Planning Goals And

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5 Planning goals and

learning outcomes

It was suggested in Chapter I that early planners of English-languagecourses saw the purpose of language teaching as self-evident. It was

sufficient to state that the goal of a course was to teach English. The ESP

movement argued that this approach was inadequate and that in order to

teach Eiw.fish it was necessary to find answers to much more specific

questions !hat "ind of English# $t what level of proficiency#$nd for what

purposes# %eeds analysis see"s to provide answers to these questions

and situation analysis see"s to identify the role of conte&tual factors in

implementing curriculum change. In this chapter we will consider another

crucial dimension of decision ma"ing in curriculum planning determining

the goals and outcomes of a program.

Several "ey assumptions a'out goals characteri(e the curriculum

approach to educational planning. These can 'e summari(ed as follows

) People are generally motivated to pursue specific goals.

) The use of goals in teaching improves the effectiveness of teaching and

learning.

) $ program %.* I I 'e effective to the e&tent that its goals are sound and

clearly descri'ed.

These principles appear to 'e self-evident and uncontroversial+ and most

language programs descri'e their goals in terms of aims and o',ectives.The nature of aims and o',ectives+ however+ is not necessarily

straightforward 'ecause they refer to "nowledge. s"ills+ and values that

educational planners 'elieve learners need to develop. In deciding on

goals+ planners choose from among alternatives 'ased on assumptions







represents a force for a different selection of "nowledge and values from

the culture and hence a "ind of lo''y for a different curriculum. 28lie'ard+

4;<+ ;3

Each of :he five curriculum perspectives e&amined here emphasi(es adifferent approach to the role of language in the curriculum.

$cademic rationalism

This ,ustification for the aims of curriculum stresses the intrinsic value of

the su',ect matter and its role in developing the learner1s intellect+

humanistic values+ and rationality. The content matter of different su',ects

is viewed as the 'asis for a curriculum and mastery of content is an end in

itself rather than a means to solving social pro'lems or providing efficient

means to achieve the goals of policy ma"ers. The role of schools is to

provide access to the ma,or achievements of a particular cultural tradition

and to "now the insights gained from studying enduring fields of

"nowledge. =ree" and >atin have traditionally appeared in many high

school curricula in the !est 'ecause they were 'elieved to develop

6mental discipline6 in students. $lso "nown as 6+:iassical humanism+6 this

view 6is characteri(ed a'ov>. all 'y the desire to promote 'road

intellectual capacities such as memori(ation and the a'ility to analy(e+

classify+ and reconstruct elements of "nowledge so that these capacities

can 'e 'rought to 'ear on the various challenges li"ely to 'e encountered

in life6 2Clar" 4;?+ 53. $cademic rationalism is sometimes used to ,ustify

the inclusion of certain foreign languages in school curricula+ where theyare taught not ac tools for communication 'ut as an aspect of social

studies. @(olins 2 4403 documents the de'ate over foreign language

teaching in $ustralian schools and the reasons why rench has gradually

replaced >atin and other foreign languages. In discussing the role of



foreign languages+ the education minister for the state of Aictoria in 4<9+

7loomfield+ argued that the issue was not one of languages alone. @(olins

comments

The intellectual ,ustification for teaching rench was+ in 7loomfield1s view+1the understanding of other nations+ so that foreign language teaching is

an intensive and speciali(ed form of social studies1. The purely linguistic

and communicative aspects of languages were not the primary o',ective+

at least not for Aictorian

schools. 2@(olins 440 ;?3

This ideology is also sometimes used as a ,ustification for including

courses on literature+ or $merican or 7ritish culture+ in a language

program. In some

Planning goals and learning outcomes 5

parts of the world 2e.g.. Bong 8ong+ Singapore+ alaysia3+ under colonial

rule the English curriculum was traditionally a literature-'ased one. 6The

'asic educational aim was the assimilation of 7ritish culture through the

medium of English literature. There was no provision for language wor"

specially designed to help the non-native learner6 2Bo 449+ //03. The

curriculum aimed at maintaining the elitist status of English-medium

education. Such curricula were gradually replaced with more functional

and practically oriented ones as English-medium education 'ecame more

widely availa'le 2Bo 4493. Clar" 2 4;?+ <3 points out that in the Dnited 8ingdom academic

rationalism is concerned with

) The maintenance and transmission through education of the wisdom and

culture of previous generations. This has led to the creation of a two-tier



system of education one to accord with the 6higher6 cultural traditions of

an elite+ and the other to cater for the more concrete and practical

lifestyles of the masses.

