Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

U.S. Department of TransportationFEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

Flight Standards Service

2008

vii

Preface ...................................................................iii

Acknowledgments ..................................................v

Table of Contents .................................................vii

Chapter 1Introduction To Flying .........................................1-1Introduction ....................................................................1-1History of Flight .............................................................1-2History of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 1-3

Transcontinental Air Mail Route ................................1-4Federal Certifi cation of Pilots and Mechanics ...........1-4The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 ............................1-5The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 ..............................1-6Department of Transportation (DOT) ........................1-6Air Traffi c Control (ATC) Automation ......................1-6The Professional Air Traffi c ControllersOrganization (PATCO) Strike ....................................1-7The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 .......................1-7

Role of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) .....1-7The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) ....................1-7Primary Locations of the FAA ...................................1-8

Field Offi ces ............................................................1-8

Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI) ................................1-9FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam) ................................1-9Obtaining Assistance from the FAA ..........................1-9FAA Reference Material ............................................1-9

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) ...............1-9

Handbooks ............................................................1-10

Advisory Circulars (ACs) .....................................1-10

Flight Publications ................................................1-11

Pilot and Aeronautical Information .........................1-11Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) ............................1-11

Safety Program Airmen Notifi cationSystem (SPANS) ..................................................1-12

Aircraft Types and Categories .....................................1-12Ultralight Vehicles ...................................................1-12Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) Category .......................1-12

Pilot Certifi cations .......................................................1-13Sport Pilot .................................................................1-14Recreational Pilot .....................................................1-14Private Pilot ..............................................................1-14Commercial Pilot ......................................................1-14Airline Transport Pilot .............................................1-15

Selecting a Flight School ............................................1-15How To Find a Reputable Flight Program ...............1-15How To Choose a Certifi cated Flight Instructor(CFI) .........................................................................1-16

The Student Pilot ........................................................1-16Basic Requirements ..................................................1-16

Medical Certifi cation Requirements .....................1-17

Becoming a Pilot ..........................................................1-17Knowledge and Skill Examinations .............................1-18

Knowledge Examination ..........................................1-18When To Take the Examination ...........................1-18

Where To Take the Examination ..........................1-18

Practical Examination ..............................................1-18When To Take the Practical Exam .......................1-19

Who Administers the Practical Examination? ......1-20

Role of the Certifi cated Flight Instructor .................1-20Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner ...................1-20Chapter Summary .....................................................1-21

Chapter 2Aircraft Structure .................................................2-1Introduction ....................................................................2-1Lift and Basic Aerodynamics .........................................2-2Major Components .........................................................2-3

Fuselage ......................................................................2-3Wings .........................................................................2-3Empennage .................................................................2-5Landing Gear ..............................................................2-6The Powerplant ..........................................................2-6

Subcomponents ..............................................................2-7Types of Aircraft Construction ......................................2-7

Truss Structure ...........................................................2-7Semimonocoque .........................................................2-8

Table of Contents

viii

Composite Construction .............................................2-8History ....................................................................2-8

Composite Materials in Aircraft .............................2-9

Advantages of Composites .....................................2-9

Disadvantages of Composites .................................2-9

Fluid Spills on Composites ...................................2-10

Lightning Strike Protection ...................................2-10

The Future of Composites ....................................2-11

Instrumentation: Moving into the Future ....................2-11Control Instruments .................................................2-12Navigation Instruments ...........................................2-12

Global Positioning System (GPS) ................................2-12

Chapter 3Principles of Flight ..............................................3-1Introduction ....................................................................3-1Structure of the Atmosphere ..........................................3-1

Atmospheric Pressure .................................................3-2Pressure Altitude ........................................................3-2Density Altitude .........................................................3-3

Effect of Pressure on Density .................................3-3

Effect of Temperature on Density ..........................3-3

Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density .............3-3

Theories in the Production of Lift ..................................3-4Newton’s Basic Laws of Motion ................................3-4Magnus Effect ............................................................3-4

Flow of Air Against a Nonrotating Cylinder ..........3-5

A Rotating Cylinder in a Motionless Fluid .............3-5

A Rotating Cylinder in a Moving Fluid ..................3-5

Bernoulli’s Principle of Differential Pressure ............3-7Airfoil Design ................................................................3-7

Low Pressure Above ..................................................3-8High Pressure Below ..................................................3-9Pressure Distribution ..................................................3-9Airfoil Behavior .......................................................3-10

A Third Dimension ......................................................3-10Chapter Summary ........................................................3-10

Chapter 4Aerodynamics of Flight .......................................4-1Forces Acting on the Aircraft ........................................4-1

Thrust .........................................................................4-2Drag ............................................................................4-3

Parasite Drag ...........................................................4-4

Induced Drag ..........................................................4-5

Lift/Drag Ratio ........................................................4-6

Weight ........................................................................4-7Lift ..............................................................................4-7

Wingtip Vortices ............................................................4-8Formation of Vortices ................................................4-8

Avoiding Wake Turbulence .......................................4-8Ground Effect .................................................................4-9Axes of an Aircraft .......................................................4-11Moment and Moment Arm ..........................................4-12Aircraft Design Characteristics ...................................4-12

Stability ....................................................................4-12Static Stability .......................................................4-13

Dynamic Stability .................................................4-13

Longitudinal Stability (Pitching) ..........................4-14

Lateral Stability (Rolling) .....................................4-16

Vertical Stability (Yawing) ...................................4-17

Free Directional Oscillations (Dutch Roll) ..............4-18Spiral Instability .......................................................4-18

Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers ...................4-19Forces in Turns .........................................................4-19Forces in Climbs .......................................................4-21Forces in Descents ....................................................4-21

Stalls ............................................................................4-22Basic Propeller Principles ............................................4-23

Torque and P-Factor .................................................4-26Torque Reaction .......................................................4-26Corkscrew Effect ......................................................4-26Gyroscopic Action ....................................................4-27Asymmetric Loading (P-Factor) ..............................4-27

Load Factors .................................................................4-28Load Factors in Aircraft Design ...............................4-28Load Factors in Steep Turns .....................................4-29Load Factors and Stalling Speeds ............................4-30Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers .........................4-31Vg Diagram ..............................................................4-32Rate of Turn .............................................................4-33Radius of Turn ..........................................................4-34

Weight and Balance .....................................................4-35Effect of Weight on Flight Performance ..................4-37Effect of Weight on Aircraft Structure .....................4-37Effect of Weight on Stability and Controllability ....4-38Effect of Load Distribution ......................................4-38

High Speed Flight ........................................................4-39Subsonic Versus Supersonic Flow ...........................4-39Speed Ranges ...........................................................4-40Mach Number Versus Airspeed ...............................4-41Boundary Layer ........................................................4-41

Laminar Boundary Layer Flow ............................4-41

Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow ..........................4-41

Boundary Layer Separation ..................................4-41

Shock Waves ............................................................4-42Sweepback ................................................................4-43Mach Buffet Boundaries ..........................................4-44High Speed Flight Controls ......................................4-45

Chapter Summary ........................................................4-46

ix

Chapter 5Flight Controls .....................................................5-1Introduction ....................................................................5-1Flight Control Systems .................................................5-2

Flight Controls ............................................................5-2Primary Flight Controls ..............................................5-2

Elevator ...................................................................5-5

T-Tail ......................................................................5-6

Stabilator .................................................................5-6

Canard .....................................................................5-7

Rudder .....................................................................5-7

V-Tail ......................................................................5-8

Secondary Flight Controls ..........................................5-8Flaps ........................................................................5-8

Leading Edge Devices ............................................5-9

Spoilers .................................................................5-10

Trim Tabs ..............................................................5-10

Balance Tabs .........................................................5-11

Antiservo Tabs ......................................................5-11

Ground Adjustable Tabs .......................................5-11

Adjustable Stabilizer .............................................5-12

Autopilot ......................................................................5-12Chapter Summary ........................................................5-12

Chapter 6Aircraft Systems ..................................................6-1Introduction ....................................................................6-1Powerplant .....................................................................6-1

Reciprocating Engines ................................................6-2Propeller .....................................................................6-4

Fixed-Pitch Propeller ..............................................6-5

Adjustable-Pitch Propeller ......................................6-6

Induction Systems ......................................................6-7Carburetor Systems ....................................................6-7

Mixture Control ......................................................6-8

Carburetor Icing ......................................................6-8

Carburetor Heat ......................................................6-9

Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge ......................6-10

Outside Air Temperature Gauge ..............................6-10Fuel Injection Systems .............................................6-10

Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers .......................6-11Superchargers ...........................................................6-12Turbosuperchargers ..................................................6-12

System Operation ..................................................6-13

High Altitude Performance ...................................6-14

Ignition System ............................................................6-14Oil Systems ..................................................................6-15Engine Cooling Systems ..............................................6-16Exhaust Systems ..........................................................6-17Starting System ............................................................6-18

Combustion ..................................................................6-18Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) ........6-19Turbine Engines ...........................................................6-20

Types of Turbine Engines ........................................6-20Turbojet .................................................................6-20

Turboprop .............................................................6-20

Turbofan ...............................................................6-20

Turboshaft .............................................................6-20

Turbine Engine Instruments .....................................6-22Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) ...............................6-22

Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) ........................6-22

Torquemeter ..........................................................6-22

N1 Indicator ...........................................................6-22

N2 Indicator ...........................................................6-22

Turbine Engine Operational Considerations ............6-22Engine Temperature Limitations ..........................6-22

Thrust Variations ..................................................6-22

Foreign Object Damage (FOD) ............................6-23

Turbine Engine Hot/Hung Start ............................6-23

Compressor Stalls .................................................6-23

Flameout ...............................................................6-23

Performance Comparison .........................................6-24Airframe Systems ........................................................6-25Fuel Systems ................................................................6-25

Gravity-Feed System ...............................................6-25Fuel-Pump System ...................................................6-25Fuel Primer ...............................................................6-25Fuel Tanks ................................................................6-25Fuel Gauges ..............................................................6-26Fuel Selectors ...........................................................6-26Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains ...........................6-26Fuel Grades ..............................................................6-26Fuel Contamination ..................................................6-27

Refueling Procedures ...................................................6-27Electrical System .........................................................6-28Hydraulic Systems .......................................................6-30

Landing Gear ............................................................6-31Tricycle Landing Gear Airplanes .........................6-31

Tailwheel Landing Gear Airplanes .......................6-31

Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear ....................6-31

Brakes .......................................................................6-32Pressurized Aircraft .....................................................6-32Oxygen Systems...........................................................6-34

Oxygen Masks ..........................................................6-35Cannula .....................................................................6-35Pressure-Demand Oxygen Systems .........................6-36Continuous-Flow Oxygen System ...........................6-36Electrical Pulse-Demand Oxygen System ................6-36Pulse Oximeters ........................................................6-37

x

Servicing of Oxygen Systems ..................................6-37Anti-Ice and Deice Systems .........................................6-37

