Physical Science G8 - Ewing Township Board of Education ... · PDF fileenergy. Physical science strives to explain natural phenomena in terms of the most ... • Reading: Thinking

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

GRADE 8

THE EWING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 1331 Lower Ferry Road

Ewing, NJ 08618 BOE Approval Date: 11/29/10 Michael Nitti Donald Wahlers, Supervisor, and Darrell Williams Superintendent In accordance with The Ewing Public Schools’ Policy 2230, Course Guides, this curriculum has been reviewed and found to be in compliance with all policies and all affirmative action criteria.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Course Description and Rationale 1 Nature of Science/Methods of Science (6 Weeks) 2 Nature of Matter (6 Weeks) 6 Interactions of Matter (6 Weeks) 10 Force and Motion (6 Weeks) 14 Energy (6 Weeks) 17

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Course Description and Rationale

Physical science focuses on the structure, organization and interactions of matter and energy. Physical science strives to explain natural phenomena in terms of the most basic models. The laws of chemistry and physics describe the structure and interactions of our universe from the tiniest subatomic particle to the largest galaxy. The theories of yesterday inspire the experiments of today, which then evolve into the practical applications of tomorrow. The world around us is composed of objects interacting. We take these interactions for granted. Few of us consider the structural hierarchy of levels present in the objects we use. We expect objects to behave in certain ways when they come in contact. Experience throughout our lives has helped us develop an intuitive knowledge of what will occur. But knowledge and understanding are not the same thing. We may know what will happen (though not always!) but do we know why? Physical science will explore the structures of matter and their interactions at a level not ‘observable’ by ordinary means. Students will explore and discover why the physical world around them behaves as it does. This course will discuss the basics in fields of physical science such as the structure of matter, properties of matter, interactions of matter, kinematics, dynamics, electricity and magnetism, optics, and other topics if time allows. The number one priority is to learn how to think critically, in a scientific manner, about the physical environment. Physical Science here at Fisher Middle School incorporates problem-solving, hands-on activities, experiments and projects. Use of state of the art technology equipment is specified such as data collection probes with computers and/or interfaces. This course also includes real-world applications of the physical science concepts, with the goal of helping students to become informed citizens that are not intimidated by new and emerging technologies.

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Nature of Science/Methods of Science (6 Weeks) Why Is This Unit Important? Students will use scientific concepts, principles and a variety of scientific methods to solve problems through investigation, inquiry and experimentation. By using set standards, students can easily exchange goods and compare information. Finally, students can learn that graphs are a quick way to communicate a lot of information in a small amount of space. Enduring Understandings:

• Individuals follow a set of standards and procedures to ensure safe lab practices in forming scientific investigations

• The steps of the ‘Scientific Method’ are used by scientists to investigate and solve problems

• Variables are manipulated in order to make observations in an experiment

• Well-defined standard units of measurement allow individuals to easily exchange ideas

• Statistical analysis and graphic displays often reveal patterns in seemingly random data enabling predictions

• Technology is used as a tool to assist and enhance investigations

• International system of measurement (SI) is commonly used as a standard base of measuring

Essential Questions: 1. How do scientists go about solving problems? 2. Why are standard, well-defined, international units of measurement important to

use? 3. How is data better analyzed when graphed? 4. How can scientific theory and data be validated? Acquired Knowledge: 1. Scientists use the scientific method to solve problems (multiple steps) 2. Various tools and units can be used to acquire knowledge and data 3. For an experiment to be valid, it is essential that all variables must be identified

and controlled except for the one variable being tested 4. Control groups allow us to compare the results of an experiment to a known,

acceptable standard 5. SI units are the accepted convention that allows data to be shared internationally 6. Valid experimental results are reproducible, given the same conditions

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Acquired Skills:

• Develop questions to further scientific inquiry

• Identify variables in an investigation

• One variable is manipulated while all others remain the same

• Design/conduct scientific investigations using the ‘methods’ of science

• Accurately measure using scientific tools

• Use a variety of tools, collected and analyzed data, and mathematical processes to build conceptual-based explanations and models

