PHYSICAL Education PHYSICAL Education - Pilatelenapilatelena.com/.../05/MINI-PHYSICAL-EDUCATION-1-74.pdf · Physical Education and health ... Nutrition and Training ... effects resulting

José Manuel Pérez FeitoDaniel Delgado LópezAna Isabel Núñez Vivas

This book deals with the theoretical foundations of physical education and its intimate relationship with values and sports. It is written in a pedagogical manner, clear and easy to understand.

It is an excellent book for anyone interested in sports, a magnificent work for those who want to know and understand the reasons for physical activity.

It is a reference book on physical activity and motor functions.

PHYSICALEducation

PHYSICAL Education

PH

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PHYSICALEDUCATION

Our gratitud to the IES Alpedrete

Editor in chief:Marco Pila

Design and layoutClaudia Romero, Juan Magaz

Translation of :Physical Education Translated into English by:Wilhelmina [email protected]

© Pila Teleña; 2013C/ Pozo Nuevo, 1228430 Alpedrete (Madrid)Cel.: 609 25 20 82e-mail [email protected]

Printed in Spain by ISBN: 978-84-95353-03-0Legal deposit: M-20975-2013All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or introduced into any retrieval system or trans-mitted in any form by any means, mechanical, electronic, photocopying and distribution of copies through loan or rental, without prior written permission of the copyright owners.

They call me Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra and in 1605 I sent a certain little

book to the printer’s that earned me a lot of fame but little fortune. The first

year saw the fruits of my ingenuity released in five more editions by thieving

criminals, who caused great misfortune to my honour and no less suffering to

my decimated property.

In those days intellectual property rights were not as common as they are today.

José Manuel Pérez FeitoDaniel Delgado López

Ana Isabel Núñez Vivas

PHYSICALEDUCATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

First block. Physical fitness ........................................................ 6 1. Physical Activity ................................................................... 8 2. Warm-Up ............................................................................. 22 3. Stretching Exercises .............................................................. 32 4. Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills ................................ 48 5. Strength ............................................................................. 60 6. Stamina ............................................................................... 72 7. Speed ................................................................................. 88 8. Flexibility ............................................................................. 100

Second block. Coordinated Movement ........................................ 112 9. Motor Skills ......................................................................... 114 10. Balance ............................................................................... 124 11. Coordination ....................................................................... 134

Third block. Physical Education and health .................................. 146 12. The Human Body: Anatomical and Physiological Bases .......... 150 13. Body Posture ....................................................................... 172 14. Nutrition and Training .......................................................... 190 15. Relaxation ........................................................................... 206 16. First Aid ............................................................................... 220 17. Designing a Training Programme .......................................... 250

Fourth block. History of Physical Education .................................. 268 18. History of Physical Education ................................................ 270 19. Physical Education and Sports .............................................. 284 20. The Olympic Movement ........................................................ 296 Glossary .............................................................................. 330

1 First block. Physical fitness

6

In 1989, UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), stated that sport is a specific competitive activity, in which the practice of physical exercises is highly valued, with the view of improving the morpho-functional and psychic abilities of individuals, connected with a record of improving themselves or on their opponents.

The current concept of sport is very different from the meaning it had in ancient times. The difference is in the ethical and religious meaning it had in the past and does not have today.

Modern sports were born in the 19th Century in England, as a status symbol and a distinction of the most privileged, with amateurism in the background. In contrast, the 20th Century witnessed the birth of professional sports through the mass media.

In the 50s, the first live broadcasts of sporting events started and won the fans that were not reached before. Through the giving of so-called licenses, the money boxes of the clubs whose sporting activities were possibly going to get live coverage began to fill up.

Today, sport is the world’s most important hobby, as is clear in the increased number of participants and the time and space devoted to it by the media, as well as the growth in the sports industry.

Athletes are no longer volunteers as they were in the past since they consider sport as a job. The entertainment nature of sport has experienced dramatic changes with the focus on professionalism today.

Physical Education in your life

Professional Sports

1First block. Physical fitness

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Also, objectives that have been designed for job prospects and efforts are made to stretch the human potential to its limit. The important thing in sport now is to win. The status of athletes, coaches and managers within the sport’s structure depends on records.

Some of the people taking close interest in professional sports act like their speculators and do not care at all about the athletes. They focus mainly on names, records, victories and titles that protect and stimulate a way of thinking and acting at any cost, at the expense of other people’s reasoning.

In professional sports, the benefits of the achievements and successes prevail over humanity as there is no time to consider the human being as such, but only as a product that can be manipulated based on the superficial building of victory.

Given the short duration of professional sports careers, the risk of suffering from the after-effects resulting from repeated injury does not make the path of a professional career as idyllic as it seemed at first. We can say that if any professional career lasts between 40 and 50 years, sports professionals will spend between 10 and 20 years to earn the money needed to survive for the rest of their lives.

The popularity of the sports media, the increase in the number of international competitions and the emerging development of the economic dimension of the latter, have led to increasingly negative consequences about the meaning sport in society and in education in general.

Physical Activity1

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Any type of physical activity usually responds to the intrinsic motivations of those who practice it, in addition to promoting interpersonal relationships, amongst others.Studies conducted through surveys in recent years on the Spanish population indicate that the number of people who practice any kind of sport has risen from about 22% to 37% today. 66% of them identify health as the main reason for doing physical activities. These studies also highlight that, today, people prefer to exercise on their own (66%), rather than in schools (7%) or clubs (25%).To address the issues raised in these surveys, we can say that, today, our society has succumbed to a way of living in which a sedentary lifestyle prevails. The new technologies, among other developments, provide unquestionable advantages, but their misuse can lead to such problems. This sedentary lifestyle brings with it the risk of illnesses, such as obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol and unhealthy habits, such as alcohol and tobacco consumption, which can all lead to heart attacks and strokes. We must remember that two million deaths are attributable to physical inactivity. A study published by the World Health Organization (WHO) states that sedentary lifestyles are among the ten major causes of death and disability in the world.We can say that a healthy lifestyle is everyone’s desire and that’s the way we want to live and physical activity can certainly help us to achieve this. Regular physical activity promotes good feelings, increases body temperature which reduces muscle tension, and promotes relaxation, regulates biorhythms, and improves sleep, has antidepressant and tranquilising effects, brings feelings of wellbeing, eliminates stress, and helps to gain increased autonomy and self-confidence.Faced with stereotyped physical activity, with specific facilities that are subject to rules, activities are naturally enhanced where all the inherent advantages of urban physical activity are improved to develop the various natural settings.As a result of the mass exodus to the cities during the 60s, man was alienated from nature and a large majority of the population has felt the need to be reconciled with it. This is why, compared with more standardised and common activities, there is a spectacular increase in sports and activities in the natural environment. Another aspect to highlight in the development of physical training in nature is its adventurous and recreational spirit. Unlike track sporting or competitive events, the main motivation for outdoor activities is based on adventure, the new, the exciting...these are the kinds of activities the population do.This group of outdoor tasks may be considered as sports for all, unlike competitive sports, where some win and others lose, since they are marked by cooperation, where everyone wins. On the other hand, its recreational nature does not make it less demanding from the physical and technical point of view.There are many activities that we can practice in the natural environment, from a simple stroll in the fields or camping with friends, to diverse activities such as rock climbing, rappelling, kayaking or paragliding, amongst many others. The level of complexity, as well as the extent and richness of physical activities in the natural environment, requires comprehensive organisation to avoid any sudden malfunction in their performance. For the development of more complex activities, we should always count on the presence of a professional for solutions to the various adversities that could happen.

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1 Physical Activity

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Physical activity refers to any type of voluntary bodily movement (however small it may be) performed by a person in a given period of time: walking, writing, speaking, stair climbing, running, etc. This activity may take place during working or leisure time...

We must distinguish the concept of physical activity from two others that are usually considered as synonymous, even though they are not:

Physical exertion: it refers to any physical activity of varying levels of intensity (low, moderate or high) involving an increase in respiratory rate, heart rate, body temperature, energy consumption, basal metabolism..., which leads to sweating, muscle fatigue, etc.

Physical exercise: it refers to any type of physical activity that meets the following requirements:

It must involve the performance of physical exertion.

It must be carried out systematically, that is, continuously.

It must be planned beforehand to achieve objectives.

It must be designed to improve health.

The intensity of the physical exertion has an individualistic tendency. What may be too intense for one person may be too low for others. Moreover, the body is able to adapt gradually to exertion and what may seem too intense in the beginning may end up becoming low. This adaptation to exertion is achieved through exercise.

1 INTRODUCTION

1Physical Activity

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Physical exercise promotes health, and must therefore be integrated into the scheme of life, more as a habit, without becoming a sacrifice or obligation, but rather lead to an entertaining and more rewarding experience.

Gymnastics: it is a form of physical exercise characterised by activities and systematic exercises which pursue specific therapeutic, educational and competitive purposes.

Sports: it is any physical activity that has a competitive purpose and is subject to fixed rules. Different outdoor recreational activities such as mountain climbing and diving are also included in this category.

Physical Education: it is the discipline that deals with the teaching and learning of the different fields of physical activity. Its purpose is to promote the development of the body and spread the benefits derived from its practice.

The modernisation of our environment has improved our quality of life but it is also a determining factor in the decline in our physical activity. Performing moderate exercises regularly is beneficial to health and helps to fight a sedentary lifestyle. Numerous studies emphasise that a sedentary lifestyle facilitates the emergence of diseases as well as physical and mental disorders.

The solution to this problem is quite simple: sedentary people have to change their habits and become more active, by increasing the frequency of their physical activities (see “Table 1”). In fact, the practice of any kind of physical activity is gradually becoming increasingly common in our society. There is a paradox because the increase in physical activity is the result of that sedentary lifestyle which has caused many people to exercise as a way of improving the quality of their life.

But, although more people are practising sports activities or going to the gym regularly to keep fit, it does not mean that the great majority of the population maintains some minimum level of physical activity. According to a report published by the National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, in USA, almost a third of the youth and up to 60% of adults are found to be in this situation.

2 FACETS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE

Physical exercise promotes health, and

must therefore be integrated into the

scheme of life, more as a habit, without

becoming a sacrifice or obligation, but rather lead to an

entertaining and more rewarding experience.

1 Physical Activity

12

The direct objective for performing physical exercise is to improve fitness and adapt to stress. However, many people who perform regular physical activity set other indirect objectives, which can basically be grouped into four reasons: improve physical fitness, have better health, improve aesthetic appearance, take care of the body and be seen to have better physical health and better use of leisure time.

3 BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE

Table 1 : Most common excuses for not exercising

I have no timeIf health is important, we can always take out 20-30 minutes to do something, even if it is just walking. We probably devote more time to watching TV.

Exercising is boringIt is clear that if you do the same thing over and over again, it becomes boring. Activities carried out must be varied: walking, cycling, swimming... In addition, if you set short term goals, the motivation will even be greater.

