ATPS

GOAL!!!!!!

Mitochondria StructureSmooth outer Membrane

2. Folded inner membrane

Cristae: Folds

4. Matrix: Space inside cristae

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Where Does Cellular Respiration Take Place?It actually takes place in two parts of the cell:Glycolysis occurs in the CytoplasmKrebs Cycle & ETC Take place in the MitochondriaCopyright Cmassengale

Net profit of ATPs!!!38 ATPS glycolysis and cellular respiration!!

Energy Carriers in CR*ATP*NAD*FAD

NADP vs. NAD* Photosynthesis use the electron carrier - NADP(nicotinmide adenine dinucleotide phosophate)

* Cellular respiration uses - NAD( nicotinmide adenine dinucleotide)

Are There Any Other Electron Carriers?YES! Another Coenzyme! FAD+ (Flavin adenine dinucleotide)Reduced to FADH2

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Diagram of the ProcessOccurs in CytoplasmOccurs in MatrixOccurs across CristaeCopyright Cmassengale

Glycolysis(sugar splitting) Summary1. Takes place in the Cytoplasm2. Anaerobic (Doesnt Use Oxygen)3. Requires input of 2 ATP4. Glucose split into two molecules of Pyruvate or Pyruvic AcidCopyright Cmassengale

GlycolysisGlyco = glucoseLysis = break downLOCATION: Occurs in the cytoplasm This stage occurs in BOTH aerobic and anaerobic respirationGlucose breaks down into 2 pyruvate (2 ATP are also made) Glucose is a 6-carbon sugar Pyruvate is a 3-carbon molecule (there are two of them)

Steps of GlycolysisTwo ATP molecules are used to energize a glucose molecule.2. Glucose is split into 2 - 3 carbon molecules. Enzymes rearrange the molecules.3. Electrons are transferred to NADP. The carbon molecules are converted to pyurate which enters cellular respiration.

GlucoseTo the electron transport chainFigure 93GlycolysisGlycolysis:Step 12 Pyruvic acid

Glycolysis Reactants and ProductsReactants1 glucose Enzymes are needed2 ATP are needed to startProducts2 Pyruvates (go to next step)4 ATP (2 are gained)2 NADH (go to ETC)Really 10 steps with 10 different enzymes involved.

TRANSITION REACTIONPyuvic Acid is shuttled into the mitochondria matrix where it is changes into Acetyl Co A.

Acetyl CoA this is the molecule that is used in Kreb Cycle!!!

Cellular Respiration OverviewAfter glycolysis, life diverges into two forms and two pathways1. Anaerobic cellular respiration (aka fermentation) No oxygen 2. Aerobic cellular respiration I Oxygen needed!!

ANAEROBIC VS. AEROBICAnaerobic no oxygen present fermentation or lactic acid can be formed. No oxygen then no cellular respiration.Aerobic oxygen present. If oxygen is present , then cellular respiration can occur.

Aerobic vs. AnaerobicAnaerobic DOES NOT require oxygen-fermentationSimplefast produces smaller amounts of energy (ATP)Aerobic requires oxygen cellular respirationYields large amounts of energyWhat is this energy molecule?ATP, ATP, ATP

Krebs Cycle Reactants and ProductsReactants2 Acetyl CoANADHFADH

Remember when you form a bond energy is released!! This is the key!!Products2 ATP6 NADH (go to ETC)2 FADH2 (go to ETC)4 CO2 (given off as waste)END GOAL Make NADH and FADHNADH and FADH is carried to the elestron transport chain to make ATP. THE END OF GOAL!!!

Main Goals of Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid CycleTransfer high energy electrons(NADH and FADH) to molecules that can carry them to the electron transport chain to make 34 ATPS.

Krebs Cycle SummaryRequires Oxygen (Aerobic)

B. Cycle series of oxidation(uses) reactions that give off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle

C. Turns twice per glucose moleculeproduces two ATP D. Location: matrix of mitochondria

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Citric Acid ProductionSection 9-2

Kreb Cycle1. Coenzyme A enter the cycle and bonds to 4 carbon molecule2. Citric Acid formed which is a 6 carbon.3. Citric Acid broken down: into 5 carbon sugar carbon dioxide and NADH4. 5 carbon sugar broken down: Into 4 carbon sugar, NADH, ATP and Carbon dioxide.5. 4 carbon rearranged by enzymes. Molecules of NADH, FADH are formed to be carried down ETC.6. 4 carbon molecule is recycled.

Products of Kreb CycleHigh energy carriers NADH and FADH This is the main goal!!!HYDROGEN IONS ARE SENT DOWN THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN to make ATP.

A Little Krebs Cycle HistoryDiscovered by Hans Krebs in 1937He received the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1953 for his discoveryForced to leave Germany prior to WWII because he was JewishCopyright Cmassengale

Krebs Cycle

Electron TransportATP synthesis

Electron Transport Chain Summary34 ATP ProducedH2O ProducedOccurs Across Inner Mitochondrial membrane - CristaeUses coenzymes NAD+ and FAD+ to accept e- from glucoseNADH = 3 ATPsFADH2 = 2 ATPsCopyright Cmassengale

GOAL OF ETCRemove the H from energy carriers and pump them across membrane for diffusion through ATP synthase to make ATP.