) The development for the elite of generali(a'le intellectual capacities andcritical faculties.

) The maintenance of stands through an inspectorate and e&ternal

e&amination 'oards controlled 'y the universities.

in the Dnited States+ the de'ate over 6oultoi al literacy6 that emeigal with

the pu'lication of Birsch1s 'oo" Cultural >iteracy. in 4;? indicated that

this educational ideology still has 'oth influential proponents and critics.

Social and economic efficiency

This educational philosophy emphasi(es the practical needs of learners

and society and the role of an educational program in producing learners

who are economically productive. People can improve themselves and

their environment through a process of rational planning. Social+

economic+ and other needs of society can 'e identified and planned for

6'y tas" analysis+ 'y forming o',ecthes for each tas"+ and 'y teaching

s"ills as discrete units6 2Dhrmacher 440+ 93. It is an ends means

approach. @ne of the founders of curriculum theory+ 7o''in+ advocated

this view of the curriculum. Curriculum development was seen as 'ased

on scientific principles+ and its practitioners were 6educational engineers6

whose ,o' it was to 6discover the total range of ha'its+ s"ills+ a'ilities+

forms of thought+ etc. that its mem'ers need for the effective performanceof their vocational la'ors6 2 4 ;+ 903. 7o''itt concluded that an

appropriate metaphor for curriculum development was that of the factory

and production. In language teaching+ this

I



< Chapter 5

philosophy leads to an emphasis on practical and functional s"ills in

a forcign or second language.

Socioeconomic ideology stresses the economic needs of societyas a ,ustification for the teaching of English. Successful economies in the

twenty- first century are increasingly "nowledge-'ased+ and the 'ul" of the

world1s "nowledge is in the English language. In a recent de'ate over

standards of English in Fapan+ poor standards of English were cited as

one reason for Fapan1s economic malaise in the late 44 s. 6The learning

of English+ now a Gglo'al language+ is essential for Fapan to have a 'right

future.... the linguistic handicap of the Fapanese could hold them 'ac" in

an increasingly Internet-oriented world+ where the 'ul" of information is

written in English6 28in 4443.

In foreign language teaching+ the de'ate over s"ills-'ased versus

academically 'ased instruction in language teaching has a long history+ as

is seen in discussions over the relative merits of classical languages

versus modern languages+ literature versus language+ and even grammar

versus conversation in a language program. In many countries where

English is a foreign language+ over the past two decades there has 'een a

move away from academic rationalism as the underpinnings of the English

curriculum toward one 'ased more on a socioeconomic efficiency model.

The Threshold >evel+ the notional-functional sylla'us+ and outcomes-

'ased approaches such P + the ite of graded o',ectives imd competency-'ased outcomes in foreign language learning reflect this move toward an

efficiency model in curriculum planning+ one that Clar" 2 4;?3 suggests

often also reflects a Hesearch+ evelopment+ and IffilSi model.



It generally involves the setting up of a central committee of

selected 1e&perts1 to develop a new curriculum product. The committee

conducts initial research into what is required. produces draft materials+

o'tains feed'ac" from classroom teacliccs who use the draft material in anum'er of designated pilot areas chosen to 'e representative of a range

of conte&ts. and finally revises the materials for pu'lication. 2Clar" 4;?+

003

$uer'ach cites an e&ample of this approach the Te&as $dult

Performance >evel Study in which 6university-'ased researchers

surveyed literacy usage in a wide variety of conte&ts and identified si&ty-

five competencies that they claimed were characteristic of successful

functioning in society 2$uer'ach 445+ 03.