I am slim, I don’t need to exercise

Slim people also need to do physical activity to tone their muscles and take proper care of their bodies. The fact that you are slim does not mean you are healthy, and being too slim is considered an illness: anorexia.

I work out occasionally

Playing football with friends sometimes or taking a bike ride is not doing regular physical activity, which is the best way to keep fit and avoid injury.

I need to go with someone

You don’t need a partner to exercise. Although that may be more entertaining, it is essential only in some cases: tennis, climbing, diving… Moreover, if you get used to exercising, it will be easy to share your enthusiasm with a friend in the end.

I’m young and I’m fineEven if you are less than 30 and you are physically well, working out now will benefit you and lead to good health in future.

Gym is expensiveThere is a little bit of everything and most packages are offered every now and then. .And if it’s not possible, you can always exercise outdoors: parks, walks, beaches...

1Physical Activity

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Exercise and fitness

The main reason why many people exercise is to keep fit, as this is the way to maintain the physical abilities of the body in an optimum state throughout life. In fact, keeping fit has become the main slogan of companies related to physical exercise.

When we talk about staying or keeping fit, we mean performing any light activity as a conscientious training for one or two hours between three and five times a week. For these people, physical activity is more than an obligation. It is a pleasure, a time that helps them to feel good, younger and more confident.

Although we cannot say categorically that being in good shape ensures perfect health, it is certain that, in general, physical fitness and health are often discussed along parallel lines.

Physical exercise and healthThe human body is designed to move and a sedentary life usually leads to diseases and even premature death.

There are many health benefits in performing regular physical activity and its impact can be seen at many levels:

Cardiac: reduces the risk of coronary heart disease, because it increases the size of the heart and reduces heart rate so that the organ gets less tired.

Vascular: the number of red blood cells, leukocytes and lymphocytes, increases and improves blood circulation and elasticity of the arteries.

Respiratory: increases lung capacity and decreases the number of breaths per minute.

Muscular: muscles gain strength and endurance, increase in size and elasticity and improve motor coordination.

When we perform physical exercises, our bodies release endorphins, substances responsible for the sensation of pleasure and well-being achieved after the activity.

Bone: increases bone density, vascularisation and bone mineral retention.

Articular: strengthens the elements constituting the joints, that is, cartilage, ligaments...

When we perform physical exercises, our bodies release endorphins,

substances responsible for the sensation of pleasure and well-being achieved

after the activity.

1 Physical Activity

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Metabolic: increases the level of good cholesterol (HDL) and lowers that of bad cholesterol (LDL), maintains glucose at adequate levels and facilitates the removal of toxins.

Mental: brings a sense of general well-being, improves mood and emotions and increases self-image, reduces anxiety and stress, helps to fight depression and reduces the risk of its appearance.

Other benefits : in addition to the above, physical exercise reduces the risk of some cancers and diabetes, helps to control obesity and excess weight, increases stamina to perform physical tasks...

Regular physical activity is a long term investment in health and quality of life.

Physical Exercise and AestheticsThe body allows us to move, express ourselves and relate to our surrounding environment... It is necessary to devote some time to our body and give it due attention. This involves feeding ourselves properly, maintaining appropriate behaviour patterns (getting enough sleep, not consuming any harmful substances...) and doing proper physical activity, which are some of the ways

to take care of our body and mind.

In today’s society, the body is linked to a person’s image, making it an essential part of the identity of each person. In many cases, body care is considered as an objective in which much effort is invested: diet, exercise, plastic surgery and make up...

Media pressure, both in aesthetics and fashion, drives many people to perform physical activities with the sole purpose of obtaining a body acceptable to society. Many people are actively taking measures to change their bodies, mould them, feel comfortable with them and please others and feel personally fulfilled to have obtained bodies that meet the standards of health and beauty in the modern society.

Physical exercise and leisurePhysical exercise is linked to leisure when it is performed just to have fun and entertainment. In this case, its purpose is merely pleasure and the intention is to pleasantly pass the leisure time with any non-competitive and unregulated physical activity, which does not involve major technical demands for spaces or unconventional equipment, etc.

Physical activity which is considered as leisure does not only imply fun but it also requires effort and motivation to look for new challenges and achieve them: climbing a mountain, taking a hiking route....

1Physical Activity

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An activity is usually considered as a sport when it is integrated into a sports federation. Some federations include various sports dis-ciplines: for example the Tennis Federation includes paddle tennis, and the Winter Sports Federation also includes skiing, snowboard, etc. The prerequisites for forming a sports federation is to get a specified number of licensed practitioners.

The influence of sport on society and today’s culture is undeniable as is evident in areas such as clothing and accessories (sun glass-es, shoes, sportswear...), in the use of lei-sure time (watching sporting activities...), in advertising (at sporting events, ads by key athletes...), at work (sports coaches, mas-seurs, physiotherapists, sports journalists...), in the economy (sale of sportswear, energy drinks...), and in sports fanaticism (ultra-groups...), etc.

Sports can be classified according to various criteria:

4 SPORT AND ITS CLASSIFICATION

Professional sports vs. amateur sports:

In professional sports, we are charged for the sport. It is a job and as such brings obligations such as training at specific times, not choosing team mates, etc. amateur sports is performed merely for enjoyment and it never demands any obligation.

Opposition sports vs. sports without opposition:

In opposition sports, there is a direct influence of the rival or rivals on the results of the sports player or team, while sports without opposition, on the contrary, have no influence on the performance of the athlete nor the team.

1 Physical Activity

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Although regular physical exercise is a source of health, it can cause problems if not done with minimum advice and control (see “Table 2”). Many people, in spite of their ignorance about the basic aspects of physical exercises, start without seeking the necessary information to find out if they run any risk in doing it.

For any physical activity to translate into better quality of life and health, it is necessary to consider how it can be carried out, meaning, the type, intensity and duration of the activity.

Individual sports vs. team sports:

An individual sport refers to sports in which the athlete performs alone, without team mates, for example, cyclo-cross, judo, weightlifting or skiing. In team sports, the athlete cannot participate as an individual but must have team mates and be part of a team, for example, basketball, handball, football...

There are some sporting events that belong to both classifications: individual and team, as in tennis doubles or relays in athletics and swimming. There are also some sports disciplines classified both as individual and teams as in karate, gymnastics- cycling or archery.

Sports with direct contact vs. sports without direct contact:In sports with direct contact, players share a pitch and play simultaneously, for example, hockey, skating or water polo, while in the sport without direct contact, the playing field is not shared but rather divided and used alternatively, as in badminton or volley ball.

Water, terrestrial and aerial sports:

Water sports such as swimming or surfing are performed in water. Terrestrial sports such as football and basketball take place on land and can be distinguished as limited spaces. There is also the unlimited space such as golf or cross-country skiing. Aerial sports such as hang gliding and balloon flight competitions are performed in the air.

Move, for sure, Before starting any

physical activity, it is always necessary to have a prior medical

check-up. This is to determine the

physical condition of the person and

discard the existence of any pathology that may get worse with

exercise.

5 HOW MUCH PHYSICAL EXERCISE DO WE NEED?

1Physical Activity

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People who do not perform regular physical exercisesThey must start gradually by taking a few minutes each day to do some kind of aerobic exercise. This should be up to about half an hour daily, which is the minimum time recommended.

To be more active, it is enough to change some habits of everyday life, for example:

Climb stairs at (home, work, etc.) and avoid the elevator.

Walk the dog.

Ride a bicycle.

Wash the car by hand.

Walk to work.

To avoid injuries

1 Practice physical activities on a regular basis.

2Perform a good warm-up, begin gently and increase the intensity gradually without forcing.

3Wear comfortable clothes and shoes made with the appropriate material.

4 Do stretches at the end of the physical activity.

5 Drink water or isotonic drinks whenever you are thirsty.

6 Avoid physical activities after eating or on a full stomach.

7Know the limits of your body to know when you are pushing too much.

Table 2

1 Physical Activity

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Get off a couple of stops ahead of the bus, metro, etc.

Play games that require physical effort with children

Replace TV with activities that require movement.

People who perform minimum physical exerciseThe next step is to perform new activities that are stimulating and facilitate the maintenance of regular physical activity throughout life; for example:

Walk between 30 and 60 minutes five times a week, at a fast rate.

Go to the pool to swim.

Go to the beach to walk or run barefoot

Attend dance classes

Go for field trips

Go hiking

Go to the gym

In general, these activities should mobilise large muscle groups, include periods of intensity and be performed between 3 and 5 times a week.

It is not always easy to know the type of physical exercise that is best for each person.

Here are some criteria for taking that decision:

Fix clear and realistic objectives.

Know your personal physical and psychological limitations.

Gather all possible information on the activities that interest you.

Once you decide the kind of physical exercise you want to perform, it is necessary to consider a series of recommendations that will help you to create a habit and also help you to continue to practice. Do not make it very common in order not to cause early abandonment of activity:

6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STARTING

1Physical Activity

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Begin exercising slowly, without haste, then increase the intensity and duration of the activity gradually.

Organise your time: if most people dedicate time every day to watching TV, how can they not have time to exercise, which is healthier?

Motivate yourself to exercise. When people have a good time, they tend to repeat the activity.

If an activity becomes boring, it should be changed to another more interesting one. There are many possibilities and the most important thing is to enjoy it.

Set personal precise and clear goals and achieve them gradually and establish new ones when you achieve the first ones.

It is important to be aware of the progress and improvement you have made with the passing of each day..

Finally, it is worth noting that there are a number of myths and beliefs related to physical exercise that are not true. Some of them are illustrated in the table below:

Misconceptions

FALSETaking water with sugar removes stiffness: when performing strenuous physical exercises, micro-cracks are produced in the muscle fibres causing some discomfort known as stiffness. The sugar water does not repair these tears, nor relieve pain.

FALSETaking sugar before exercise improves performance: the result is rather the contrary as this initially raises blood sugar levels and then produces a rebound effect which generates hypoglycaemia, which increases fatigue.

FALSE

Sweating excessively makes one lose weight: many people believe that when they sweat they lose a lot of fat, but the truth is that what is lost is water. Moreover, in order to prevent dehydration, the body sounds an alarm in the form of thirst and the water that was lost is recovered when you drink.

FALSEAbdominal exercises help to lose belly fat: it is impossible to lose fat in any particular area. Fat loss is always general when we exercise but the areas with a lot of fat lose more fat.

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Comment briefly on the characteristics of sports.

Distinguish between physical exertion and physical exercise.

Point out the differences between opposition sports and sports without opposition. Give two examples of each.

List four health benefits of physical exercise.

Define the term gymnastics.

Make a table showing the problems associated with a sedentary life and the benefits of physical exercise.

Explain the following statement: “Physical fitness and health are always discussed along parallel lines”.

Indicate the purpose of physical exercise linked to leisure.

Explain the main characteristics of regular physical exercise.