• Use of appropriate data tables and graphs to display information

• Use of evidence and data to support appropriate conclusions

• Revise explanations and predictions based on systematic observations and data

• Constructively share and discuss ideas and results in partners or groups Major Assessments: 1. Tests/Quizzes

o Assessment(s): (Scientific Method and Lab Safety; Measurement; Graphing)

o Questions (OEQs), Labs (mini-Labs, inquiry labs, etc.), activities 2. Activities/Labs/Investigations

o Mini-Lab(s); Lab(s): (Observations; Measurement; Graphing) 3. Lower grades will be evaluated/analyzed

o Students are given opportunity to retest [after evidence of further preparation]

o Students are given opportunity for further research/studying opportunities List of Applicable NJCCCS and Strands/CPIs Covered in this Unit: 5.1.8 A.1-3, B.1-4, C.1-3, D.1-4 Suggested Learning Experiences and Instructional Activities: Anticipatory Sets:

• Activity: “I Spy” o Making detailed observations

• Obscertainer

• Question(s): How do you make a sandwich? o Demonstrating procedural steps

• Activity: Commercial Graphs o Analyze meanings of commercial graphs

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In-Class Activities:

• Mini-Lab: Understanding Measurements o Use of standard measurements (student’s foot)

• Activity: Graph data collected by class o Tallies, data table, shared information

• Virtual Lab: How is a Controlled Experiment Performed? Cross-Content Writing Activities:

• Reading: Thinking in Pictures (Temple Grandin)

• Reading: Cerro Grande Forest Fire Not What Was Prescribed Home-Link Activities:

• www.Gpscience.com/self_check_Quiz

• www.Gpscience.com.extra_problems

• www.Gpscience.com/interactive_tutor

• www.Gpscience.com/vocabulary_puzzlemaker

• www.Gpscience.com/chapter_review

• www.Gpscience.com/standardized_test

• Lab: Converting Kitchen Measurements

• Lab: (Design Your Own) Setting High Standards for Measurement Possible Dilemmas (Moral/Spiritual/Ethical, Etc.):

• Pseudosciences

• Philosophical vs. Spiritual: origins of the nature of the world

• Scientific Bias (student/teacher/researcher/scientist/data)

• English/Metric Measurement Systems Differentiation Enrichment: [with Activity]

• Peer tutoring – Conversions

• Design own experiment – Hooke’s Law Experiment

• Higher level analysis questions – Hooke’s Law Experiment

• Increased questioning/higher order questions – Study Island

• Cooperative learning – Note-taking/Outlining

• Create/Design – Foldable Accommodations:

• Peer tutoring – Conversions

• Teacher generated procedure – Hooke’s Law Experiment

• Lab Template – Hooke’s Law Experiment

• Concrete analysis Qs – Hooke’s Law Experiment

• Additional Supported Time – WebQuest; Famous Scientist Poster

• Study Guide/Defined list – Vocabulary

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• Reinforcement WS – Vocabulary


• Teacher Generated Template – Foldable Technology:

• On-line research – Famous scientist poster project

• WebQuest – Branches of Science

• Pasco Probeware – Data collection/graphing; differential cooling

• Electronic Balance – Specific/accurate measurements

• Computer/Projector – Review Jeopardy: topical review/remediation

• Computer – Study Island

• Computer – Data collection/graphing on Excel/computer programs

• Data Analysis Activities: http://www.mathwire.com/archives/data.html

• Data Analysis Project Ideas: http://msteacher.org/epubs/math/math3/projects.aspx#project

• Data Interpretation Games: http://www.gamequarium.com/data.html

• Myth Busters Scientific Inquiry: http://school.discoveryeducation.com/teachers/myth-busters/

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Nature of Matter (6 Weeks) Why Is This Unit Important? Students will understand composition, properties and classification of elements and compounds to form a better understanding of the materials used in their everyday lives. They will understand these elements are made up of specific atoms which will directly correspond to their properties and placement on the periodic table. Finally, students will develop a deeper understanding of the periodic trends of the groups and periods. Enduring Understandings:

• The atomic structure of materials determine their properties Essential Questions: 1. How can matter be classified? 2. How do properties of material determine their use? 3. How are the properties of materials determined by their structure or composition? 4. How does the organization of the modern Periodic Table foster international

study of matter? Acquired Knowledge: 1. All matter is made of atoms 2. There are about 100 elements that occur in nature 3. All elements chemically combine in a fixed proportion to form all known

compounds with their own unique properties 4. Substances combine physically to create mixtures 5. Matter retains its properties during a physical change; develops new, unique

properties during a chemical change 6. The Kinetic Theory explains how the state/phase of matter is determined by the

average kinetic energy of a substance 7. Scientists have developed an atomic model that show how the mass of atoms

are made up of charged subatomic particles that help predict the behavior and properties of elements

8. In the Periodic Table, the elements are arranged by increasing atomic number resulting in periodic changes in trends

Acquired Skills:

• Identify the difference between solid, liquid, gas and plasma based on particle movement.