Critics of this view of the curriculum have argued that such a view

is reductionist and presupposes that learners1 needs can 'e identified with

a predetermined set of s"ills and o',ectives. 8nowledge is seen as

something e&ternal to the learner that is transmitted in pieces. reire

descri'es this as

J

) Planning goals and learning outcomes ?

a 6'an"ing model6 6Education thus 'ecomes an act of depositing+ in

which the students are depositories and the teacher is the depositor6

2 4?5+ 0;3. $dvocates of the social-efficiency approach argue that the

curriculum should a'ove all focus on "nowledge and s"ills that arerelevant to the learner1s everyday life needs and that the curriculum should

'e planned to meet the practical needs of society.

>earner-centeredness





arsh 2 4;<+ / 3 points out that the issue of child-centered or learner-

centered curricula reappears every decade or so and can refer to any of

the

9 following) individuali(ed teaching

) learning through practical operation or doing

) laisse( faire no organi(ed curricula at all 'ut 'ased on the momentary

interests of children

; Chapter 5

) c real i cc self-e&pression 'y students

) practically oriented activities directed toward the needs of society

) a collective term that refers to the re,ection of teaching-directed learning

In language teaching. Clar" sees this educational philosophy as leading to

an emphasis on process rather than product+ a focus on learner

differences+ learner strategies+ and learner self-direction and autonomy.

Social reconstructionism

This curriculum perspective emphasi(es the roles schools and learners

can and should play in addressing social in,ustices and inequality.

Curriculum development is not seen as a neutral process. Schools

li"ewise do not present equal opportunities for all 2 reire 4?/: $pple

4;<3 'ut reflect the general inequalities in society. Schools must engage

teachers and students in an e&amination of important social and personalpro'lems and see" ways to address them. This process is "nown as

6empowerment.6 Teachers must empower their students so that they can

recogni(e un,ust systems of class+ race+ or gender+ and challenge them.

orris 2 445+ 3 o'serves



The curriculum derived from this perspective focuses on developing

"nowledge+ s"ills and attitudes which would create a world where people

care a'out each other+ the environment+ and the distri'ution of wealth.

Tolerance+ the acceptance id di.+rsity acid pca+ c would 'e encouraged.Social in,ustices und inequality would 'e central issues in the curriculum.

The most persuasive and currently popular representatives of this

viewpoint are associated with the movement "nown as critical theory and

critical pedagogy. The assumptions of 6criticalists6 are summari(ed 'y

8incheloe and c>aren 2 449. 043

that all thought is fundamentally mediated 'y power relations that are

socially and historically constituted that facts can never 'e isolated from

the domain of value or removed from some form of ideological inscription:

that the relationship 'etween concept and o',ect and 'etween signifier

and signified is never sta'le or fi&ed and is often mediated 'y the social

relations of capitalist production and consumption: that language is central

to the formation of su',ectivity 2conscious and unconscious awareness3

that certain. groups in any society are privileged over others ... the

oppression that chracteri(es

contemporary societies is most forcefully reproduced when su'ordinates

accept their social status as natural. necessary. or inevita'le that

oppression has many faces and that focusing on only one at the e&pense

of the others ... often elides the interconnections 'etween them and+

finally+ that mainstream researchpractices are generally ... implicated in the reproduction of systems of

class+ race+ and gender oppression.




@ne of the 'est-"nown critical pedagogues is reire 2 4?/3+ who argued

that teachers and learners are involved in a ,oint process of e&ploring and

constructing "nowledge. Students are not the 6o',ects6 of "nowledge they

must find ways of recogni(ing and resisting various forms of control. Inlanguage teaching+ $uer'ach1s 2 44/3 wor" is an important application of

critical pedagogy+ stressing that teaching must see" to empower students

and help them 'ring a'out change in their lives. Critics of this position

argue that teachers and students may not 'e a'le to change the structure

of the systems in which they wor" and that other channels are often

availa'le to address such changes.