List some recommendations for beginning physical exercises.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION In Shape Authors: Martínez de Haro, Vicente and Sanz de Lara, Rosa. Publisher: Alianza. Madrid 2003.

Physical Activity, Sports and Health Author: Devís Devís, José (coordinator). Publisher: INDE. Barcelona 2000.

Is Sports Good for Health? Questions and Answers on Physical Exercise. Author: Cascua, Stéphane. Publisher: Paidós. Barcelona 2003.

Physical Activity

EXERCISES

21

Physical Activity

IF I DO NOT READ IT, I DO NOT BELIEVE IT

On the “World Challenge Day,” everybody must move for 30 minutes with the aim of motivating people to engage in physical activity and thus improve their health and quality of life. On 31 May 2006, the “World Challenge Day” was celebrated for the fourth time in Cuba. It was a day when all those who wanted to participate in long walks, races, outdoor exercises and games for 30 minutes were given the chance to do so. The “World Challenge Day” began in England in 1993.

It is said that age is a handicap for the performance of physical activity but George Blair, better known as Banana George, won a Guinness record award for being the oldest person to have done a tour on water skis. When Banana George won the Guinness record award on 20 February 2005, he was 90 years 29 days.The Ocellated Megapode or Mallee fowl (Leipoa ocellata), of Australia, builds a nest of 4.5 meters high and 10 meters long from a mound of earth. It is estimated that the bird has to move 250 cubic meters of vegetation and 300 tons of earth in order to build it.

The larvae of the eel, (Anguilla anguilla) born in the Sargasso Sea, complete a 7,500 Kilometer journey to reach the European shores during the years after their birth.

On 24 June 2005, Sergio Laus entered the Guinness Book of Records after travelling 10.1 Kilometers on his surf board in 33 minutes 15 seconds, in the Araguari River (Brazil).

Do you have arthritis problems with your knees? Then you must know that you should not stand still. Physical exercise, among other therapies, improves the quality of life and independence of people with arthritis of the knees. According to a study carried out by San Diego University, programmes combining walking, stationery bike and strength training with relaxation, along with a good diet, are the most effective remedies against arthritis.

Did you know that your eyes do not stop blinking? They do about 415.000 million times throughout life

Physical activity must have a significant place in our everyday life. Through movement, we discover wellness.

2 Warm-Up

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Warm-up is a set of exercises or games performed at the beginning of any training session, Physical Education class or even a competition. It is done in such a way that the body moves from a state of relative rest to a particular state of activity. It prepares the body for subsequent demanding efforts, promotes performance, prevents possible injury and provides maximum energy for use by the body and ensures total enjoyment of the activity.The primary objective of warm-up is to gradually involve the athlete or student in the activity to be performed at a desired level, to allow the heart and respiratory tract to adjust, exercise the tendons and muscles and also ensures proper blood circulation. Warm-up raises the temperature of the muscles and tendons, improves the neuromuscular unit, increases local blood flow, metabolic exchange, improves the enzyme activity and decreases muscle viscosity.If at some point we raised the issue of why we should warm up, the answers would be many: first of all, to avoid injuries of the locomotor system, such as sprains, contractures, fibril breaks, etc., and secondly, to avoid injuries of the respiratory system, because by slightly increasing the heart rate and blood circulation, the body prepares for greater effort. It also improves performance by improving physical abilities and qualities and finally, it improves concentration and motivation of the athlete or the student by encouraging knowledge of the body and surrounding environment, etc. A proper warm-up should respect a generic phase of between 10 and 15 minutes, in which the most important muscle groups of our body are moved, and a specific phase where exercises directly related to the sport or activity to be carried out are performed.There is no specific time duration for warm-up but we can generally say that it lasts between 10 and 40 minutes. Obviously, the greater the effort to be made, the longer the time that must be devoted to warm-up. Also, we need to spend more time warming up the injured and those who have not been performing physical activities for a long time.Warm-up must be personal, since it is directly influenced by factors such as age, physical condition of each person, ambient temperature or even the time of the day that it is done.The exercises during warm-up must be progressive and start from approximately 50% up to a total of 90% of efforts, but under no circumstances must we reach oxygen debt or lack oxygen.In addition to physical warm-up, we can speak of the psychological warm-up which comprises motivation, concentration and the knowledge of the outcome of the event to be carried out as well as the goals to be achieved by the athlete. This is mainly used in competitive sports but it is also used as motivation to excel at any level. We conclude this section by emphasizing that many injuries are unpredictable, but several others could be avoided by adequate warm-up exercises related to the activity to be developed. This principle is fundamental to the practice of any physical activity because as mentioned earlier, it prepares the body before it performs greater dynamic exercises. Therefore, warm-up should never be omitted.

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2 Warm-Up

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There are three basic objectives to be achieved by warming up: prepare:

To reduce the risk of injuries; when the muscle is cold, it is much easier to break.

To improve performance in physical activity to be carried out subsequent-ly as it prepares all the respiratory, muscular, cardiovascular and ner-vous systems...

To prepare the student or athlete psychologically for training, competi-tion or the main part of the class.

Before starting any sporting activity it is always necessary to do a warm-up. However, though it is an essential part prior to any Physical Education, training or competition session, on several occasions, students and athletes do not give it the attention it deserves.

Its name is due to the most obvious effect produced by doing it because it increases body temperature. But that is not the only thing. Warm-up produces many changes in the body that are used as preparation for subsequent efforts.

1 INTRODUCTION

A complete definition of warm-up must include five important distinctions. Warm-up is:

A series of simple physical exercises carried out in a smooth and progressive way before starting any sporting activity to tone

the muscles and prepare them for further intensive effort.

2 THE CONCEPT OF WARM-UP

3 WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF WARM-UP?

2Warm-Up

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Warm-up has numerous effects on the various body systems. The most important are summarised below:

Respiratory systemThe respiratory rate increases while at rest. It takes between 6 and 8 litres of air per minute and in some areas, air hardly enters the lungs. During exercises, the body increases the respiratory rate because it needs greater amounts of oxygen and it reaches values up to 100 litres of air per minute.

The set of respiratory changes that occur during physical activity is known as respiratory adaptation to exercise.

Cardiovascular systemIt activates the heart’s workload. While resting the heart pumps about 50 cubic centimetres of blood with each contraction, warm-up causes the heart to enlarge to allow more blood to enter the cavities, thus making it pump up to about 180 cubic centimetres of blood per contraction.

In addition, the heart beats faster to supply more food and oxygen to the muscles so that the latter can step up their efforts. It also increases arterial blood pressure which facilitates blood circulation.

All these sets of changes are referred to as cardiovascular adaptation to exercise.

Muscular systemWhen the muscles are at rest, the temperature varies between 36.5 and

37 degrees, and with warm-up, the temperature increases to about 38.5 degrees, thus, allowing the muscles to increase their strength, speed and resistance.

It also improves elasticity of the muscles, favouring the speed of muscle contraction and relaxation as well as muscle coordination, allowing for better movements that require precision.

All these changes are referred to as muscular adaptation to exercise.

4 EFFECTS OF WARM-UP

2 Warm-Up

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Nervous SystemBy increasing the body temperature, all the nervous processes are accelerated. This causes an increase in the speed of perception of stimuli and that of transmission of information which in turn reduce the reaction time. These changes make the performance of exercises faster and more accurate.

All these processes are known as nervous adaptation to exercise.

Dermal-Perspirant SystemIncreased body temperature can be dangerous if it is excessive. For this reason, it is necessary to reduce body heat which is achieved through sweating. Sweat plays a key role in the human organism by avoiding excess heat in the body.

Sweat removes water and toxins, mainly lactic acid, generated by muscle fatigue. As the loss of water can lead to progressive dehydration, it is important to replenish with liquids lost regularly during physical activities

Psychological LevelWarm-up facilitates the passage from a state of rest to another state of physical activity, while enhancing attention span, causing attention to be focused on the activity to be performed later.

It also increases the motivation of the athlete to perform the subsequent activity, whether it is a class, training, competition, etc. In addition, when warm-up is done prior to a competition, it helps to reduce the state of anxiety (nervousness, fear...) involved in many cases

5 TYPES OF WARM-UP

There are two basic types of warm-up: general and specific.

General Warm-UpIt is the type in which the exercises performed affect all the major muscle groups of the body. It must always be performed since it is independent of the subsequent activity which must be carried out. It is suitable for all types of physical activities.

2Warm-Up

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Warm-up does not have a specific time. Its duration depends on whether it is performed before a Physical Education class, training session, or game...

To warm-up properly, a set to of rules must be followed:

It must be progressive, from a slow start to high intensity, without causing fatigue.

Start with light and gentle jogging.

Exercises should be simple and familiar and performed in the right way.

It is necessary to workout all the muscle groups of the body.

It should be done from bottom to top, in succession of muscle groups.

Dynamic exercises must be performed rather than static ones.

More intense exrcises must be performed at the end.

After warm-up, pulse should range between 100 and 130 per minute

After warm-up, it is advisable to start the physical activity to be performed not later than 5 minutes.

General warm-up normally includes various movement exercises: movement of legs, trunk and arms, strength and stretching...

Specific Warm-UpThis should be done when going to play a sport. It affects the body parts that are going to participate in the sport that is going to be performed. It is necessary to always do general warm-up first.

Specific warm-up should be similar to the activities to be carried out during the particular sport; for example, backhand swings (tennis), short sprints (athletics), passes (handball), serves (volley ball), basketball layouts (basketball).

6 PERFORMING WARM-UP

7 DURATION OF WARM-UP

2 Warm-Up

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Following the basic rules mentioned before a warm-up, many different ones can be performed. The following is just one possibility.

Warm-up for a Physical Education class should not be too short or long. Any duration between 5 and 10 minutes is considered as normal.

Warm-up before a training session or a game should last longer. It should normally be between 20 and 40 minutes. Then, after the general warm-up it’s necessary to perform a specific warm-up related to that particular sporting activity.

We can distinguish between two types of factors that influence warm up: External and internal.

8 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE WARM-UP

9 EXAMPLE OF GENERAL WARM-UP

External factorsThese refer to environmental factors as well as those related to the activity to be carried out.

Internal factorsThese are those of the person

performing warm-up

Ambient temperature: in cold weather, warm-up must last longer and vice versa.

Level of training: a person who does little training gets tired easily and must not warm-up for too long nor should it be intense.

Time of the day: warm-up in the morning must be longer and more progressive than the afternoon because the body needs more time to adapt to the effort.

Age: children and young people require less warm-up than adults, because with age, the muscles and joints need more time to adjust to the effort.

Activity to be performed later: the more intense it is, the longer the warm-up time.

Food: never do intense physical exercise after eating, because at that time, there is a large supply of blood to the digestive system and warm-up may cut it.