• Identify elements, compounds, mixtures by their composition.

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• Determine the difference between heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures (solutions, colloids and suspensions).

• Identify substances by their physical and chemical properties.

• Compare and contrast physical and chemical change.

• Explain how the Law of Conservation of Mass applies to chemical changes.

• Explain how to separate a mixture by using its physical properties.

• Describe the particle movement of the states/phases of matter.

• Explain particle behavior at given temperatures (i.e., boiling point and melting point).

• Use principles and laws to explain the behavior of fluids (i.e., Archimedes’, Pascal’s, Bernoulli’s).

• Identify the names and symbols of elements.

• Explain the electron cloud model and how electrons are arranged.

• Compute the atomic mass/mass number of an element by identifying the subatomic particles (proton, electron, electron, quarks) and their charges.

• Use diagrams or models to demonstrate the structure of atoms. Major Assessments: 1. Tests/Quizzes:

o Quiz: Composition of Matter/Structure of Atom; o Quiz: Properties of Matter/Periodic Table; Test: Nature of Matter o Questions (OEQs), Labs (mini-Labs, inquiry labs, etc.), activities

2. Activities/Labs/Investigations

o Mini-Lab(s); Lab(s): (Properties of Matter; Classification of Matter; Structure of the Atom; Periodic Table; States/Phases of Matter)

3. Lower grades will be evaluated/analyzed


o Students are given opportunity for further research/studying opportunities List of Applicable NJCCCS and Strands/CPIs Covered in this Unit: 5.2.8.A.1-7 Suggested Learning Experiences and Instructional Activities: Anticipatory Sets:

• Lab: Sandwich Bag Lab part I

• Launch Lab: Demonstrate the Distillation of Water

• Activity: “I Spy” Matter

• Demo: Burning Candles (physical/chemical changes)

• Discussion: (Atomic Bomb)

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In-Class Activities:

• Foldable: Elements/Compounds/Mixtures

• Discussion: Hindenburg

• Lab: Separating Mixtures

• Demonstration: Tyndall Effect

• Activity: Atomic Model

• Activity: Atomic Structure Chart

• Drawing: Periodic Table of Atoms

• Project: Periodic Table of Foods

• Mini-Lab: Identifying Changes

• Lab: Sandwich Bag Lab Cross-Content Writing Activities:

• Reading: Intriguing Elements Home-Link Activities:







• Lab: Checking Out Chemical Changes Possible Dilemmas (Moral/Spiritual/Ethical, Etc.):

• Atomic Bomb

• Nuclear Energy

• Depleting Resources

• Toxic Chemicals

• Lab Safety

• Use of Pharmaceuticals Differentiation: Enrichment [with Activity]

• Peer tutoring – Periodic Table

• Higher level analysis questions – Sandwich Bag Lab

• Increased questioning/higher order questions – Sandwich Bag Lab; Separating Mixtures


• Create/Design – Foldable; Lab(s) Accommodations:

• Peer tutoring – Periodic Table

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• Teacher generated procedure – Sandwich Bag Lab; Separating Mixtures

• Lab Template – Separating Mixtures; Atomic Structure Chart

• Concrete analysis Questions – Sandwich Bag Lab

• Additional Supported Time – WebQuest




• Teacher Generated Template – Foldable; Periodic Table of Atoms Technology

• On-line research – Periodic Table; Atomic Model

• WebQuest – Atomic Model; Isotope



• Structure of Matter Learning Site: http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Electricity/basicstructure.htm

• Interactive Websites on the Structure of Matter: http://classroom.jc-schools.net/sci-units/matter.htm#Interactive_

• Structure and Properties of Matter: http://www.learningscience.org/psc3bstrucpropmatter.htm