Cultural pluralism

This philosophy argues that schools should prepare students to participate

in several different cultures and not merely the culture of the dominant

social and economic group. 7an"s 2 4;;3 argues that students in

multicultural societies such as the Dnited States need to develop cross-

cultural competency or what is sometimes termed intercultural

communication. This means that one cultural group is not seen as

superior to others and that multiple perspectives representing the

viewpoints of different cultural groups should 'e developed within the

curriculum. Cultural pluralism see"s to redress racism. Ko raise the self-

esteem of minority ernups+ and to help chiK- dren appreciate the

viewpoints of other cultures and religions " Dhrmacha 4403. In the Dnited

States+ the $merican Council on the Teaching of oreign >anguages2$CT >3 has recently identified three dimensions to intercultural

competence in foreign language programs the need to learn a'out

cultures+ to compare them+ and to engage in intercultural e&ploration

2Phillips and Terry 4443. Cro(et and >iddicoat 2 4443 e&plore the



implications of these dimensions for the design of language programs in

$ustralia. In multicultural societies such as Canada+ the Dnited States+

and $ustralia+ cultural pluralism has motivated demands for a 'ilingual

approach to English-language teaching. 27urnett 44;3. $uer'ach hasquestioned the rationale for the e&clusive use of English in ES>

classrooms and argues that literacy in the first language is a significant

factor in the learning of a second language 2$uer'ach 445+ /53.

Collingham 2 4;;3 emphasi(es the importance of valuing learners1

language "nowledge 6to treat adult learners as if they "now nothing of

language is to accept the im'alance of power and so ultimately to collude

with institutional racism: to adopt a 'ilingual approach and to value the

"nowledge that learners already have is to 'egin to challenge that unequal

power relationship6 2Collingham 4;;+ ;53.

In reviewing the immigrant e&perience in $ustralia+ artin 2 4?;3 corn-

/ Chapter 5

mented on the 6lac" of migrant participation which could have 'een

forthcoming if the medium of instruction had not 'een English alone+ if

'ilingual teachers had 'een employed and if ethnic communities had 'een

involved6 2 4?;+ <;3.

The e&tent to which one or other of the curriculum ideologies discussedin this section serves as the ideological underpinning of the curriculum and

the relative emphasis they receive in the curriculum will reflect the

particular conte&t in which the curriculum occurs. The philosophy of the

curriculum is the result of political ,udgment in that it reflects a particular



set of choices a'out curriculum options. It reflects what the participants in

the planning process 'elieve to 'e worthwhile goals to attain and the

changes they feel the curriculum should 'ring a'out. 7ecause these

,udgments and values are often not stated e&plicitly+ identifying them+ma"ing them e&plicit+ and reflecting on the unstated values and

assumptions driving the curriculum are an essential part of the process of

curriculum planning.

Stating curriculum outcomes

$ims

In curriculum discussions+ the terms goal and aim are used

interchangea'ly to refer to a description of the general purposes of

curriculum and o',ective to refer to a more specific and concrete

description of purposes. !e will use the terms aim and o',ective here. $n

aim refers to a statement of a general change that a program see"s to

'ring a'out in learners. The purposes of aim statements are

) to provide a clear definition of the purposes of a program

) to provide guidelines for teachers+ learners+ and materials writers

) to help provide a focus for instruction

) to descri'e important and reali(a'le changes in learning

$ims statements reflect the ideology of the curriculum and show how the

curriculum will see" to reali(e it. The following statements descri'e the

aims of teaching English at the primary level in Singapore

@ur pupils learn English in order to) communicate effectively+ in 'oth speech and writing+ in everyday

situations to meet the demands of society

) acquire good reading ha'its to understand+ en,oy+ and appreciate a wide

range of te&ts+ including the literature of other cultures





) to develop the communication s"ills needed to answer telephone calls in

a hotel

) to deal with guest inquiries and complaints

) to e&plain and clarify charges on a guest1s 'ill $im statements are generally derived from information gathered during a

needs analysis. or e&ample. the following areas of difficulty were some of

those identified for non-English-'ac"ground students studying in English-

medium universities

) understanding lectures

) participating in seminars

) ta"ing notes during lectures

) reading at adequate speed to 'e a'le to complete reading assignments

) presenting ideas and information in an organi(ed way in a written

assignment

In developing course aims and o',ectives from this information+ each area

of difficulty will have to 'e e&amined and researched in order to

understand

// Chapter 5

what is involved in understanding lectures+ participating in seminars+

and so on. ! hat "nowledge and s"ills does each activity imply# %ormally

the overall aims of a short course can 'e descri'ed in two or three aim

statements however+ in a course spanning a longer time period+ such asthe primary school course referred to earlier+ a greater num'er of aim

statements will 'e needed.