2Warm-Up

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Alternate jumping drills

Light jogging Heel lifting Knee lifting Lateral movement

Walking exercises

Front butt Trunk flexion extension Arms lifting Arm circumduction

Static exercises

Leg curl Lateral trunk extension Trunk rotation Lumbar

Strength exercises

Side butt Lower abdomen Upper abdomen Plates

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Explain the basic objectives to be achieved by warming up.

State the difference between the cardiovascular system at rest and after warming up.

Define the term warm-up.

Explain what is meant by respiratory adaptation to exercise.

List four rules to follow for proper warm-up.

Indicate some situations where it is necessary to perform specific warm-up.

Describe the external factors that influence warm-up.

Give examples of five exercises that can be performed during warm-up

Explain the sentence, “more intense exercises are performed at the end”.

Indicate how warm-up influences the athlete psychologically.

Warm-Up

EXCERCISES

Warm-Up. A Path to Self-Mangement of Physical Activity. Author: Blázquez Sánchez, Domingo. Publisher: INDE. Barcelona, 2004.

Warm-Up. Motivating Games and Exercises to Start Classes and Training Sessions. Authors: Suárez Rivera, Rafael and Suárez Rivera, Francisco. Publisher: Gymnos. Madrid,1999.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

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Warm-Up


What heat !!. The body temperature of animals varies from one to the other. So, monotremes have a body tem-perature of 30º C, armadillos 32º C, marsupials 35º C, man 37º C and cats 39º C.

We must bear in mind that the primary objective for warming up is to raise temperature.

Bats lose so much heat through their wings that when they are asleep, they stay completely cold, so when they wake up, they have to perform some warm-up exercises before they fly.

Dragonflies need to warm up before they fly either by staying in the sun or performing some exercises. The biggest species cannot take off flight till they reach 20º C.

Red alert: the earth’s temperature continues to rise. The current climate is the result of the link between several factors: atmosphere, oceans, sheets of ice (cryosphere), living organisms (biosphere) and soils, sediments and rocks (geosphere). For several years scientists have been warning governments that this balance is crumbling. What are the causes of climate change? Greenhouse gas concentrations (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides and chlorofluorocarbons), which are causing an increase in the earth’s temperature and changes in global rainfall patterns.

The lowest temperature on the earth is –89.2º C. It was recorded at Vostok Station (Antarctica) on 21 July 1983.

The coldest place on the universe is Boomerang Nebula. It is an authentic cosmic freezer, with a temperature of - 272º C. This immense cloud of gas and dust is considered as the coldest place in the universe.

The high levels of sunlight can increase the risk of developing cataracts in the lens cortex by 2.5 and even quadruples the possibilities of developing mixed cataracts. If you want to continue to preserve your sight, do not train during the hottest hours of the day and protect your eyes with proper goggles.

3 Stretching Exercises

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You have certainly heard about the great importance of stretching after performing any type of physical activity. The importance of stretching is not only based on the improvement of physical performance but also on the health of the locomotor system.We can define this as tensions kept in the muscles in the opposite direction to their contraction. Its purpose is to reduce muscle tension generated through sports and daily life. Throughout the day, we adopt postures which can cause muscle pain or problems in the long term. The most appropriate action to prevent this from happening is to adopt a good posture during the performance of any activity. Notwithstanding the above, and due to the time most people spend sitting, stressing and the little movement they usually make during the day, they tend to have problems with their backs, heaviness in shoulders and legs etc. By doing stretching exercises on a regular basis, we can avoid common injuries such as sprains, tendinitis or joint discomfort, reduce muscle tension and relax the body, improve the coordination of movements, know our own body better and facilitate smoother mobility. This is because stretching contributes to vasodilation to a certain extent.Stretching exercises act as the bridge between a sedentary lifestyle and an active life. They make the muscles flexible and prepare them to move, helping them to make daily changes from inactivity to activity. Learning how to stretch is easy, but if we do not stretch in the proper way, we can harm our muscles and tendons instead of protecting them.How should we stretch? We have to do this through a gentle tension, making sure the muscles stretch by adapting the exercises to the muscle structure, flexibility and degree of tension in each one. When we stretch, we should avoid rebound pain and never pull the muscles excessively to a degree of pain because that can cause muscle contraction.Breathing during stretching should be slow, rhythmic and controlled. If a stretching position inhibits your natural way of breathing, it is obvious that you are not relaxed.Whenever we perform physical exercises, we must follow with stretching exercises. The best time is to do it immediately after the workout since the muscle is already warmed up and higher amplitudes can be obtained without discomfort and with minimal risk of injury.We must be cautious regarding pre-exercise stretching because there is great controversy among authors concerning this, as many of them recommend stretching only after completing an activity. On the other hand, they advise that we start the workout session with light jogging, lateral movements, skipping and increased mobility, and then stretching the muscle since they are no longer cold. If we can ask, who should perform stretching exercises? We can say that everyone, regardless of age, gender or flexibility. We do not need to have an excellent physical form or specific qualities but daily stretching can improve our quality of life.We can stretch in the morning before starting the day, at work as a means of relaxation, after sitting down or standing on our feet for a long period of time, when we feel our body is tensed, etc.We must remember that we may end up injuring ourselves during stretching, if we do it too quickly, force the muscle too much or without paying attention to stretch sensations.

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Stretching is a natural impulse we all perform unconsciously on numerous occasions, for example, when we stretch after getting up from bed.

Although we tend to regard the American Bob Anderson as the one who introduced stretching in sports, the truth is that even in antiquity, stretching exercises were performed in some Eastern cultures, such as China and India.

In high performance sports, stretching exercises have been the normal thing for years. The same cannot be said of amateur athletes or people who perform physical activity as part of their leisure time to stay in shape since they do not do any type of stretching exercise.

This “forgetfulness” originated basically from the lack of information on the workout effects on muscle elasticity because there is no noticeable improvement with training, unlike what happens when we train the basic physical qualities,, especially stamina and strength.

However, muscle elasticity should be improved by stretching if we want to achieve maximum physical potential, because if they are not worked out, sports performance is reduced.

1 INTRODUCTION

2 THE CONCEPT OF STRETCHING

Stretching is muscle tension maintained in the opposite direction of muscle contraction. It is intended to elongate muscle structures and connective tissue to improve extensibility in muscle. Its purpose is to achieve lower muscle tension when performing a physical activity, which increases muscle elasticity while preventing injuries at the same time.

Stretching must be done both before and after exercises. It is not a sport in itself but it is a warm-up, part of the physical activity to be performed.

It is important to note that each person is different, therefore, stretching exercises must conform to the level of flexibility and body structure of the athlete performing them.

3Stretching Exercises

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The stretching of a muscle fibre begins in the sarcoma, which is the most basic part of the contraction of muscle fibres ( See “Topic12”). By contracting the muscle, the contact area between the actin and myosin filaments increases. And when the contact area between both filaments is stretched, the latter decreases, so allowing the muscle fibres to lengthen.

When the muscle fibre reaches its maximum length, that is, when all the muscles are stretched completely, you can even stretch further by forcing the tissue surrounding the connective tissue. To increase tension, the collagen fibres of the surrounding connective tissue align in the same direction in which the tension force is exerted, so creating an increase in the space that allows you to stretch a little more.

When a muscle is stretched, not all the fibres are stretched, some remain in their normal position. The length of the muscle depends on the total number of stretched fibres (just like the muscle strength, which

Although muscles have a high capacity to elongate and contract, their elasticity is limited by several factors:

Muscle tension: the degree of muscle tension affects its capacity to stretch; the greater it is, the more difficult it will be to stretch it. Therefore, to facilitate the stretching of a muscle, it is necessary to reduce its maximum tension.

Elastic connective tissue: there are two types of connective tissues: fibrous and elastic. The latter is abundant in the muscle fibres and its quantity determines the degree of extensibility of the muscle cells.

Fibrous connective tissue resistance: the fibrous connective tissue is made up of collagen fibres which are said to be very resistant and least extendable, so they offer a great deal of opposition to stretching. It is the dominant tissue in the fasciae, ligaments and tendons.

Ageing of the fibres: both the collagen and elastic fibres suffer physical and biomechanical changes with age. They occur in various dehydration, mineralisation and fragmentation processes which lead to gradual loss of elasticity.

3 FACTORS LIMITING ELASTICITY

4 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU STRETCH?

MyosinActin


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Performing stretching exercises, as in any physical activity, has a series of effects detailed below:

Improve joint mobility, which allows easy movement since less force is needed to move them..

depends on the total number of activated fibres which contract), such that the greater the number of fibres stretched, the greater the length developed by the stretched muscle. There are two types of muscle fibres: the red fibres (also called type 1 fibres or slow-twitch muscle fibres) and the white (referred to as type II or fast twitch muscle fibres). Each of them has a different function when performing a stretch.

The red fibres are the only ones that contain myofibrils with actin filaments and myosin and they are those that really do the stretching.

The white fibres, placed parallel to the red ones, contain several nerve endings that are sensitive to the change in muscle length as well as the magnitude and speed of this change. They also transmit all the information about the changes to the nervous system.

When the red fibres are stretched, the white also do so, and record the change in length and transmit the information quickly through the nervous system to the brain. This activates the stretch reflex, also known as myotatic reflex, which is simply an attempt to resist change in the muscle length, forcing the stretched muscle to contract.

The more rapid the change in muscle length, the stronger the contraction of the muscle (this fact is based on the work of plyometrics discussed in “Topic 5”, section on “Strength Training Systems”).

The stretch reflex is a defence mechanism to protect the muscle, avoiding a possible muscle rupture when stretching excessively and it is activated basically for three reasons:

When you are forcing too much during a stretch

When you are holding tension for too long

When there are sudden rebounds.

By maintaining the muscle in a stretched position, the white fibres get used to the new length and reduce the signals they send to the nervous system. Static stretching, which will be discussed later, is based precisely on maintaining the stretch during a medium period of time.

5 EFFECTS OF STRETCHING


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Stretching exercises can be classified basically into two groups: dynamic and static. The latter is subdivided in turn into active and passive (see “Diagram 1”). It is worth noting that there is considerable confusion when it comes to their classification depending on the source consulted. In some cases, this leads to errors stating that dynamic and active stretching exercises are the same.

Enable greater contraction of the antagonist muscle, for example, full stretching of the biceps brachii causes maximum contraction of the antagonist muscle, the triceps.

Cause increased blood supply to the area which leads to better blood circulation inside the muscle and increase cellular metabolism.

Improve the elasticity of the tissues to facilitate the slippage of fibres and muscle bundles.

Counteract the loss of elasticity after an injury.

Optimise recovery from fatigue caused by exercise by favouring the removal of waste and replenishment of energetic substances.

Increase the capacity of athletic performance and improve the status of the athlete to perform subsequent physical activity.

Reduce the risk of injuries because the muscles are capable of reacting in a rapid, energetic and coordinated manner.

Although stretching exercises are generally beneficial, they can be counter- productive in certain cases (See “Diagram 1”).

6 TYPES OF STRETCHING EXERCISES

Muscle injury not healed completely.