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Interactions of Matter (6 Weeks) Why Is This Unit Important? Students will understand that different elements can be bonded together through chemical reactions. These chemical reactions, which can be described in complex chemical equations, utilize and transfer energy to create products that they encounter in their everyday lives. Students will understand that these chemical reactions often occur in solutions. Enduring Understandings:

• There are several ways in which elements and compounds react to form new substances; each reaction involves the flow of energy

• During chemical changes matter is conserved Essential Questions: 1. How can we determine if/when a chemical reaction will occur? 2. What determines the type and extent of a chemical reaction? Acquired Knowledge: 1. A chemical reaction occurs when one or more substances change into one or

more new substances with different properties 2. In a reaction the total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of the

products formed 3. Chemical changes occur when atoms lose, gain or share electrons to become

more stable. 4. The Periodic Table can be used to determine how chemical reactions may occur

and the ratios of the atoms in the products 5. Elements are represented by chemical symbols, compounds by chemical

formulas, and chemical reactions by chemical equations 6. Scientists have used reactants and products of a chemical reaction to classify the

chemical reactions Acquired Skills:

• Explain what a chemical formula represents

• Explain that oppositely charged electrons and protons are necessary to forming compounds

• Explain why chemical bonding occurs

• Compare and contrast ionic bonding and covalent bonding

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• Use the Periodic Table to identify the particles produced by ionic and covalent bonding

• Compare a variety of chemical reactions (Synthesis, decomposition, double-displacement, single-displacement, combustion, exergonic, endergonic, exothermic, endothermic, oxidation, reduction)

• Identify types of covalent bonds (non-polar and polar)

• Explain how to identify oxidation numbers

• Identify the reactants and products in a chemical formula

• Determine how balanced chemical equations satisfy the Law of Conservation of Mass

• Examine how things dissolve and factors that affect the rate that things dissolve

• Compare and contrast acids and bases Major Assessments: 1. Tests/Quizzes:

o Assessment(s): (Chemical Bonding; Chemical Equations; Chemical Formulas; Chemical Reactions)

o Questions (OEQs), Labs (mini-Labs, inquiry labs, etc.), activities 2. Activities/Labs/Investigations

o Mini-Lab(s); Lab(s): (Sandwich Bag Lab II; ) 3. Lower grades will be evaluated/analyzed


o Students are given opportunity for further research/studying opportunities List of Applicable NJCCCS and Strands/CPIs Covered in this Unit: 5.2.8.B.1-2 Suggested Learning Experiences and Instructional Activities: Anticipatory Sets:

• Lab: Sandwich Bag Lab II

• Video: Chemical Reactions In-Class Activities:

• Lab: Mystery Powders

• Lab: Sandwich Bag Lab II

• Demonstration: Magnesium Activation

• Reading/Writing: Chemistry Through Cartoons

• Activity Sheets: Chemical Equations; Electron Dot Diagram; Chemical Reactions; Naming Compounds; Bonding

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Cross-Content Writing Activities:

• Reading/Writing: Chemistry Through Cartoons

• Reading: Weird Solutions

• Reading: Oops! Accidents in Science

• Reading: Science in Society – Acid Rain Home-Link Activities:







• Lab: Become a Bond Breaker

• Lab: Use the Internet

• Lab: Boiling Points of Solutions

• Lab: Saturated Solutions

• Lab: Be a Soda Scientist Possible Dilemmas (Moral/Spiritual/Ethical, Etc.):

• Acid rain; Ozone Depletion

• Chemical Waste Differentiation: Enrichment: [with Activity]

• Peer tutoring – Balancing Equations; Naming Compounds

• Design own experiment – Sandwich Bag Lab II

• Higher level analysis questions – Sandwich Lab Bag II

• Increased questioning/higher order questions – Mystery Powders

• Cooperative learning – Balancing Equations

• Create/Design – Sandwich Lab II Accommodations:

• Peer tutoring – All Activities

• Teacher generated procedure – Sandwich Bag II

• Lab Template – Mystery Powders

• Concrete analysis Questions – Chemistry Through Cartoons

• Additional Supported Time – WebQuest; Activity Sheets




• Teacher Generated Template – Foldable; Mystery Powders

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Technology:

• On-line research – Origin of Elements

• WebQuest – Naming Compounds

• Pasco Probeware – Acids and Bases



• The 4 Types of Chemical Reactions: http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=ap13004

• A game of Balancing Chemical Equations: http://funbasedlearning.com/chemistry/chemBalancer/default.htm

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Force and Motion (6 Weeks)

Why Is This Unit Important? Students will understand that force and motion are directly linked. They will see how acceleration occurs all around them as objects speed up, slow down or change direction. Students will realize there is a gravitational force between themselves and every other object in the universe. A thorough understanding of Newton’s Laws of Motion and the everyday applications will be developed. Enduring Understandings:

• Motion describes a change in position

• Speed describes motion during a time interval

• Force and mass are related to acceleration, time, and velocity

• Energy (force) is required to change the motion of an object

• Newton’s three laws are evidenced in the natural world Essential Questions: 1. How can the motion of an object be described/measured? 2. What comparisons can be made between motion and forces acting upon an

object? 3. How do forces affect the laws of motion? Acquired Knowledge: 1. Scientists can distinguish between distance and displacement 2. Speed can be calculated given time and distance 3. Compare/contrast speed and velocity given a situation’s parameters 4. Scientists interpret data about the motion of objects by using graphs 5. Weight is a measure of gravitational force on the mass of an object 6. Gravity is the force of attraction between two objects, depending on the mass of

the objects and the distance between them [FG = G(m1m2/d2)]

7. Newton’s three laws of motion describe motion and position of objects 8. Acceleration describes how quickly velocity changes 9. Friction is a force acting between the surface of objects which is directed against

motion, or its start. Acquired Skills:

• Determine speed when given time and distance

• Explain how force and motion are related

• Measure speed/motion and display data on a graph

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• Calculate positive and negative acceleration

• Interpret type of motion from graphs

• Predict the motion of an object and its forces

• Solve simple equations

• Describe motion as demonstrated by Newton’s Laws of Motion Major Assessments: 1. Tests/Quizzes:

o Assessment: (Motion; Speed; Force) o Questions (OEQs), Labs (mini-Labs, inquiry labs, etc.), activities

2. Activities/Labs/Investigations:

o (Launch Labs; Mini-Labs; Labs) 3. Lower grades will be evaluated/analyzed


o Students are given opportunity for further research/studying opportunities List of Applicable NJCCCS and Strands/CPIs Covered in this Unit: 5.2.8.E.1-2 Suggested Learning Experiences and Instructional Activities: Anticipatory Sets:

• Discussion: Billiards

• Discussion: Roller Coasters

• Launch Lab: Compare Speeds

• Launch Lab: Force of Gravity In-Class Activities:

• Video: Force and Motion

• Inquiry Lab: Controlling Motion

• Virtual Lab: What Is the Relationship Between Distance, Average Speed and Time?

• Virtual Lab: How is Momentum Conserved in a Vehicle Collision? Cross-Content Writing Activities:

• Reading: A Brave and Startling Truth

• Reading: Newton and the Plague

• History: Aircraft Carriers (acceleration)

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Home-Link Activities:







• Lab: (Design Your Own) Comparing Motion from Different Forces

• Lab: Measuring the Effects of Air Resistance

• Lab: The Momentum of Colliding Objects Possible Dilemmas (Moral/Spiritual/Ethical, Etc.):

• Space Program Differentiation: Enrichment: [with Activity]

• Self-Design – Catapults; Mousetrap Cars; Bottle Rockets

• Work Sheet (s) – Math Connection (Speed and Motion) Accommodations:

• Template – Catapults; Mousetrap Cars; Bottle Rockets

• Template/Typed Notes – Note-taking/Outlining

• Work Sheet (s) [Reinforcement/Directed Reading] – Vocabulary Technology:

• On-line research

• Microsoft Excel – Graphing Motion

• WebQuest – Weight on other Planets

• Pasco Probeware – Motion Detector; Graphing Speed; Motion Gravity Kit

• Video(s) – Force and Motion

• Study Island – Force and Motion

• Forces and Motion Websites: http://www.learningscience.org/psc2bmotionforces.htm

• More Forces and Motion Websites: http://classroom.jc-schools.net/sci-units/force.htm#Interactive_