In developing aim statements+ it is important to descri'e more

than simply the activities that students will ta"e part in. The following+ for

e&ample+ are not aims

Students will loam a'out 'usiness-letter writing in English. Studentswill study listening s"ills.

Students will practice composition s"ills in English. Students will

learn English for tourism.

or these to 'ecome aims+ they need to focus on the changes in the

learners that will result. or e&ample

Students will learn how to write effective 'usiness letters for use in

the hotel and tourism industries.

Students will learn how to listen effectively in conversational

interactions and how to develop 'etter listening strategies.

Students will Kearn -iow to communicate information and ideas

i reativ@y and effectively through writing.

Students will 'e a'le to communicate in English at a 'asic level for

purposes of tourism.

@',ectives

$ims are very general statements of the goals of a program. They

can 'e inteipreted in many different ways. or e&ample+ consider the

following aim statement

Students will learn how to write effective 'usiness letters for use in

the hotel and touri.vin industries. $lthough this provides a clear description of the focus of a program+

it does not descri'e the "inds of 'usiness letters students will learn or

clarify what is meant 'y effective 'usiness letters. In order to give a more

precise focus to program goals+ aims are often accompanied 'y



statements of more specific purposes. These are "nown as o',ectives.

2They are also sometimes referred to as instructional o',ectives or

teaching o',ectives.3 $n o',ective refers to a statement of specific

changes a program see"s to 'ring a'out andPlanning goals and learning outcomes /0

results from an analysis of the aim into its different components.

@',ectives generally have the followinp.. characteristics

) They descri'e what the aim see"s to achieve in terms of smaller units of

learning.

) They provide a 'asis for the organi(ation of teaching activities.

) They descri'e learning in terms of o'serva'le 'ehavior or performance.

The advantages of descri'ing the aims of a course in terms of o',ectives

are

) They facilitate planning once o',ectives have 'een agreed on+ course

planning+ materials preparation+ te&t'oo" selection+ and related processes

can 'egin.

) They provide measura'le outcomes and thus provide accounta'ility

given a set of o',ectives. the success or failure of a program to teach the

o',ectives can 'e measured.

) They are prescriptive they descri'e how planning should proceed and

do away with su',ective interpretations and personal opinions.

In relation to the activity of 6understanding lectures6 referred to a'ove+ for

e&ample+ aims and o',ectives such as the following can 'e descri'ed27rown 4453

$im

) Students will learn how to understand lectures given in English.

@',ectives



) Students will 'e a'le to follow an argument+ theme+ or thesis of a lecture.

) Students will learn how to recogni(e the following aspects of a lecture

cause-and-effect relationships

comparisons and contrastspremises used in persuasive arguments

supporting details used- in persuasive arguments

Statements of o',ectives have the following characteristics

@',ectives descri'e a learning outcome. In writing o',ectives+ e&pressions

li"e will study+ wilt learn a'out+ will prepare students for are avoided

'ecause they do not descri'e the result of learning 'ut rather what

students will do during a course. @',ectives can 'e descri'ed with

phrases li"e will have+ will learn how to+ will 'e a'le to. 2 or e&ceptions+

see the ne&t section+ 6%onlanguage outcomes and process o',ectives6 on

page 00.3

@',ectives should 'e consistent with the curriculum aim. @nly o',ectives

that clearly serve to reali(e an aim should 'e included. or e&ample. the

o'-

/9 Chapter 5

,ective 'elow is unrelated to the curriculum aim Students will learn how to

write 2fleetly21 'usiness letters for use in the hotel and tourism industries.