Airfoil Anti-Ice and Deice .......................................6-37Windscreen Anti-Ice ................................................6-38Propeller Anti-Ice .....................................................6-38Other Anti-Ice and Deice Systems ...........................6-39

Chapter Summary ........................................................6-39

Chapter 7Flight Instruments ...............................................7-1Introduction ....................................................................7-1Pitot-Static Flight Instruments .......................................7-1

Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines ..........................7-2Static Pressure Chamber and Lines ............................7-2Altimeter .....................................................................7-3

Principle of Operation .............................................7-3

Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature ..7-4

Setting the Altimeter ...............................................7-5

Altimeter Operation ................................................7-6

Types of Altitude ....................................................7-6

Instrument Check ....................................................7-7

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) ...................................7-7Principle of Operation .............................................7-7

Instrument Check ....................................................7-8

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) ............................................7-8Airspeed Indicator Markings ..................................7-9

Other Airspeed Limitations ..................................7-10

Instrument Check ..................................................7-10

Blockage of the Pitot-Static System .........................7-10Blocked Pitot System ............................................7-10

Blocked Static System ..........................................7-11

Electronic Flight Display (EFD) ..................................7-12Airspeed Tape ..........................................................7-12Attitude Indicator .....................................................7-12Altimeter ...................................................................7-12Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) .................................7-12Heading Indicator .....................................................7-12Turn Indicator ...........................................................7-12Tachometer ...............................................................7-12Slip/Skid Indicator ....................................................7-13Turn Rate Indicator ..................................................7-13Air Data Computer (ADC) .......................................7-14Trend Vectors ...........................................................7-14

Gyroscopic Flight Instruments .....................................7-15Gyroscopic Principles ..............................................7-15

Rigidity in Space ...................................................7-15

Precession .............................................................7-15

Sources of Power ......................................................7-16Turn Indicators .........................................................7-16

Turn-and-Slip Indicator ........................................7-17

Turn Coordinator ..................................................7-17

Inclinometer .............................................................7-18Yaw String ............................................................7-18

Instrument Check ..................................................7-18

Attitude Indicator .....................................................7-18Heading Indicator .....................................................7-20Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) ...7-20The Flux Gate Compass System ..............................7-20Remote Indicating Compass .....................................7-21

Instrument Check ..................................................7-22

Compass Systems ........................................................7-22Magnetic Compass ...................................................7-22

Magnetic Compass Induced Errors .......................7-23

The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass .....................7-26Lags or Leads ........................................................7-26

Eddy Current Damping .........................................7-26

Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Gauge ......................7-26Chapter Summary ........................................................7-26

Chapter 8Flight Manuals and Other Documents ...............8-1Introduction ....................................................................8-1

Preliminary Pages .......................................................8-2General (Section 1) .....................................................8-2Limitations (Section 2) ...............................................8-2

Airspeed ..................................................................8-2

Powerplant ..............................................................8-3

Weight and Loading Distribution ...........................8-3

Flight Limits ...........................................................8-4

Placards ...................................................................8-4

Emergency Procedures (Section 3) ............................8-4Normal Procedures (Section 4) ..................................8-4Performance (Section 5) .............................................8-4Weight and Balance/Equipment List (Section 6) .......8-4Systems Description (Section 7) ................................8-4Handling, Service, and Maintenance (Section 8) .......8-4Supplements (Section 9) .............................................8-5Safety Tips (Section 10) .............................................8-5

Aircraft Documents ........................................................8-6Certifi cate of Aircraft Registration .............................8-6Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) .........................................8-7Airworthiness Certifi cate ............................................8-7Aircraft Maintenance ..................................................8-8

Aircraft Inspections ........................................................8-8Annual Inspection ......................................................8-8100-Hour Inspection ...................................................8-9Other Inspection Programs .........................................8-9

Altimeter System Inspection ..................................8-9

Transponder Inspection ..........................................8-9

Emergency Locator Transmitter .............................8-9

Prefl ight Inspections ...............................................8-9

Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) and Operations With

xi

Inoperative Equipment ..................................................8-9Preventive Maintenance ...............................................8-11

Maintenance Entries .............................................8-11

Examples of Preventive Maintenance ..................8-11

Repairs and Alterations ............................................8-12Special Flight Permits ..............................................8-12

Airworthiness Directives (ADs) ..................................8-12Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities ...................8-13Chapter Summary ........................................................8-14

Chapter 9Weight and Balance ............................................9-1Introduction ....................................................................9-1Weight Control ...............................................................9-1

Effects of Weight .......................................................9-1Weight Changes .........................................................9-2

Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity ......................9-2Effects of Adverse Balance ........................................9-3

Stability ...................................................................9-3

Control ....................................................................9-3

Management of Weight and Balance Control ............9-4Terms and Defi nitions ................................................9-4Principles of Weight and Balance Computations .......9-6Weight and Balance Restrictions ...............................9-7

Determining Loaded Weight and CG ............................9-7Computational Method ...............................................9-7Graph Method ............................................................9-7Table Method .............................................................9-9Computations With a Negative Arm ........................9-10Computations With Zero Fuel Weight .....................9-10Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight .................9-10

Weight Shifting .....................................................9-10

Weight Addition or Removal ................................9-11

Chapter Summary ........................................................9-11

Chapter 10Aircraft Performance .........................................10-1Introduction ..................................................................10-1Importance of Performance Data .................................10-1Structure of the Atmosphere ........................................10-2Atmospheric Pressure ..................................................10-2Pressure Altitude ..........................................................10-3Density Altitude ...........................................................10-3

Effects of Pressure on Density .................................10-4Effects of Temperature on Density ..........................10-5Effects of Humidity (Moisture) on Density .............10-5