Recent bone trauma: fractures, cracks, dislocations...

Inflammation: tendinitis, bursitis, arthritis...

Muscle hypotonia.

Acute or chronic instability.

Side effects


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Dynamic stretching are exercises which produce alternating contraction and relaxation of the muscle. They are characterised by movement of part of the body in a smooth and controlled speed until it stops at the joint involved. They should never be done when there is muscle fatigue because tiredness will prevent the muscle from achieving total range of movement.

Diagram 1: Types of stretching exercisess

Ballistic stretching exercises: are a variant of dynamic stretching in which part of the inertia of the body is used to force a joint beyond its limit of normal movement, through repeated rebounds. An example is: bouncing the body down to the ground to touch the ground with the palm of the hand. This type of stretching is not recommended because, despite its effectiveness, it is dangerous and can cause injury.

Static stretching exercises are the ones in which the muscle elongation is not interrupted during stretching. It involves carrying the body gradually to the stretching position, until you reach a point where you feel the tension, and then you maintain that position.

Active stretching exercises: consists of assuming a position and maintaining it with only the help of the antagonist muscle. An example is: raising a foot in front of you and keeping it extended with no kind of help, relying only on the strength of the antagonist muscles. These are used a lot in sports because they develop flexibility and strength at the same time, since the tension of the antagonist muscles helps them to relax and thus increase their elasticity while strengthening them.

Stretching excercises

Dynamic

Ballistic Active

Static

Passive Isometric

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)


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In view of the positive effects of stretching exercises described in the preceding section, it is clear that an elastic muscle allows for better coordination and greater ease of movement which is essential in any sport.

When should we stretch?Stretching should be part of any physical exercise we perform, whether it is a class, training session or competition.

Stretching can be included at various times but it is usually done after warm-up or the end of a physical activity. In each case, the goal is different and the intensity with which it must be performed is different.

It is important at this point to emphasise two things:

Whenever we exercise, stretching must be part of it, at least at the final stages just to finish the activity.

Stretching should be performed only when the area to be stretched has sufficient blood supply, meaning it has to be warm.

Passive stretching: consists of assuming a position and maintaining it with the help of another part of the body, a mate or equipment. An example is: raising your leg in front and keeping it extended by holding it with your hands. They are best for reducing muscle fatigue after a physical activity..

Isometric stretching: is a type of stretching in which muscle group resistance is achieved through isometric contractions (without moving) the stretched muscles. The use of isometric stretching is one of the fastest ways to improve flexibility. A more detailed discussion will be done in Topic 8.

Neuromuscular Proprioceptive Facilitation (NPF): it is a technique that combines both passive and isometric stretching exercises. This is a method adopted from a rehabilitation system and it is considered as the best way to increase flexibility. This will also be studied further in Topic 8.

7 METHODOLOGY OF STRETCHING

Stretches should never be performed

without first warming up


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Stretching during warm-upThe purpose of this is to provide the muscle with enough elasticity to perform subsequent activity without problems. It does not involve increasing the elasticity of the muscle but rather preparing it to achieve what it already has due to previous workout done.

Stretching is always performed after warm-up since the muscles are warmer and more flexible at that time. The intensity of stretching should also not be too great because it is just required to improve the elasticity already achieved in previous activity. Also, they will be limited to the muscles that will be directly involved in the physical activity to be performed later.

It is a mistake to consider warm-up as the only basis for stretching because the latter does not raise the temperature of the muscles but it only provides sufficient preparation towards the subsequent physical activity. On the other hand, stretching a muscle that is cold may cause injury.

After stretching, it is advisable to start the physical activity that must be performed immediately or at the latest, within 5 minutes.

Stretching after physical activityStretches are recommended after the completion of a physical activity. This is intended to reduce muscle fatigue and encourage

blood flow to improve the elimination of waste. It also makes it easier for muscles to recover after exertion.

Stretches performed after physical activity must be done gently with average intensity. It must be remembered that the muscles are tired, therefore, they should not be stretched to their extreme limits after intensive efforts, since their stretching capacity is reduced.

How to perform active stretchingActive stretches are the most commonly used, because they have two major advantages: no friends are needed and it is a static method so it does not require support. It is also safe and effective for improving muscle elasticity.

To perform this type of stretching, certain rules must be followed because stretching must be done slowly and always accompanied by good breathing techniques:

It is necessary to always perform warm-up before stretching. The muscle is better prepared to stretch when it has the right temperature.


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To perform a stretch properly, attention must be focused on the muscle being stretched.

When stretching, you should never make rebound movements, nor stretch yourself till you feel pain. Though these methods are beneficial, they can cause muscle injury.

The first step is to bring the body gradually to the correct position and stretch the muscle until you feel a mild tension.

Then hold the position for a period of 10 to 15 seconds and relax the muscle in a way that you feel the tension reducing, whilst you hold the position. If you cannot achieve the desired relaxation, you must reduce the tension gradually until you feel comfortable.

Finally, you must force a bit to hold the position, without causing pain and maintain it again between 10 and 15 seconds.

This sequence can be repeated 2 to 5 times with 15 to 30 seconds rest between the repetitions.

Proper breathing helps to relax the body and facilitates the performance of stretching. You should breathe slowly, maintaining a constant and controlled respiratory rate. Never hold your breath while maintaining tension, as this limits the supply of oxygen to the muscles.

If you are in a position that you cannot breathe naturally, it is obvious that you are not relaxed, so the best thing is to reduce the tension gradually until you can breathe comfortably.

Stretching exercises are usually done with parts of the body (arms, trunk, legs…) and each part can perform between 4 and 8 different stretches.

Finally, it is worth noting that there is no fixed time for the duration of a stretch. Some sources suggest that it must be maintained for 30 seconds, or even one minute. If there is consensus with the time indicated above, that is 10 to15 seconds, it is the most appropriate for children and youths.


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Stretching of arms

8 EXAMPLES OF STATIC ACTIVE STRETCHES

Stretching the: triceps and upper shoulder.

Position: stand and bend your arm behind your head and hold the elbow with the other hand.

Action to be performed: Push the elbow slowly towards the back of the neck and hold the position.

Stretching the: forearm and wrist.

Position: Rest on your knees and hands, with the thumbs out and the rest of the fingers facing the knees.

Action to be performed: move body backwards without removing the palms of your hands from the floor and maintain that position.

Stretching the: shoulders, external muscles of the arms, wrist and fingers.

Position: extend your arms forward, to the height of the shoulders, with the palms of the hands outward and fingers intertwined

Action to be performed: stretch your arms forward and maintain the position.

Stretching the: sides, shoulders external muscles of the arms.

Position: extend the arms above your head with palms together.

Action to be performed: stretch your arms up and back slightly and hold the position.


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Stretching the: triceps, shoulders upper back.

Position: place your arm bent up to the level of the opposite shoulder and the other arm on your elbow.

Action to be performed: push the elbow with your arm towards the opposite shoulder and hold that position.

Stretching the: side of neck and upper shoulder.

Position: take the opposite arm with your hand behind your back.

Action to be performed: pull the arm downwards and outwards whilst you lift your head towards the shoulder on that side and hold that position.

Stretching the: shoulders, central and upper part of the chest.

Position: stretch your arms behind you, holding your hands together at your back.

Action to be performed: with your hands at your back, lift them upwards until you feel the stretch, then hold that position.

Stretching the: shoulders and part of the chest.

Position: you must position yourself in front of any fixed element (bar, iron rod...) and raise one hand to shoulder level; then place the other arm at your back.

Action to be performed: move your body forward and hold that position.

Stretching the trunk


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Stretching the: back.

Position: You must place your back at a distance of approximately half a meter from a wall or fence...

Action to be performed : turn your body to touch the wall with both hands and keep the position. You must repeat this with the other side.

Stretching the: shoulders and upper back.

Position: bend your body forward and touch the top of a wall or fence with open hands, with your knees slightly bent

Action to be performed: bend the upper part of the body down and hold that position.

Stretching the: back of raised leg.

Position: lift one leg to the height of the trunk, place your heel on a bar or fence and bend the body forward with the head facing forward.

Action to be performed: hold the leg forward with both hands, until you feel the stretching and hold the position.

Stretching of the: muscles of the front part of the hip: iliopsoas muscles.

Position: place one leg forward until the knee is placed above the ankle. Let the other knee rest on the ground and place your arms on the side of the forward leg, touching the ground with your fingers.

Action to be performed: lower your hip as much as possible and hold that position.

Stretching the legs


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Stretching the: muscles at the lower part of the back and sides of the hip.

Position: sit with one leg extended and the other bent and with the foot of the latter on the outside of the other knee. Fold the other hand on the bent leg, with the elbow on the knee; the other arm should rest on the floor behind the body.

Action to be performed: push the knee with the elbow, rotate the body in the opposite direction and hold that position. Repeat on the other side.

Stretching the: calf and ankle muscles.

Position: place foot against the wall, support the forearms with your head on the wall. Move one leg forward and bend it. Repeat the stretching at the other side.

Action to be performed: move your hips forward keeping your back straight, without lifting your heel off the ground. Hold that position and repeat with the other leg.

Stretching the: quadriceps, knee and front of the leg.

Position: stand with one leg bent backwards and take your foot with the other hand. Support yourself by holding a wall, bar or fence with the other hand.

Action to be performed: pull your leg slowly towards your buttocks and hold that position. Repeat it with the other leg.

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Show the situations in which stretching exercises should be performed.

Identify the factors limiting the elasticity of the muscles.

Explain what is meant by reflex stretching.

List three effects of stretching.

Discuss the differences between dynamic and static stretching.

Explain the sentence, “ballistic stretching is not recommended because, despite being effective, it can cause injuries”.

Describe the conditions under which stretching should be performed.

Give two examples of stretching exercises recommended for the arms.

Give advantages of performing stretching exercises after physical activity.

Make a chart to show how to perform static stretching.

Stretching

EXCERCISES

FOR FURTHER INFORMATIONStretching: Complete Guide to Stretching for Toning, Flexibility and Relaxation of the Body. Author: Anderson, Bob. Publisher: Integral. Barcelona, 2004.

Stretching Exercises: Author: Blum, Bruno. Publisher: Hispano Europea. Barcelona, 1998.

Stretching Exercises Encyclopedia: Author: Óscar Morán. Publisher Pila Teleña, Madrid 2009.

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Stretching exercises are normally included in many routine warm-ups as a means of preventing injury. Well, a recent study indicates that doing intensive warm-up prior to training can have negative consequences on strength-resistance training of the muscles responsible for bending the knees. If there is a substance we all know that stretches and have ever consumed before, it is chewing gum. It was observed that a 9,000 year old piece of chewing gum that was discovered recently in Sweden still had teeth marks of an adolescent in the Stone Age on it. The “candy” was a piece of birch resin.