@',ectiveThe student can understand and respond to simple questions over the

telephone.

7ecause the aim relates to writing 'usiness letters+ an o',ective in the

domain of telephone s"ills is not consistent with this aim. Either the aim



statement should 'e revised to allow for this o',ective or the o',ective

should not 'e included.

@',ectives should 'e precise. @',ectives that are vague and am'iguous

are not useful. This is seen in the following o',ective f@r a conversationcourse

Students will "now how to use useful conversation e&pressions. $ more

precise o',ective would 'e

Students will use conversation e&pressions for greeting people+ opening

and closing conversations.

@',ectives should 'e feasi'le. @',ectives should descri'e outcomes that

are attaina'le in the time availa'le during a course. The following

o',ective is pro'a'ly not attaina'le in a < -hour English course

Students will 'e a'le to follow conversations spo"en 'y native spea"ers.

The following is a more feasi'le o',ective

Students will 'e a'le to get the +gist of short conversations in simple

English on topics related to daily life and leisure.

The following o',ectives 2adapted from Pratt 4; 3 from a short course on

English for travel and tourism designed to prepare students for travel in

English-spea"ing countries illustrate the relationship 'etween aims and

o',ectives

Course aim

To prepare students to communicate in English at a 'asic level for

purposes of travel and tourism.Course o',ectives

I . The student will have a reading voca'ulary of 0 common words and

a''reviations.



Planning goals and learning outcomes /5

/. The student will have a listening voca'ulary of 0 common words plus

num'ers up to .

0. The student can understand simple written notices+ signs+ and menus.9. The student can understand simple questions+ statements+ greetings+

and directions.

5. The student can get the gist of simple conversations in spo"en English.

<. The student can pic" out unfamiliar phrases from conversations and

repeat them for clarification.

?. The student can use in speech / common words plus num'ers up to

for time+ quantity+ and price.

;. The studeni can use a'out 5 useful survival phrases+ questions+

requests+ greetings. statements+ and responses.

4. The student can hold a 'ilingual conversation+ spea"ing English slowly

and clearly in simple words.

. The student can use and understand appropriate gestures.

. The student will have the confidence to initiate conversations in

English+ 'e unafraid of ma"ing mista"es+ and attempt utterances outside

his or her competence.

/. The student will 'e willing to learn from a native spea"er1s correction of

his or her errors.

0. The student will have a 6success e&perience6 of ma"ing himself or

herself understood in+ and understand+ a foreign langlKase.ran"el 2 4;0. /93 gives the e&ample of aims and o',ectives for a couise

in foundation reading s"ills for first-year university students in a Thai

university



$im

To read authentic+ nonspecielist+ nonfiction te&ts In English vvith

comprehension and at a reasona'le sneed.

@',ectives

I. To use linguistic information in the te&t as clues to meaning+ including

) deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar le&ical items through an

understanding of word formation and conte&t clues

) decoding comple& phrases and sentences including premoditication+

postmoditication. comple& em'edding+ and clause relations in compound

and comple& sentences

) recogni(ing and interpreting formal cohesive devices for lin"ing different

parts of a te&t

) recogni(ing and interpreting discourse mar"ers

/< Chapter 5

To understand the communicative value of a te&t+ including

) its overall rhetorical purpose 2e.g.+ giving instructions+ reporting an event3

) its rhetorical structure+ including ways of initiating+ developing+ and

terminating a discourse

0. To read for information+ including

) identifying the topic 2theme3) identifying the main ideas+ stated and implied

) distinguishing 'etween the topic and the main idea

) reading for detail

) distinguishing important from unimportant details



) s"imming to o'tain the gist or a general impression of the semantic

content

) scanning to locate specifically required information

9. To read interpretatively including) e&tracting information not e&plicitly stated 'y ma"ing inferences

) distinguishing fact from opinion

) interpreting the writer1s intention+ attitude+ and 'ias

) ma"ing critical ,udgments

E&amples of o',ectives for the teaching of listening comprehension from

the Singapore Primary Sylla'us referred to earlier are

$t the end of the couise+ pupils should 'e a'le to demonstrate listening

competence in the following ways .