• Videos and Simulations on Newton’s Laws: http://w3.shorecrest.org/~Lisa_Peck/Physics/syllabus/mechanics/newtonlaws/newtonlaws.html

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Energy (6 Weeks) Why Is This Unit Important? Students will understand that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or changed into a new form. Students will use their understandings of wave properties to build knowledge of the uses of sound waves. Students will understand that all objects and materials around you are radiating electromagnetic waves. Each of which has a place on the electromagnetic spectrum. Enduring Understandings

• Energy exists in a variety of forms

• Some forms of energy can exist without matter (electromagnetic)

• Some forms of energy can only exist with matter (chemical)

• Energy is neither created or destroyed – only transferred

• The nature of sound waves affects how a person interprets a sound. Essential Questions 1. How can we recognize that energy is present? 2. How do we identify type(s) of energy in a system? 3. How can the Law of Conservation of Energy be observed? 4. How do different forms of energy move from one place to another? Acquired Knowledge: 1. Energy is necessary to do work or cause change 2. Compare/contrast different forms of energy 3. Describe the transformations of energy in a system in accordance with the Law

of Conservation of Energy 4. The total energy of a system is equal to the sum of the kinetic and potential

energy at any given time 5. Radiant energy from the Sun travels in electromagnetic waves and is a major

source of Earth’s energy 6. Light waves can be reflected, refracted, and/or absorbed as it interacts with

different medium 7. Thermal energy can be transferred by conduction, convection and/or radiation Acquired Skills

• Describe how energy is transferred from one form to another (i.e. potential to kinetic)

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• Trace the flow of energy transformation (i.e. Sun to gasoline; Battery to moving hands of a watch)

• Describe behaviors and properties of different kinds of waves

• Solve simple equations of energy transformation Major Assessments: 1. Tests/Quizzes:

o Quiz: Nature of Energy o Quiz: Conservation of Energy o Test: Energy o Questions (OEQs), Labs (mini-Labs, inquiry labs, etc.), activities

2. Activities/Labs/Investigations:

o Mini-Lab: Interpreting Data From a Slingshot o Lab: Bouncing Balls o Lab: Energy of a Pendulum o Mini-Lab: Energy Transformations in a Paper Clip o Lab: Swinging Energy

3. Lower grades will be evaluated/analyzed:


o Students are given opportunity for further research/studying opportunities List of Applicable NJCCCS and Strands/CPIs Covered in this Unit: 5.2.8.C.1-2, D.1-2 Suggested Learning Experiences and Instructional Activities: Anticipatory Sets:

• Discussion: Billiards

• Discussion: Roller Coasters

• Launch Lab: Energy Conversions In-Class Activities:

• Mini-Lab: Interpreting Data From a Slingshot

• Mini-Lab: Energy Transformations of a Paper Clip

• Lab: Energy Conversion Lab

• Lab: Bouncing Balls

• Lab: The Swinging Pendulum

• Virtual Lab: How is Energy Converted from One Form to Another?

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Cross-Content Writing Activities:

• Reading: Impossible Dream Home-Link Activities:







• Lab: (Design Your Own) Swinging Energy Possible Dilemmas (Moral/Spiritual/Ethical, Etc.)

• Use of types of energies [Nuclear, fossil fuel…]

• Depleting natural resources

• Alternative energy Differentiation: Enrichment: [with Activity]

• Design/Measure Angles – Laser Race

• Design/Measure – Bottle Rockets

• Laser Acronym Research – Vocabulary

• Analogy – Energy Analogy Accommodations:

• Template – Laser Race; Bottle Rocket

• Typed Notes/Study Guide – Note-taking/Outline

• Lecture - Vocabulary Technology:

• On-line research

• Roller Coaster Challenge – Tubing and Marble Design/“Equi”-Legbrium

• WebQuest

• Laser – Laser Race/Reflections

• Laser/Fog Machine – Laser Limbo

• Video(s) – Energy

• Study Island – Energy

• Energy Transformation Tools for Teachers: http://msteacher.org/epubs/science/science2/activities.aspx

• Renewable Energy Activities: http://eelink.net/pages/EE+Activities+-+Energy+and+Transportation

Documents

Physical Science G8 - Ewing Township Board of Education ... · PDF fileenergy. Physical science strives to explain natural phenomena in terms of the most ... • Reading: Thinking