Performance .................................................................10-5Straight-and-Level Flight .........................................10-5Climb Performance ..................................................10-6Range Performance ..................................................10-8Region of Reversed Command ..............................10-10

Takeoff and Landing Performance .........................10-11Runway Surface and Gradient ................................10-11Water on the Runway and Dynamic Hydroplaning 10-13Takeoff Performance ..............................................10-13Landing Performance .............................................10-15

Performance Speeds ...................................................10-17Performance Charts ....................................................10-17

Interpolation ...........................................................10-18Density Altitude Charts ..........................................10-18Takeoff Charts ........................................................10-19Climb and Cruise Charts ........................................10-20Crosswind and Headwind Component Chart .........10-24Landing Charts .......................................................10-25Stall Speed Performance Charts .............................10-26

Transport Category Airplane Performance ................10-26Major Differences in Transport Category Versus Non-Transport Category Performance Requirements ....10-27Performance Requirements ....................................10-27

Takeoff ................................................................10-27

Landing ...............................................................10-27

Takeoff Planning ................................................10-27

Runway Requirements ...........................................10-27Balanced Field Length ........................................10-28

Climb Requirements ..................................................10-30First Segment ..........................................................10-30Second Segment .....................................................10-31Third or Acceleration Segment ..............................10-31Fourth or Final Segment .........................................10-31Second Segment Climb Limitations .......................10-31

Air Carrier Obstacle Clearance Requirements ...........10-31Summary of Takeoff Requirements .......................10-32Landing Performance .............................................10-32

Planning the Landing ..........................................10-32

Landing Requirements ........................................10-32

Approach Climb Requirements ..........................10-32

Landing Runway Required .................................10-33

Summary of Landing Requirements ......................10-33Chapter Summary ......................................................10-34

Chapter 11Weather Theory .................................................11-1Introduction ..................................................................11-1Atmosphere ..................................................................11-2

Composition of the Atmosphere ..............................11-2Atmospheric Circulation ..........................................11-3Atmospheric Pressure ...............................................11-3

Coriolis Force ...............................................................11-3Measurement of Atmosphere Pressure ........................11-4Altitude and Atmospheric Pressure .............................11-5Altitude and Flight .......................................................11-6Altitude and the Human Body .....................................11-6

xii

Wind and Currents .......................................................11-7Wind Patterns ...........................................................11-7Convective Currents .................................................11-7Effect of Obstructions on Wind ...............................11-8Low-Level Wind Shear ..........................................11-11Wind and Pressure Representation on SurfaceWeather Maps ........................................................11-11

Atmospheric Stability ................................................11-12Inversion .................................................................11-13Moisture and Temperature .....................................11-13Relative Humidity ..................................................11-13Temperature/Dew Point Relationship ....................11-13Methods by Which Air Reaches theSaturation Point ......................................................11-14Dew and Frost ........................................................11-15Fog ..........................................................................11-15Clouds .....................................................................11-15Ceiling ....................................................................11-17Visibility .................................................................11-18Precipitation ...........................................................11-18

Air Masses .................................................................11-18Fronts .........................................................................11-18

Warm Front ............................................................11-19Flight Toward an Approaching Warm Front ......11-20

Cold Front ..............................................................11-20Fast-Moving Cold Front .....................................11-21

Flight Toward an Approaching Cold Front ........11-21

Comparison of Cold and Warm Fronts ..................11-22Wind Shifts .............................................................11-22Stationary Front ......................................................11-22Occluded Front .......................................................11-22Thunderstorms ........................................................11-22

Hazards ..............................................................11-23

Squall Line .........................................................11-23

Tornadoes ..........................................................11-23

Turbulence .........................................................11-24

Icing ...................................................................11-24

Hail ....................................................................11-24

Ceiling and Visibility .........................................11-25

Effect on Altimeters ...........................................11-25

Lightning .............................................................11-25

Engine Water Ingestion .....................................11-25

Chapter Summary ......................................................11-25

Chapter 12Aviation Weather Services ...............................12-1Introduction ..................................................................12-1Observations ................................................................12-2

Surface Aviation Weather Observations ..................12-2Air Route Traffi c Control Center (ARTCC) .........12-2

Upper Air Observations ...........................................12-2Radar Observations ..................................................12-2Satellite .....................................................................12-3

Satellite Weather ...................................................12-3

Satellite Weather Products ....................................12-4

Service Outlets .............................................................12-4Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) ...............12-4Transcribed Information Briefi ng Service (TIBS) ...12-4Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS) .....12-4En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) ..............12-5Hazardous Infl ight Weather Advisory (HIWAS) .....12-5Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) ...............12-5

Weather Briefi ngs ........................................................12-5Standard Briefi ng ......................................................12-5Abbreviated Briefi ng ................................................12-6Outlook Briefi ng .......................................................12-6

Aviation Weather Reports ............................................12-6Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) ..........12-6Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) ..............................12-8Radar Weather Reports (RAREP) ............................12-9

Aviation Forecasts .....................................................12-10Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) ...................12-10Area Forecasts (FA) ...............................................12-11Infl ight Weather Advisories ...................................12-12

AIRMET .............................................................12-12

SIGMET .............................................................12-13

Convective Signifi cant MeteorologicalInformation (WST) .............................................12-14

Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FD) ........12-14Weather Charts ...........................................................12-15

Surface Analysis Chart ...........................................12-15Weather Depiction Chart ........................................12-16Radar Summary Chart ............................................12-17Signifi cant Weather Prognostic Charts ..................12-18