) recogni(e and distinguish the 'asic sounds and phonological features of

the English language

) understand >ind carry out instructions 2simple to comple&3 given orally

) answer questions of differing levels 'ased on what is heard

) recogni(e a range of spo"en and written te&t typesLspeech situations and

respond appropriately when required

) recogni(e discourse features in e&tended spo"en te&ts in order to follow

effectively what is spo"en 2e.g.. wordsLe&pressions signaling+ introduction+

conclusion+ e&emplification. digression3

) o'serve conversation etiquette as a listener in group discussion

) listen critically for a specific purpose and respond appropriatelyThe difficulty of drawing up statements of o',ectives should not 'e

underestimated. In developing language o',ectives one is doing more than

creating a wish list off the top of one1s head 2though in the real world this is

what



fr

Planning goals and learning outcomes /?often happens3. Sound o',ectives in language teaching are 'ased on an

understanding of the nature of the su',ect matter 'eing taught 2e.g.+

listening+ spea"ing+ reading. writing3+ an awareness of attaina'le levels of

learning for 'asic+ intermediate+ or advanced-level learners+ and the a'ility

to 'e a'le to descri'e course aims in terms of logical and well-structured

units of organi(ation. @',ectives are therefore normally produced 'y a

group of teachers or planners who write sample o',ectives 'ased on their

"nowledge and e&perience and revise and refine them over time. In

developing o',ectives+ it is necessary to ma"e use of a variety of sources+

such as diagnostic information concerning students1 learning difficulties+

descriptions of s"illed performance in different language domains+

information a'out different language levels as is found in the $CT >

Proficiency =uidelines 2see Chapter <3+ as well as characteri(ations of the

s"ills involved in different domains of language use 2see $ppendi& /3.

@',ectives cannot therefore 'e regarded as fi&ed. $s instruction proceeds+

some may have to 'e revised+ some dropped 'ecause they are

unrealistic+ and others added to address gaps.

Criticisms of the use of o',ectives

$lthough in many institutions the use of o',ectives in course planning isseen as a way of 'ringing rigor and structure to the process of course

planning+ the use of o',ectives either in general form or in form of

'ehavioral o',ectives has also attracted some criticism. Tie ma,or

criticisms of their use are



@',ectivec turn reaching into a technology. It is argued that o',ectives are

lin"ed to an efficiency view of education+ that is+ one 'ased on the

assumption that the most efficient n-+eans to an end is ,ustified. There is a

danger that curriculum planning 'ecomes a technical e&ercise of converting statements of needs into o',ectives. In the process+ the

'roader goals of teaching and learning 2e.g.. to provide meaningful and

worthwhile Kearning e&periences3 may 'e lost.

Comment This criticism is more applica'le to the form of o',ectives

"nown as 6'ehavioral o',ectives6 2see $ppendi& I3. To ensure that the

curriculum addresses educationally important goals+ o',ectives should 'e

included that address 6meaningful and worthwhile learning e&periences.6

@ne way to do this is to include o',ectives that cover 'oth language

outcomes and nonlanguage outcomes the latter will 'e discussed later in

this chapter.

@',ectives triviali(e teaching and are product-oriented. 7y assuming that

every1 purpose in teaching can 'e e&pressed as an o',ective+ the

suggestion

I.J

/; Chapter 5

is that the only worthwhile goal in teaching is to 'ring a'out changes in

student 'ehavior.

Comment @',ectives need not 'e limited to o'serva'le outcomes. They

can also descri'e processes and e&periences that are seen as animportant focus of the curriculum.

@',ectives are unsuited to many aspects of language use. @',ectives may

'e suita'le for descri'ing the mastery of s"ills+ 'ut less suited to such

things as critical thin"ing+ literary appreciation+ or negotiation of meaning.



Comment @',ectives can 'e written in domains such as critical thin"ing

and literary thin"ing 'ut will focus on the e&periences the curriculum will

provide rather than specific learning outcomes.