The tongue of the chameleon is prodigious and can expand to a length of 25 centimetres, whereas at rest, it is folded like an accordion. The chameleon’s tongue launches in just 4 centimetres to hunt and it folds back in half a second. After food is chewed in the mouth, it passes through the digestive tract into the stomach. However, this is not done by using the slop down, but rather through the walls of the digestive tract, which contract and stretch to push the alimentary bolus into the stomach. This is referred to as peristaltic movement.

When a goose sees an egg outside the nest, it stares at it and stretches its neck till its beak touches the other side of the egg and then it gently picks it up and sends it back to the nest. At first glance, this appears as a normal behaviour and intelligent as well, but in reality it is a mechanical pattern of behaviour. Almost any smoothly rounded object causes the same response in these animals. Moreover, if you take the egg away from the goose once the response pattern has begun, the latter continues to stretch its neck and carefully carries a non-existent object into the nest.

Robert Hooke was the one who formulated the law of elasticity which bears his name. This law establishes the direct proportionality relationship between a stretch suffered by a solid body and the force applied to produce that stretch.

Stretching


We must remember that stretching exercises should be performed in a sustained way and concentrated in the muscle or muscle group that we want to relax.

We need to know that stretching are muscle tensions held in the opposite direction to their contraction and they are performed to reduce muscle tension generated through sports.

4 Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

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Physical skills are basic components of physical fitness so they are essential elements of motor and sports performance. Therefore, in order to improve physical performance, exercises to be developed should be based on the training of the various skills. Physical form should be improved through physical exercises or general fitness based on the development of the various physical skills and their different components. The success of the training will be based on the optimal combination of these components, depending on the characteristics of each individual (age, gender, level of training, etc.) as well as objectives and requirements of each sport or activity.It is very complex to train specifically for a particular skill since most of the tasks we perform involve all or most of them, although some predominate over others.Despite the fact that there are many known classifications to determine basic physical skills, the most generic way to do it is through stamina, strength, speed and flexibility. Thus we must have:Strength: it is the ability to move or the degree of tension the muscles develop during workout.Speed: it is a particular skill used to improve sports performance. It is involved in all sporting events and it is the ability to perform one or several movements in the shortest possible time.Stamina: it is the physical ability to sustain prolonged effort.Flexibility: it is maximum range of movement in a joint.The individual status of these skills will determine the personal level of fitness. This term is colloquially known as being fit. Every skill can be improved through training. When we train in a reasonable and systematic way, we can improve our physical weaknesses and move from fitness to a state of harmony in order to reduce the time needed to recover from physical exhaustion.Physical fitness has always been understood and analysed from the perspective of sports performance. However, from the 60s, it was given a new focus and it began to be considered in the field of health and quality of life. According to a recent report by the International Labour Organization (ILO), one out of every ten adults suffers from stress, depression or exhaustion, caused by the prevailing and demanding life style that has relegated all personal hobbies to the background.The human body is physically and psychologically prepared to deal with pressure and stress, but you must adapt your rhythm of life to proportional systems and never do more than you can handle. In order to do this, you must find compensation mechanisms, such as physical exercise. This has caused more and more people seeking to free themselves from the hustle and bustle of daily life, to look for organised activities in special centres like gyms which provide freedom to their bodies and minds.The current lifestyle is setting the standard of living. Leading a fast pace of life should not be considered as exercise. Physical activity should be prescribed, just like medicine.

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Movement depends on different factors involved in its performance which also determine its results. The various authors discussing this issue have expressed diverse opinions about it. There are therefore various names and similar classifications.

In this book, we are going to follow the most common method used today, according to factors that can be divided into two main groups: basic physical skills and motor skills (see “Chart 1”).

Basic physical skills: they are skills that generate and facilitate movement. They are essential in most physical activities and directly influence their result.

They are quantitative in nature, that is, they are feasible and measurable. Everybody has them and they can be improved to a greater or lesser extent through adequate training programs.

Within this group can be found strength, stamina, speed and flexibility (some authors do not consider the latter as a basic physical skill). They will be studied in Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8.

Physical fitness is the ability of human beings to perform some physical activity such as walking, running, jumping, lifting, bending ...with maximum efficiency.

Everyone possesses a number of physical skills which enable them to perform different movements both in everyday life and during their sporting activities.

These skills are responsible for human movement and every individual has a different degree of development of their skill. The state of each of these skills is what is referred to as physical fitness.

Physical fitness is determined by physical skills which vary depending on the age of the person and the type and amount of physical exercise they perform.

Through constant and daily training in physical fitness, it is possible to improve one’s physical condition. What is colloquially referred to as “being fit” is just a way of saying that the degree of physical fitness is good and that the level of skills required to perform physical exercise is adequate.

1 INTRODUCTION

2 FACTORS INFLUENCING MOBILITY

4Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

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Basic physical abilities, also known as basic physical skills, are essential components of physical fitness since physical performance can be improved through their training.

These skills are not presented in their pure form but they are interdependent. Several or even all of them are involved in all the physical activities we perform, although normally, there are always some that predominate over others. For example, in a workout involving 45 minutes continuous running, stamina will be the outstanding physical skill, while in races involving high frequency movements, speed will be the main component.

StrengthStrength is a basic skill of human beings, from a health perspective as well as performance in physical activities.

Motor skills: tthey are also involved in every physical activity, but they are not indispensable. They are responsible for the processes that direct and regulate movements and they depend on the central nervous system. These include balance and coordination. They are qualitative in nature and are not directly measurable. They will be studied in Topics 9, 10 and 11.

As a result of the combination of some of the basic physical skills and the motor skills mentioned above, the derivative skills such as power and agility are obtained.

Table 1Mobility factors

Basic physical skills

StrenghStamina

SpeedFlexibility

PowerAgility

BalanceCoordination

Motor skills

Derivare skills

3 BASIC PHYSICAL SKILLS


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Of all the physical skills, strength is considered as the foundation that supports the rest since all sporting gestures need it for their effectiveness.

Strength is the ability that enables us to overcome resistance or oppose muscle tension (muscle contractions) and it is perceived as a functional skill of human beings.

In sports, strength normally appears to be associated with other basic physical skills, speed and stamina, in particular. Strength can be classified into three different categories: maximal strength, speed strength and stamina strength.

From the perspective of training, strength can be classified into three different types according to the way it is manifested:

Maximal strength: it is the ability of the muscles to develop maximum potential tension to perform activity using the greatest possible strength. For this purpose, large loads are mobilised regardless of the time taken to do it. It is also called slow strength or absolute strength. This is the kind of strength used in weightlifting or wrestling.

Speed strength: it establishes a relationship between strength and speed. It is the ability of the muscles to perform movements that require strength at the highest possible speed. It is also referred to as explosive strength and muscle power. This kind of strength is used in sports gestures such as a serve in tennis, a thrust in fencing, a taekwondo kick, a block in volley ball, penalty in handball...

Stamina strength: it establishes a relationship between strength and stamina. It is ability of the muscles to perform movements that require strength for a long period of time. Neither the load nor the speed of performance are great, therefore, many repetitions can be made. This type of strength is needed for physical activities that require long and continuous effort, such as middle distance running in athletics, rowing tests, cross-country skiing, canoeing, cycling, swimming...

These last two types of strength are the most needed in almost all sporting activities.

Strength is a skill that is acquired gradually and it does not undergo great changes, as in the case of stamina

There are many strength training systems (See “Topic 5”). They are classified according to the type of strength one wants to train. These are body building, plyometrics, weight training, isometrics, weightlifting, circuits...


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Stamina

Stamina is also a basic ability of human beings that allows us to sustain prolonged effort and withstand fatigue. When it is developed, it will help to delay the start of fatigue and keep the feeling of tiredness as low as possible.

Stamina is the skill used to perform efforts during the longest possible time, withstand the state of progressive fatigue caused by the efforts and recover from them quickly.

From the point of view of training, stamina can be classified into two different types, based on the supply of oxygen to the muscles:

Aerobic stamina: it is when oxygen supply is sufficient to meet the needs of our body. It is the kind of strength needed for activities such as jogging, rowing, skating, playing football, dancing...

Anaerobic stamina: it is when the supply of oxygen is insufficient due to higher demand for oxygen than the body can supply. This happens when the intensity of exercises increases. It can be subdivided into alactic and lactic (see “Topic 6”). This kind of stamina is needed for activities such as sprinting, long jump, or weightlifting.

Stamina is a skill that can undergo rapid decline if you do not train, but if you work at it regularly, it increases in a short period of time.

There are numerous systems to improve both types of stamina (see “Topic 6”). They can be divided into two main groups:

Continuous systems, in which exercises are performed without lengthy breaks: continuous run, fartlek, complete workout...

Fractional systems, in which pauses and breaks are made between the different exercises: interval-training, tempo runs, circuit-training...

SpeedSpeed is a physical skill used to determine sports performance. It is involved in one way or the other in many sporting events such as jumping, throwing, hitting.... These are actions which normally last for a short time, do not cause tiredness and use little stamina or small loads.


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Speed is a determining factor in explosive sports, such as, long jump. In sports disciplines where stamina is predominant, it is of minor importance.

Speed is defined as the ability to perform motor actions in the shortest possible time.

It is a skill that depends heavily on the central nervous system and for its quick development training should start at an early age. In sports, speed is usually classified into three types:

Reaction rate: it is the ability to respond in the shortest possible time after the start of a stimulus. This is seen, for example, in a response to a pitcher throwing a ball in baseball, a starting gun in swimming or athletics, an attempt at immobilisation in judo or a handover in relay race. It is possible to measure the reaction time.

Movement rate: it is the ability to cover a short distance in the shortest possible time, such as, a 100 meter race in athletics, 50 meter backstroke in swimming or running to win a base in baseball.

Gesture rate: is the ability to perform rapid movement with part of the body, for example, backhand stroke with racket in tennis, batting in baseball or a shot in volleyball.

Just like strength, speed is a skill which is not lost as fast as stamina. Its main characteristics is that it increases gradually until there comes a time when the change stagnates and begins to decrease gradually.

There are different training systems for each type of speed (see “Topic 7”): the simple or partial reactions system work on the reaction rate; that of high speed works on the progressive or short series which are used to improve the movement rate; the gesture and gesture repetition systems train the gesture rate.

Flexibility

It is now time to discuss flexibility to conclude the study of the various basic physical skills. Although it is not considered as a basic physical skill by some sports specialists, they all agree that it is of great importance in sports training, since it is an element that has a positive influence on the other physical skills.

Flexibility is essential in many activities that require large joint movements, such as taekwondo, rhythmic gymnastics and sports, ballet or trampolining,


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There are several factors that directly or indirectly influence basic physical skills. Most of them can be improved and consequently they can be trained to facilitate their development.

The factors that determine basic physical skills can be categorised into two groups: intrinsic and extrinsic.