ATC Radar Weather Displays ..................................12-19Weather Avoidance Assistance ..............................12-21

Electronic Flight Displays (EFD) /Multi-FunctionDisplay (MFD) Weather ...........................................12-21

Weather Products Age and Expiration ...................12-22The Next Generation Weather Radar System (NEXRAD) .............................................................12-22

Level II Data Products ........................................12-22

Level III Data Products .......................................12-22

NEXRAD Abnormalities ....................................12-23

NEXRAD Limitations ........................................12-23

AIRMET/SIGMET Display ...................................12-24Graphical METARs ................................................12-24

Chapter Summary ......................................................12-26

xiii

Chapter 13Airport Operations .............................................13-1Introduction ..................................................................13-1Types of Airports .........................................................13-1

Towered Airport .......................................................13-2Nontowered Airport .................................................13-2

Sources for Airport Data ..............................................13-2Aeronautical Charts ..................................................13-3Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) ............................13-3Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) ................................13-3

Airport Markings and Signs .........................................13-4Runway Markings ....................................................13-4Taxiway Markings ....................................................13-5Other Markings ........................................................13-5Airport Signs ............................................................13-6

Airport Lighting ...........................................................13-6Airport Beacon .........................................................13-6Approach Light Systems ..........................................13-7Visual Glideslope Indicators ....................................13-7

Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) .............13-7

Other Glidepath Systems ......................................13-7

Runway Lighting ......................................................13-8Runway End Identifi er Lights (REIL) ..................13-8

Runway Edge Lights .............................................13-8

In-Runway Lighting ..............................................13-9

Control of Airport Lighting ......................................13-9Taxiway Lights .........................................................13-9Obstruction Lights ....................................................13-9

Wind Direction Indicators ..........................................13-10Traffi c Patterns ..........................................................13-10

Key to Traffi c PatternOperations—Single Runway ..................................13-11Key to Traffi c PatternOperations—Parallel Runways ..............................13-11

Radio Communications ..............................................13-11Radio License .........................................................13-11Radio Equipment ....................................................13-12Lost Communication Procedures ...........................13-12

Air Traffi c Control (ATC) Services ...........................13-13Primary Radar ........................................................13-13ATC Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) ................13-14Transponder ............................................................13-14Radar Traffi c Advisories ........................................13-14

Wake Turbulence .......................................................13-15Vortex Generation ..................................................13-16Vortex Strength ......................................................13-16Vortex Behavior .....................................................13-16Vortex Avoidance Procedures ................................13-17

Collision Avoidance ...................................................13-17Clearing Procedures ...............................................13-18Runway Incursion Avoidance ................................13-18

Chapter Summary ......................................................13-18

Chapter 14Airspace .............................................................14-1Introduction ..................................................................14-1Controlled Airspace .....................................................14-2

Class A Airspace ......................................................14-2Class B Airspace ......................................................14-2Class C Airspace ......................................................14-2Class D Airspace ......................................................14-2Class E Airspace .......................................................14-2

Uncontrolled Airspace .................................................14-3Class G Airspace ......................................................14-3

Special Use Airspace ...................................................14-3Prohibited Areas .......................................................14-3Restricted Areas .......................................................14-3Warning Areas ..........................................................14-4Military Operation Areas (MOAs) ...........................14-4Alert Areas ...............................................................14-4Controlled Firing Areas (CFAs) ...............................14-4

Other Airspace Areas ...................................................14-4Local Airport Advisory (LAA) ................................14-4Military Training Routes (MTRs) ............................14-6Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) ......................14-6Published VFR Routes .............................................14-6Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSAs) ..................14-6National Security Areas (NSAs) ..............................14-6

Air Traffi c Control and the National Airspace System 14-7Coordinating the Use of Airspace ............................14-7Operating in the Various Types of Airspace ............14-7

Basic VFR Weather Minimums ............................14-7

Operating Rules and Pilot/EquipmentRequirements ........................................................14-7

Ultralight Vehicles ..............................................14-10

Unmanned Free Balloons ...................................14-10

Parachute Jumps .................................................14-10

Chapter Summary ......................................................14-10

Chapter 15Navigation ..........................................................15-1Introduction ..................................................................15-1Aeronautical Charts .....................................................15-2

Sectional Charts ........................................................15-2VFR Terminal Area Charts ......................................15-2World Aeronautical Charts .......................................15-2

Lattitude and Longitude (Meridians and Parallels) .....15-3Time Zones ...............................................................15-3Measurement of Direction ........................................15-5Variation ...................................................................15-6Deviation ..................................................................15-8

Effect of Wind ..............................................................15-9Basic Calculations ......................................................15-11

Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours ...............15-11

xiv

Time T = D/GS ...................................................15-11

Distance D = GS X T ..........................................15-11

GS GS = D/T ......................................................15-11

Converting Knots to Miles Per Hour ......................15-11Fuel Consumption ..................................................15-12Flight Computers ....................................................15-12Plotter .....................................................................15-12

Pilotage ......................................................................15-12Dead Reckoning .........................................................15-12

The Wind Triangle or Vector Analysis ..................15-12Flight Planning ...........................................................15-16

Assembling Necessary Material .............................15-16Weather Check .......................................................15-17Use of Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) ..............15-17Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot’s OperatingHandbook (AFM/POH) ..........................................15-17

Charting the Course ...................................................15-17Steps in Charting the Course ..................................15-19

Filing a VFR Flight Plan ............................................15-20Radio Navigation .......................................................15-21

Very High Frequency (VHF) OmnidirectionalRange (VOR) ..........................................................15-22