Make 34 ATP form one glucose!!! In ETC2 in Kreb Cycle2 in Glycolysis =ATPS total38 ATPS

Electron Transport ChainWhere inner membrane of mitochondria called cristea.Energy Yield Total of 32 ATPO2 combines with TWO H+ to form H2OExhale - CO2, H2O comes from cellular respiration

Electron Transport - Step 31. Proteins inside the membrane of the mito. Remove electrons from NADPh and FADH.Electrons(hydrogen) are transported down the chain of the membrane to be pumped across.ATP synthase(enzyme) puts a P on ADP to make ATP(END GOAL!!).Oxygen enters the cycle to pick up electrons and hydrogen ions to make water that leaves the cycle.

Electron Transport ChainSection 9-2Electron TransportHydrogen Ion MovementATP ProductionATP synthaseChannelInner MembraneMatrixIntermembrane SpaceMitochondrion

Electron Transport ChainElectron carriers loaded with electrons and protons from the Krebs cycle move to this chain-like a series of steps (staircase).As electrons drop down stairs, energy released to form a total of 32 ATP Final Goal!!Oxygen waits at bottom of staircase, picks up electrons and protons and in doing so becomes water

Electron Transport ChainOccurs in the cristae of the mitochondria

Review of Mitochondria Structure

Smooth outer MembraneFolded inner membraneFolds called CristaeSpace inside cristae called the Matrix

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Diagram of the Process

Occurs in Cytoplasm

Occurs in Matrix

Occurs across Cristae

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Energy Tally36 ATP for aerobic vs. 2 ATP for anaerobic

Glycolysis 2 ATP

Krebs 2 ATP

Electron Transport32 ATP 36 ATPAnaerobic organisms cant be too energetic but are important for global recycling of carbon

PhotosynthesisWhat happens to the glucose formed in photosynthesis?PHOTOSYNTHESISRequired to make plant cell walls. It is made of 100s of glucose molecules bonded together.Glucose is chemically converted to fatty acids and glycerol to make lipids, which are needed to make plant cell membranes and seed storage oils. Is used by roots and leaves to store excess glucose in an osmotically inactive form. It is made of 100s of glucose molecules. Using nitrate ions absorbed by plant roots, glucose is converted first to amino acids then to protein. The carbon dioxide can be used again in photosynthesis or may diffuse out of the leaf via the stomata

Anaerobic Cellular RespirationWhen you exercise, you muscle to run out of oxygen to and produce lactic acid!!

Some organisms thrive in environments with little or no oxygenMarshes, bogs, gut of animals, sewage treatment ponds

No oxygen used= anaerobic

What do they cells do withoutoxygen???

Cellular Respiration OverviewAfter glycolysis, life diverges into two forms and two pathways1. Anaerobic cellular respiration (aka fermentation) No oxygen 2. Aerobic cellular respiration I Oxygen needed!!

Aerobic vs. AnaerobicAnaerobic DOES NOT require oxygen-fermentationSimplefast produces smaller amounts of energy (ATP)Aerobic requires oxygen cellular respirationYields large amounts of energyWhat is this energy molecule?ATP, ATP, ATP

FermentationIn absence of oxygen, fermentation releases energy from food molecules by producing ATP.

Very small amounts of ATP!!!

FermentationGlycolysis occurs to produce ATP and NADH!! NormalGlucose is broken down into pyruvic acid to make ATP and NADH.This is the only ATP made.

Two Types of FermentationAlcoholic Fermentation Pyruvate converted to ethyl alcohol and CO2Carried out by yeast and some bacteriaUsed in producing alcohol (both consumable and for ethanol), and for bakingLactic Acid FermentationPyruvate converted to lactic acidCarried out by muscles when working hard (muscles need ATP but cant get O2 )Causes muscle soreness and cramps

Alcohol Fermentation Pyruvate

Fermentation Occurs when O2 NOT present (anaerobic)Called Lactic Acid fermentation in muscle cells (makes muscles tired)Called Alcoholic fermentation in yeast (produces ethanol)Nets only 2 ATPCopyright Cmassengale

Importance of FermentationAlcohol Industry - almost every society has a fermented beverage.Baking Industry - many breads use yeast to provide bubbles to raise the dough.

Alcoholic FermentationBacteria and fungi (yeast)

Ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide are the end products

Process used to form beer, wine, and other alcoholic beveragesAlso used to raise dough, bread

Lactic Acid FermentationUses only Glycolysis.Does NOT require O2Produces ATP when O2 is not available.

Lactic Acid FermentationCarried out by human muscle cells under oxygen debt.Lactic Acid is a toxin and causes fatigue, soreness and stiffness in muscles.

Lactic Acid Formationpyruvate + NADH----- lactic acid + NAD+

Lactic Acid Fermentation Glucose (6 carbons)Pyruvic Acid (3C)Pyruvic Acid (3C)2 ATPs supply the activation energy4 ATPs are produced 4 ATP Yield = 2 ATP Net Gain 2 NAD+ + 2 e- 2 NADH 2 NAD+ + 2 e- Lactic Acid (3C)Lactic Acid (3C)Glycolysis

Fermentation - SummaryReleases 2 ATP from the breakdown of a glucose moleculeProvides ATP to a cell even when O2 is absent.

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