Intrinsic factorsThese are internal factors, that is, they originate from inside the body and they are related to the muscular, skeletal, respiratory and cardiovascular as well as the nervous systems

In this group are found the muscle structure, muscle fibre arrangements, bone structure of a person, emotional factors, nervous system function, mobility of each joint, coordination of movements, muscle mass, fat tissue...among others.

Extrinsic factorsThese are external factors produced from outside.

Some of the most important are age, gender, heredity, diet, training, ambient temperature, habits, fatigue, inactivity, time of the day...

Also, in sports that require explosive strength, the more flexible you are the greater the distance and the higher the momentum achieved.

Flexibility is defined as the ability of a given joint or a group of joints to perform movements with maximum range of motion. Flexibility is determined by joint mobility and muscle elasticity.

There are various systems of flexibility training (See “Topic 8”). They are grouped into two classes:

Dynamic system: it uses joint mobility exercises.

Static systems: in these systems, you have to perform and maintain a position with maximum range of motion for a few seconds, as in the case of isometric stretches and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.

4 FACTORS INFLUENCING B. P. S.


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The physical condition of each person varies throughout their life because physical skills are not static or permanent. They vary and undergo changes with age.

Each physical skill evolves according to its own characteristics:

5 EVOLUTION OF B.P.S. WITH AGE

Strength: it evolves naturally until age 10. From 11 years old it develops more rapidly and reaches its peak between 20 and 25 years old. From 30 it can be maintained through proper exercises, but in sedentary people who do not work on their strength, there is a slow decline. Between 50 and 60 we start losing physical strength due to progressive muscular atrophy.

Stamina: Up to 12 years old there is a growing maintenance of the skill to resist moderate and continuous strength. Between 18 and 30 is the ideal age to develop the maximum level of stamina. From 30 this skill decreases gradually.

Speed: Up to 12 years old there is a gradual improvement in all types of speed. From this age, it increases and it can reach its peak between 20 and 25, depending on the type of speed. With proper exercise you can maintain a high level, at most, up to 30 or 35 years old.

Flexibility: is a physical skill, which unlike the previous ones, is lost continuously from the moment we are born, meaning, it is a complete degenerative skill. During infancy, children are very flexible, but if you do not exercise regularly, you lose flexibility gradually due to loss of muscle elasticity.

100%

100%

100%

100%

0%

0%

0%

0%

20%

18%

20%

30%

30%

30%

Age

Age

Age

Age

Strength

Stamina

Flexibility

Speed


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There are differences between men and women in terms of basic physical skills, due mainly to biological, physiological and genetic characteristics of both sexes.

During childhood, the differences between boys and girls are of little importance. They include two aspects:

Children always tend to have more strength, especially, in the upper body.

Children often have a somewhat higher level of stamina, due to maximum VO2 (maximum amount of oxygen). The maximum amount of oxygen that girls can carry in their body per minute) is at least between 15 and 20 %.

In adolescence, physical skills gradually reach their full development and the differences between men and women are seen clearly:

Boys gain strength much faster than girls due to the greater increase of muscle mass in boys

Boys develop stamina much faster than girls due to the increase in muscle mass in boys while body fat increases in girls.

Girls gain speed faster than boys in the first part of this stage because they mature earlier but in the second half, boys gain more speed.

Girls are more flexible than boys and the greatest differences are found in the ankles, knees, hips and trunk.

In adulthood, if regular physical activity is not performed, physical skills begin to suffer progressive deterioration. It is a crucial stage for maintaining them through an active lifestyle and there are significant differences between both sexes:

Men maintain a greater level of strength than women because the latter have smaller muscle mass and consequently, gain less muscle mass.

The stamina level of men is normally higher than that of women because men have greater muscle mass and bigger aerobic, heart and lung capacity than women.

Men are usually faster than women because they have more muscle mass and strength than women.

Women are more flexible than men because they have less muscle tone on one hand and their joints are more relaxed on the other, which allows for greater range of motion.

6 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN

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Explain how aging reduces the strength of a person.

State the main distinction between aerobic and anaerobic stamina.

Define the term physical fitness.

Give three examples of activities where flexibility is essential.

Compare and contrast the differences between the basic physical skills of boys and girls during adolescence.

Draw a diagram representing the ratio between strength, stamina and speed.

Identify the three types of speed and explain them.

Mention some strength training systems.

Explain the sentence: “basic physical skills have a quantitative trait”.

Show the differences between basic physical skills and motor skills.

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Physical fitness and basic physical skills

EXERCISES

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION Physical Qualities. Authors: González Barragán, Carlos and Sebastián i Obrador,

Enric María. Editorial: INDE. Barcelona, 2000.

Fitness Training. Author: Los Santos i Poquet, Carles. Editorial: Wanceulen, S.L. Sevilla, 2004.

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Physical fitness and basic physical skills


Everyone has strength, stamina, flexibility, coordination and speed. The individual state of these skills is what determines physical fitness

The record for Step–Ups in one hour is 4135. This record was set by Manjit Singh on 4 April 1999, on a step height of 38.1 centimetres in Leicester (England)

This is the slowest marathon world record. Lloyd Scott, 41 years old, former fire-fighter who had a bone marrow surgery as a result of leukaemia, walked 42 Kilometers of the Edinburgh Marathon in 6 days 30 minutes and 56 seconds. He ran 9 hours a day, wearing a spectacular diving suit of 60 kilograms. His aim was to raise funds for children with problems of leukaemia.

In the Sahara desert, an international solidarity sporting event, a marathon, is held to sensitise the world about the situation of the Saharawi population. It held its seventh edition this year.

The Apnea competition between animals: Sea lions dive down to 1500 meters deep and can hold their breath for 10 minutes. Meanwhile, emperor penguin can dive to 483 meters deep without breathing for 18 minutes. Finally, we have the sea serpent, which can remain submerged up to 60 minutes, thanks to the long lungs running through its body.

According to a study published in the Annals of Internal Medicine, older adults who perform physical exercises three or more times a week, have between 30 and 40% lower risk of developing dementia than those who lead a sedentary life style. It appears that exercise delays the start of dementia by increasing blood flow in the brain regions associated with memory.

It is clear that to become an ironman, it is not necessary to be iron, but you should rather have an iron spirit, as in the case of Sarah Reinertsen, the first lady with a physical disability who was able to complete the Hawaii Ironman with a record of 15 hours and 5 minutes

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Generically, any action capable of modifying the state of rest or movement of the body by imparting acceleration to it is referred to as strength. Moreover, strength as a basic physical skill is defined as the ability to generate intramuscular tension against resistance with or without motion.Periodic and systematic strength training allows us to obtain various physical benefits, such as muscular enlargement (hypertrophy) or increased energy consumption when not physically active, which helps to reduce body fat. In addition to this, it favours increased bone mineral content and makes it stronger and resistant, increases the strength of non- contractile structures, like tendons and ligaments, prevents bad posture habits, enables significant neuromuscular adaptations, improves athletic performance and it is an essential component of any rehabilitation program.It is important to train and improve strength. Both men and women seem to have the ability to increase their strength during puberty and adolescence. It reaches a peak between 20 and 25 years old, but decreases significantly after this. Thus, at 25 years old, a person loses about 1% of their maximum strength each year, so at 65, a person will have only approximately 60% of the strength they had at 25 years old. This means that, if we do not work adequately on our strength, when we get to 75 years of age, our legs and arms will be so weak that it will cost us even to get up from a chair or bed, implying that we cannot look after ourselves.The loss of muscular strength is related to individual levels of physical skill and personal habits. The most active people or those who continue to do strength training are less likely to lose muscular strength.We must note that each individual is conditioned by a variety of factors. Knowing and taking them into account will help us to better understand how to train them, and give us the opportunity to understand why we can sometimes generate more or less strength.There are biochemical factors that influence the development of strength, such as genetics or the constitution of the person. Moreover, there are physiological factors such as muscle length, muscle tone or neuromuscular efficiency that also influence the development of strength. Two other conditioning factors to consider, and previously mentioned, are age and gender.The Russian gymnast, Ditaytin, won medals in all events during the 1980 Moscow Olympics. This was the first Olympic Games held in a communist country. The United States of America, Federal Republic of Germany and Japan did not participate in this competition, in revulsion to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan a year prior to the celebration of the games, which generated uncertainty to the future of the Olympic Movement.Another downside of the game was doping. Moscow saw how the use of stimulants and anabolic products was increasing among many athletes. Among the products most used was testosterone, male hormone that regulates muscle growth, as well as other products that the IOC Medical Commission had in its long list of banned substances.

Picture

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Right from birth, we are forced to overcome the force of gravity to enable us move. Muscular strength is absolutely necessary to humans because in addition helping us to maintain body posture, it enables us to perform many day to day activities as well: lifting objects, pulling, stretching, pushing, twisting...

There are other reasons, apart from those expressed in the preceding paragraph, why strength should be developed: it facilitates sports practice, makes it easier for us to perform difficult activities and gives us aesthetic beauty thanks to the muscle development that occurs...

During growth, strength increases at the same time that the bones and muscles grow. But when the growth stops, the only way to further develop strength is through physical exercise and training.

Strength and stamina are the physical skills that can be more or better developed through adequate training. Strength training has to be more specific; you cannot increase strength by repeating the technical gestures of a sport, while the intensity of the stimulus is too low to produce a significant improvement.

Of all the basic physical skills, strength has the greatest influence on the others, and consequently on sports performance, because the increase in strength facilitates the learning of new motor skills. The belief that muscular development takes away speed and flexibility from the athlete is not yet certain.

To improve muscular strength, the muscles must be made to perform exercises that will let them mobilise heavier weight than they normally carry. This is known as load to the weight of a mass. Strength training can be done with two different types of loads:

1 INTRODUCTION

It is not advisable to perform strength training with weights during the period of growth because this negatively affects the normal growth of the

bones.

Natural load: it refers to the weight of one’s own body.

Overload: it can be the weight of another person, light materials (medicine ball, ballast...),dumbbells, bars, discs...), equipment, etc.

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There are two factors that determine the strength of muscles and the degree of muscular tension each person is capable of generating:

Intrinsic factorsThese are factors originating from inside the body. Among them are three different classes.

Neurophysiological factorsThere are many such factors that affect the ability of the muscle to contract and consequently develop strength. The cross section of the muscle, muscle fibre arrangement, the predominant fibre type, muscle length, quantity of fibres used, intensity and frequency of stimulus... are some of them.

Biomechanical factorsThey determine the true strength of the muscle and are basically related to the skeletal system of a person. The main ones are th e length of the muscle lever, the angle of traction of the joint and the moment of inertia of the load.

The concept of strength, understood as a functional ability of human beings, refers to the “skill that allows us to overcome resistance or oppose it using muscle contractions”.

Our muscles are capable of contracting to generate tension. When that muscle contraction is applied against resistance (mass), strength is exerted and there are two possibilities: that which exceeds it (strength > resistance) or incapable of overcoming it (strength ≤ resistance).

Speaking of strength, we actually use physics terminology, which defines it as the product of mass multiplied by acceleration:

F= m x a.