Using the VOR ...................................................15-23

Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) ..........................15-23Horizontal Situation Indicator ................................15-24Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) ............................15-24Tracking With VOR ...............................................15-25Tips on Using the VOR ..........................................15-26Time and Distance Check From a Station ..............15-26Course Intercept ....................................................15-27

Rate of Intercept .................................................15-27

Angle of Intercept ..............................................15-27

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) .................15-27VOR/DME RNAV .................................................15-27Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) ........................15-29Loran-C Navigation ................................................15-30Global Positioning System .....................................15-32

Selective Availability ..........................................15-32

VFR Use of GPS ................................................15-32

RAIM Capability ................................................15-33

Tips for Using GPS for VFR Operations ...............15-33VFR Waypoints .....................................................15-34

Lost Procedures ..........................................................15-34Flight Diversion .........................................................15-34Chapter Summary ......................................................15-35

Chapter 16Aeromedical Factors .........................................16-1Introduction ..................................................................16-1Obtaining a Medical Certifi cate ...................................16-2Health and Physiological Factors Affecting Pilot Performance .................................................................16-2

Hypoxia ....................................................................16-2Hypoxic Hypoxia ..................................................16-2

Hypemic Hypoxia .................................................16-2

Stagnant Hypoxia ..................................................16-3

Histotoxic Hypoxia ...............................................16-3

Symptoms of Hypoxia ..............................................16-3Hyperventilation .......................................................16-3Middle Ear and Sinus Problems ...............................16-4Spatial Disorientation and Illusions .........................16-5

Vestibular Illusions ...............................................16-6

Visual Illusions .....................................................16-7

Postural Considerations ............................................16-7Demonstration of Spatial Disorientation ..................16-8

Climbing While Accelerating ...............................16-8

Climbing While Turning .......................................16-8

Diving While Turning ...........................................16-8

Tilting to Right or Left .........................................16-8

Reversal of Motion ...............................................16-8

Diving or Rolling Beyond the Vertical Plane .......16-8

Coping with Spatial Disorientation ..........................16-8Optical Illusions .......................................................16-9

Runway Width Illusion .........................................16-9

Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion .....................16-9

Featureless Terrain Illusion ..................................16-9

Water Refraction ...................................................16-9

Haze ......................................................................16-9

Fog ........................................................................16-9

Ground Lighting Illusions .....................................16-9

How To Prevent Landing Errors Due toOptical Illusions .....................................................16-11Motion Sickness .....................................................16-11Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning ........................16-11Stress ......................................................................16-11Fatigue ....................................................................16-12Dehydration and Heatstroke ...................................16-12Alcohol ...................................................................16-13Drugs ......................................................................16-14Altitude-Induced Decompression Sickness (DCS) 16-16

DCS After Scuba Diving ....................................16-16

xv

Vision in Flight ..........................................................16-17Empty-Field Myopia ..............................................16-18Night Vision ...........................................................16-18Night Vision Illusions ............................................16-19

Autokinesis .........................................................16-19

False Horizon ......................................................16-19

Night Landing Illusions ..........................................16-19Chapter Summary ......................................................16-20

Chapter 17Aeronautical Decision-Making .........................17-1Introduction ..................................................................17-1History of ADM ...........................................................17-2Crew Resource Management (CRM) and Single-Pilot Resource Management .................................................17-4Hazard and Risk ...........................................................17-4

Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes ..........................17-4Risk ...........................................................................17-4

Assessing Risk ......................................................17-5

Likelihood of an Event .........................................17-6

Severity of an Event ..............................................17-6

Mitigating Risk .....................................................17-6

The PAVE Checklist ...............................................17-6P = Pilot in Command (PIC) ................................17-8

A = Aircraft .........................................................17-8

V = EnVironment .................................................17-8

E = External Pressures ..........................................17-9

Human Behavior ........................................................17-10The Decision-Making Process ...................................17-11

SRM and the 5P Check .........................................17-11The Plan .............................................................17-12

The Plane ...........................................................17-13

The Pilot .............................................................17-13

The Passengers ...................................................17-13

The Programming ..............................................17-13

Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) .............................17-14Perceive, Process, Perform withCARE and TEAM ...............................................17-14

Forming Good Safety Habits .............................17-16

The OODA Loop ....................................................17-16

The DECIDE Model ...............................................17-17Detect (the Problem) ...........................................17-19

Estimate (the Need To React) .............................17-19

Choose (a Course of Action) ..............................17-19

Identify (Solutions) .............................................17-19

Do (the Necessary Actions) ................................17-19

Evaluate (the Effect of the Action) ....................17-19

Decision-Making in a Dynamic Environment ..........17-19Automatic Decision-Making .................................17-20

Operational Pitfalls .............................................17-20

Stress Management ................................................17-20Use of Resources ....................................................17-20

Internal Resources ..............................................17-20

External Resources .............................................17-22

Situational Awareness ................................................17-23Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness ...17-23

Workload Management ......................................17-23

Managing Risks ..................................................17-24

Automation ................................................................17-25Results of the Study ................................................17-27Equipment Use .......................................................17-29

Autopilot Systems ...............................................17-29

Familiarity ...........................................................17-29

Respect for Onboard Systems .............................17-29

Reinforcement of Onboard Suites ......................17-29

Getting Beyond Rote Workmanship ...................17-29

Understand the Platform ....................................17-29

Managing Aircraft Automation .............................17-30Information Management ...................................17-30

Enhanced Situational Awareness ...........................17-31Automation Management .......................................17-31

Risk Management ......................................................17-32Chapter Summary .....................................................17-32

Appendix .............................................................A-1

Glossary ..............................................................G-1

Index ......................................................................I-1

1-1

IntroductionThe Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge for the student pilot learning to fl y, as well as pilots seeking advanced pilot certifi cation. For detailed information on a variety of specialized fl ight topics, see specifi c Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) handbooks and Advisory Circulars (ACs).

This chapter offers a brief history of fl ight, introduces the history and role of the FAA in civil aviation, FAA regulations and standards, government references and publications, eligibility for pilot certifi cates, available routes to fl ight instruction, the role of the Certifi cated Flight Instructor (CFI) and Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) in fl ight training, and Practical Test Standards (PTS).

Introduction To Flying

Chapter 1

1-2

Figure 1-2. Glider from 1852 by Sir George Cayley, British aviator

(1773–1857).

Figure 1-1. Leonardo da Vinci’s ornithopter wings.

History of FlightFrom prehistoric times, humans have watched the fl ight of birds, longed to imitate them, but lacked the power to do so. Logic dictated that if the small muscles of birds can lift them into the air and sustain them, then the larger muscles of humans should be able to duplicate the feat. No one knew about the intricate mesh of muscles, sinew, heart, breathing system, and devices not unlike wing fl aps, variable-camber and spoilers of the modern airplane that enabled a bird to fl y. Still, thousands of years and countless lives were lost in attempts to fl y like birds.

The identity of the fi rst “bird-men” who fi tted themselves with wings and leapt off a cliff in an effort to fl y are lost in time, but each failure gave those who wished to fl y questions that needed answering. Where had the wing fl appers gone wrong? Philosophers, scientists, and inventors offered solutions, but no one could add wings to the human body and soar like a bird. During the 1500s, Leonardo da Vinci fi lled pages of his notebooks with sketches of proposed fl ying machines, but most of his ideas were fl awed because he clung to the idea of birdlike wings. [Figure 1-1] By 1655, mathematician, physicist, and inventor Robert Hooke concluded the human body does not possess the strength to power artifi cial wings. He believed human fl ight would require some form of artifi cial propulsion.

The quest for human fl ight led some practitioners in another direction. In 1783, the fi rst manned hot air balloon, crafted by Joseph and Etienne Montgolfi er, fl ew for 23 minutes. Ten days later, Professor Jacques Charles fl ew the fi rst gas balloon. A madness for balloon fl ight captivated the public’s imagination and for a time fl ying enthusiasts turned their expertise to the promise of lighter-than-air fl ight. But for all its majesty in the air, the balloon was little more than a billowing heap of cloth capable of no more than a one-way, downwind journey.

Balloons solved the problem of lift, but that was only one of the problems of human fl ight. The ability to control speed and direction eluded balloonists. The solution to that problem lay in a child’s toy familiar to the East for 2,000 years, but not introduced to the West until the 13th century. The kite, used by the Chinese manned for aerial observation and to test winds for sailing, and unmanned as a signaling device and as a toy, held many of the answers to lifting a heavier-than-air device into the air.

One of the men who believed the study of kites unlocked the secrets of winged fl ight was Sir George Cayley. Born in England 10 years before the Mongolfi er balloon fl ight, Cayley spent his 84 years seeking to develop a heavier-than-air vehicle supported by kite-shaped wings. [Figure 1-2] The “Father of Aerial Navigation,” Cayley discovered the basic principles on which the modern science of aeronautics is founded, built what is recognized as the fi rst successful fl ying model, and tested the fi rst full-size man-carrying airplane.

For the half-century after Cayley’s death, countless scientists, fl ying enthusiasts, and inventors worked toward building

1-3

Figure 1-3. First flight by the Wright brothers.

Figure 1-4. Benoist airboat.

a powered fl ying machine. Men, such as William Samuel Henson, who designed a huge monoplane that was propelled by a steam engine housed inside the fuselage, and Otto Lilienthal, who proved human fl ight in aircraft heavier than air was practical, worked toward the dream of powered fl ight. A dream turned into reality by Wilbur and Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903.

The bicycle-building Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio, had experimented for 4 years with kites, their own homemade wind tunnel, and different engines to power their biplane. One of their great achievements was proving the value of the scientifi c, rather than build-it-and-see approach to fl ight. Their biplane, The Flyer, combined inspired design and engineering with superior craftsmanship. [Figure 1-3] By the afternoon of December 17th, the Wright brothers had fl own a total of 98 seconds on four fl ights. The age of fl ight had arrived.

History of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) During the early years of manned fl ight, aviation was a free for all because no government body was in place to establish policies or regulate and enforce safety standards. Individuals were free to conduct fl ights and operate aircraft with no government oversight. Most of the early fl ights were conducted for sport. Aviation was expensive and became the playground of the wealthy. Since these early airplanes were small, many people doubted their commercial value. One group of individuals believed otherwise and they became the genesis for modern airline travel.

P. E. Fansler, a Florida businessman living in St. Petersburg approached Tom Benoist of the Benoist Aircraft Company in St. Louis, Missouri, about starting a fl ight route from St. Petersburg across the waterway to Tampa. Benoist suggested

using his “Safety First” airboat and the two men signed an agreement for what would become the fi rst scheduled airline in the United States. The fi rst aircraft was delivered to St. Petersburg and made the fi rst test fl ight on December 31, 1913. [Figure 1-4]

A public auction decided who would win the honor of becoming the fi rst paying airline customer. The former mayor of St. Petersburg, A. C. Pheil made the winning bid of $400.00 which secured his place in history as the fi rst paying airline passenger.