It is important to understand that if you want to increase your muscular strength, you only have two ways to work it out:

By increasing mass or resistance to overcome

By increasing acceleration of mass by performing high speed movements.

2 THE CONCEPT OF STRENGTH

3 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE MUSCULAR STRENGTH

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Emotional factorsThe maximum muscular strength that develops voluntarily is 60-70% of the actual maximum capacity. Emotional factors can raise the level of strength used to mobilize muscle fibres that are not normally stimulated. These include motivation, attention, fear, ability to make sacrifices, concentration...

Extrinsic factorsStrength also depends on several external factors. The most important among them are temperature, food, training, weather, age (See “Table 1”) and gender. (See “Table 2”).

4 TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Evolution of strength with ageStrength doubles between 11 and 16 years old.

At age 16, strength reaches 80-85% of its maximum peak

Maximum strength is reached between 20 and 25 years old, once muscle development is complete.

From 30, if this quality is not trained specifically, there is a slow but progressive decline.

Between 50 and 60, a gradual atrophy of muscle mass begins to develop.

Table 1

Depending on the resistance that opposes the strength that is used, different types of muscle contractions can be performed, according to whether there is muscle movement or not.

Isotonic contractionThis occurs when the muscle contracts and causes a change in the length of the muscle fibers. This can be done in two ways:

Concentric isotonic contractionThis occurs when muscle length decreases and shortens, for example, when performing push-ups with dumbbells.

Eccentric isotonic contractionThis occurs when muscle length increases and becomes longer, for instance, when you kick a football with your foot.

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To differentiate the types of strength, you must take account of the ways in which strength manifests itself. From the perspective of training, we can distinguish three types:

Maximum strengthThis is also known as slow strength. It is the skills of the muscles to develop the highest possible tension. For this purpose, large loads are mobilised regardless of the speed, for example in weightlifting. The speed of movement is minimal and repetitions are few (See “Table 1”).

Isometric contractionThis occurs when the strength exerted cannot overcome the resistance and the muscle length does not make any change. It is a static strength exerted against an immovable resistance, for example, when pushing a wall.

Auxotonic contractionIn this case, isotonic and isometric contractions are produced simultaneously. At the beginning of the movement, the emphasis is on isotonic contraction and the isometric is highlighted at the end, for example, when stretching an extensor tendon.

Isokinetic contractionThis occurs when the strength exerted is done at a constant speed, which forces the muscle to work with the same intensity throughout distance. An example is rowing. You can only train for this with specific equipment..

5 TYPES OF STRENGTH

Gender differences in strengthThe differences between men and women begin to show from adolescence onwards, around 12-14 years old, the period when boys develop strength faster.

The man is stronger than the woman because he has a higher amount of muscle tissue: 36-44% in men compared to 25-29% in women.

Man’s capacity to develop muscle is twice that of the woman.

After 30 years old, strength decreases equally in men and women.

Table 2

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Speed-strengthThis is also called explosive strength and it is the skill used by the muscles to give maximum possible speed to a load. The speed of movement tends to be the maximum (See “Table 1”). This type of strength determines performance in sports that require explosive speed in their movements: volley ball (jumping, heading the ball…), handball (scoring a goal), athletics (sprinting), football, (kicking the ball)...

Stamina-strengthIt is the skill used by the muscles to withstand fatigue caused by prolonged effort in which many repetitive muscular contractions are performed. In this case, since neither the load nor the speed is maximal, the execution speed is not very great and one can perform a number of repetitions (See “Table 1”). This is the kind of strength needed in sports and physical activities that require long and continuous effort: long distance running in athletics, rowing, swimming, cross-country skiing...

Table 1. Basic characteristics of training for each type of strength

Maximum strength Speed-strength Stamina-strength

Load Heavy weight Moderate Light weight

Speed Low High Medium

Repetitions Few 2-8 Average, 8-12 Many 15-30

Breaks Long, 3’-5’ Medium, 2’-4’ Short, 1’-3’

Table 2. Training of the different types of strength through weightlifting

Maximum strength Speed-strength Stamina-strength

Load 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 30-50%

Repetitions 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 15-30

Series 2-4 2-4 2-4 4-6 4-6 2-4

Breaks 3’-5’ 3’-5’ 3’-5’ 2’-4’ 2’-4’ 1’-3’

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There are many methods to develop muscular strength (see “Diagram 1”). The type to use depends primarily on the type of strength you want to train, since each sport has different strength requirements. Among the most widely used systems for strength training are the following:

Weightlifting: it is a very effective system for strength training. It is basically intended to work on maximum strength and mobilise large loads although it can also be used to train the other two types of strength (see “Table 2”).

The percentage of load is taken depending on the maximum weight of the load for each particular exercise. This is performing a maximum strength test: only a single repetition is made with a specific weight. If you can handle it, you pass on to a higher weight (increase between 2.5 and 5 kilos), with a break between each attempt and so on, until it is no longer possible with a given load. It is taken as the maximum load (100%), the last you could handle.

Isometrics: it is a training system used to work on maximum strength. It is based on short duration exercises between (4-12 seconds) that are studied for the muscle to perform an isometric contraction against immovable resistance.

It is training with 10 or 12 exercises, and each of them has to be worked out in three angles: 45°, 90° and 135°. This system is widely used for the recovery of people who have been inactive for a while due to injury or disease.

Strength building: it is a system that allows the development of maximum strength and speed-strength through the use of weights and equipment.

Isokinetic method: for their characteristics, when working on isokinetic contractions, special equipment is used. This training system is used jointly to develop maximum strength and stamina- strength.

Body building: it is a system of speed-strength training developed in the form of a circuit. It consists of 10 to 12 exercises that are worked out with 60% of loads. There are 6 or 8 repetitions of each exercise and recovery is within two minutes. The circuit is made 2 to 4 times and recovery interval between the rounds is 5 minutes..

6 STRENGTH TRAINING SYSTEMS

Before you start training with large

loads, it is necessary to work the back muscles well to strengthen them

in order to prevent injuries

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Plyometrics: it is a specific training system for improving the explosive strength of the legs. It is based on the fact that a muscle that is subjected to an eccentric concentration has greater ability to develop its explosive concentric strength.

It involves jumping repeatedly (between 4 and 8 times) from different heights, and after dropping on the floor, you have to jump without stopping, upwards as far as you can; it is high jump preceded by a fall (jump down). The minimum height is usually between 40 to 50 centimetres.

The multiple hops are a form of milder plyometrics exercises.

Circuits: they are used to develop stamina-strength. A series of localised exercises (arms, trunk and legs) are performed using small loads: own body weight or that of another person or light weights.

The number of repetitions ranges between 10 and 15 and the execution speed is moderate.

Training sessions: they are used in stamina-strength workout. As in the previous system, very low loads such as own body weight or that of a colleague are used.

Its duration varies between 30 and 60 minutes. Up to 30 exercises can be performed and for each of them a specific number of repetitions are made, interspersed with breaks.

The use of strength training systems produces some effects in the body (see “Table 3”) and has direct influence on the muscular development of the person.

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Depending on the number of weekly training sessions, you can have

1 training session per week: to maintain strength.

2-3 training sessions per week: to increase strength.

4-5 training sessions per week: to increase strength and develop muscle mass.

Diagram 1: Strength Training Systems

Effects of strength training

Hypertrophy muscle: it develops muscle mass and increases the volume of muscle.

Improvement of muscle metabolism: there is an increase in the energy reserve in the muscle which facilitates the ability of the muscles to workout.

Improvement of neuromuscular coordination: excitability and speed of nerve conduction increases, allowing workout to be performed with less effort.

Weight gain: muscle hypertrophy causes an increase in weight and bone density hence, an increase in the density and weight of the person.

Table 3

Speed-strenght

Body building Plyometric Stength-

building Isometric Weightlifting Isokinetic Method

Training sessions

Circuits

Own body weightWeight of a team mate

Light weight

Maximum strenght

Weights Strenght training equipment

Stamina-strenght

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Is it true that muscular development reduces speed and flexibility?

Define the term strength.

Explain what isometric contraction is and give an example.

In isometric exercises, strength is...

Describe the evolution of strength with age.

If you use a load equal to or above 70%, what type of strength are you training?

Compare men’s ability to build muscles with that of women.

Explain what is referred to as load

Discuss three intrinsic factors on which strength depends.

Mention the two possible training methods to increase strength.

Strength

EXCERCISES

Handbook of Theory and Practice of Physical Fitness. Authors: De la Reina Montero, Leopoldo and Martínez de Haro, Vicente. Free printable on-line book is in PDF. Webpage address: web. http://cdeporte.rediris.es/biblioteca/libroMTyPAF.pdf

Strength Training. Author: Boeckh-Behrens, Wend-Uwe. Publisher: Paidotribo. Barcelona, 2004.

Muscle Exercises Encyclopedia. Author: Morán Esquerdo, Óscar. Publisher: Pila Teleña.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

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Mieltxo Saralegi is the holder of the world stone lifting record with 329 kilos. The stones used for this sport are made of granite. They can be cylindrical, cubic, spherical or rectangular. The ones used for attempts at absolute records are rectangular, like the one you see in the picture.

The stones are worked using traditional methods to enable the lifter to use them. They are totally balanced so that the weight–volume ratio will be appropriate. Moreover, a few notches are added at the sides for perfect grip.

On 28 April 1999, Frank Simon, of Cayo Hueso, Florida (USA) held a 61.2 kilos motor bike with his teeth for 14.5 seconds. Incredible!!!, but true. Deng Shaoqian is a 31-year-old Chinese waiter who performed 140 push-ups in 1 minute, and thus won the Guinness record of a strength modality which was established in 133 after three months of rigorous training.

But if you find this news surprising, watch the following: A 6-year-old child called Lu Di, can perform 30 push-ups within 10 seconds and more than 10,000 in 3 hours. Lu’s father wants his son to be included in the Guinness Book of Records for these achievements.

In the specialty practiced by the ancient Greeks during their encounters, then called shot put, but now known as weight throwing, the world’s men’s record holder since 1990 is the American Randy Barnes, with a throw of 23.12 meters. In the women’s category of the same specialty, the world record holder is Natalya Lisovskaya (URSS), with a considerable distance of 22.63 meters.

Although most people think that the elephant is the strongest animal on earth, it is not true. It is a small insect called rhinoceros beetle. It is 4.5 centimetres long, and it can carry a load which is thirty times heavier than its own weight on its back for one hour.

Strength


You may have heard the legendary phrase: “Uncontrolled Strength is useless” on some occasions.

Despite what we all thought about the strongest animal on earth in proportion to its weight and size, you now know that it is not the elephant.

Documents

PHYSICAL Education PHYSICAL Education - Pilatelenapilatelena.com/.../05/MINI-PHYSICAL-EDUCATION-1-74.pdf · Physical Education and health ... Nutrition and Training ... effects resulting