On January 1, 1914, the fi rst scheduled airline fl ight was conducted. The fl ight length was 21 miles and lasted 23 minutes due to a headwind. The return trip took 20 minutes. The line, which was subsidized by Florida businessmen, continued for 4 months and offered regular passage for $5.00 per person or $5.00 per 100 pounds of cargo. Shortly after the opening of the line, Benoist added a new airboat that afforded more protection from spray during takeoff and landing. The routes were also extended to Manatee, Bradenton, and Sarasota giving further credence to the idea of a profi table commercial airline. The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line continued throughout the winter months with fl ights fi nally being suspended when the winter tourist industry began to dry up. The airline operated only for 4 months, but 1,205 passengers were carried without injury. This experiment proved commercial passenger airline travel was viable.

The advent of World War I offered the airplane a chance to demonstrate its varied capabilities. It began the war as a reconnaissance platform, but by 1918, airplanes were being mass produced to serve as fi ghters, bombers, trainers, as well as reconnaissance platforms.

1-4

Figure 1-6. The transcontinental airmail route ran from New York to

San Francisco. Intermediate stops were: 2) Bellefonte, 3) Cleveland,

4) Bryan, 5) Chicago, 6) Iowa City, 7) Omaha, 8) North Platte, 9)

Cheyenne, 10) Rawlins, 11) Rock Springs, 12) Salt Lake City, 13)

Elko, and 14) Reno.

Figure 1-5. The de Haviland DH-4 on the New York to San Francisco

inaugural route in 1921.

Aviation advocates continued to look for ways to use airplanes. Airmail service was a popular idea, but the war prevented the Postal Service from having access to airplanes. The War Department and Postal Service reached an agreement in 1918. The Army would use the mail service to train its pilots in cross-country fl ying. The fi rst airmail fl ight was conducted on May 15, 1918, between New York and Washington, DC. The fl ight was not considered spectacular; the pilot became lost and landed at the wrong airfi eld. In August of 1918, the United States Postal Service took control of the airmail routes and brought the existing Army airmail pilots and their planes into the program as postal employees.

Transcontinental Air Mail RouteAirmail routes continued to expand until the Transcontinental Mail Route was inaugurated. [Figure 1-5] This route spanned from San Francisco to New York for a total distance of 2,612 miles with 13 intermediate stops along the way. [Figure 1-6]

On May 20, 1926, Congress passed the Air Commerce Act, which served as the cornerstone for aviation within the United States. This legislation was supported by leaders in the aviation industry who felt that the airplane could not reach its full potential without assistance from the Federal Government in improving safety.

The Air Commerce Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffi c rules, licensing pilots, certifi cating aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. The Department of Commerce created a new Aeronautics Branch whose primary mission was to provide oversight for the aviation industry. In addition, the Aeronautics Branch took over the construction and operation of the nation’s system of lighted airways. The Postal Service, as part of the

Transcontinental Air Mail Route system, had initiated this system. The Department of Commerce made great advances in aviation communications, as well as introducing radio beacons as an effective means of navigation.

Built at intervals of approximately 10 miles, the standard beacon tower was 51 feet high, topped with a powerful rotating light. Below the rotating light, two course lights pointed forward and back along the airway. The course lights fl ashed a code to identify the beacon’s number. The tower usually stood in the center of a concrete arrow 70 feet long. A generator shed, where required, stood at the “feather” end of the arrow. [Figure 1-7]

Federal Certifi cation of Pilots and MechanicsThe Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce began pilot certifi cation with the fi rst license issued on April 6, 1927. The recipient was the chief of the Aeronautics Branch, William P. MacCracken, Jr. [Figure 1-8] (Orville Wright, who was no longer an active fl ier, had declined the honor.) MacCracken’s license was the fi rst issued to a pilot by a civilian agency of the Federal Government. Some 3 months later, the Aeronautics Branch issued the fi rst Federal aircraft mechanic license.

Equally important for safety was the establishment of a system of certifi cation for aircraft. On March 29, 1927, the Aeronautics Branch issued the fi rst airworthiness type certifi cate to the Buhl Airster CA-3, a three-place open biplane.

In 1934, to recognize the tremendous strides made in aviation and to display the enhanced status within the department,

1-5

Figure 1-7. A standard airway beacon tower.

Figure 1-8. The first pilot license was issued to William P.

MacCracken, Jr.

Figure 1-9. The third head of the Aeronautics Branch, Eugene

L. Vidal, is flanked by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (left) and

Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace (right). The photograph

was taken in 1933. During Vidal’s tenure, the Aeronautics Branch

was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce on July 1, 1934. The

new name more accurately reflected the status of the organization

within the Department of Commerce.

the Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce. [Figure 1-9] Within this time frame, the Bureau of Air Commerce brought together a group of airlines and encouraged them to form the fi rst three Air Traffi c Control (ATC) facilities along the established air routes. Then in 1936, the Bureau of Air Commerce took over the responsibilities of operating the centers and continued to advance the ATC facilities. ATC has come a long way from the early controllers using maps, chalkboards, and performing mental math calculations in order to separate aircraft along fl ight routes.

The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities to a newly created, independent body, named the Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA). This Act empowered the CAA to regulate airfares and establish new routes for the airlines to service.

President Franklin Roosevelt split the CAA into two agencies, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). Both agencies were still part of the Department of Commerce but the CAB functioned independently of the Secretary of Commerce. The role of the CAA was to facilitate ATC, certifi cation of airmen and aircraft, rule enforcement, and the development of new airways. The CAB was charged with rule making to enhance safety, accident investigation, and the economic regulation of the airlines. Then in 1946, Congress gave the