Competency-'ased program outcomes $n alternative to the use of o',ectives in program planning is to descri'e

learning outcomes in terms of competencies+ an approach associated with

Competency-7ased >anguage Teaching 2C7>T3. C7>T see"s to ma"e a

focus on the outcomes of learning a central planning stage in the

development of language programs 2Schnec" 4?;: =rognet and Crandall

4;/3. Traditionally+ in language teaching planners have focused to a large

e&tent on the content of teaching 2as reflected in a concern for different

types of sylla'uses3 or on the process of teaching 2as reflected in a

concern for different types of teaching methods3. Critics of this approach

argue that this concern with content or process focuses on the means of

learning rather than its ends. C7>T shifts the focus to the ends of learning

rather than the means. $s a general educational and training approach+

C7>T see"s to improve accounta'ility in teaching through lin"ing

instruction to measura'le outcomes and performance standards.

C7>T first emerged in the Dnited States in the 4? s and was widely

adopted in vocationally oriented education and in adult ES> programs. 7y

the end of the 4; s+ C7>T had come to 'e accepted as 6the state-of-the-

art approach to adult ES> 'y national policyma"ers and leaders in

curriculum development as well6 2$uer'ach 4;<+ 9 3. In 4;<+ anyrefugee in the Dnited States who wished to receive federal assistance had

to 'e enrolled in a competency-'ased program 2$uer'ach 4;<+ 9 /3.

C7>T has recently reemerged in some parts of the world 2e.g.+ $ustralia3



as the ma,or approach to the planning of language programs. The

characteristics of C7 >T are descri'ed 'y Schnec" 2 4?;+ vi3

Competency-'ased education has much in common with such

approaches to learning as performance-'ased instruction+ masterylearning and individuali(ed

Planning goals and learning outcomes /4

instruction. It is outcome-'ased and is adaptive to the changing needs of

students+ teachers and the community.... Competencies differ front other

student goals and o',ectives in that they descri'e the student1s a'ility to

apply 'asic and other s"ills in situations that are commonly encountered in

everyday life. Thus C7E is 'ased on a set of outcomes that are derived

from an analysis of tas"s typically required of students in life role

situations.

TBE %$TDHE @ C@ PETE%CIES

Competencies refer to o'serva'le 'ehaviors that are necessary for the

successful completion of real-world activities. These activities may 'e

related to any domain of life+ though they have typically 'een lin"ed to the

field of wor" and to social survival in a new environment. oc"ing 2 449.

3 points out the relationship 'etween competencies and ,o'

performance

$ qualification or a ,o' can 'e descri'ed as a collection of units of

competency+ each of which is composed of a num'er of elements of competency. $ unit of competency might 'e a tas". a role+ a function+ or a

learning module. These will change over time+ and will vary from conte&t

to conte&t. $n element of competency can 'e defined as any attri'ute of

an individual that contri'utes to the successful performance of a tas". ,o'.



function+ or activity in an academic setting andLor a wor" setting. This

includes specific "nowledge+ thin"ing processes. attitudes. and perceptual

and physical s"ills. %othing is e&cluded that can 'e shown to contri'ute to

performance. $n elemcnt of competencyhas meaning independent of conte&t and time. It is the 'uilding 'loc" for

competency specifications for education. training+ assessment+

qualifications+ tas"s+ and ,o's.

Tollefson 2 4;<3 o'serves that the analysis of ,o's into their constituent

functional competencies in order to develop teaching. o',ectives goes

'ac" to the mid-nineteenth century. In the ;< s. Spencer 6outlined the

ma,or areas of human activity he 'elieved should 'e the 'asis for

curriculai o',ectives.- Similarly+ in 4/< 7o''itt developed curricular

o',ectives according to his analysis of the functional competencies

required for adults living in $merica. This approach has 'een pic"ed up

and refined as the 'asis for the development of competency-'ased

programs since the 4< s. %orthrup 2 4??3 reports on a study

commissioned 'y the D.S. @ffice of Education in which a wide variety of

tas"s performed 'y adults in $merican society were analy(ed and the

'ehaviors needed to carry out the tas"s classified into five "nowledge

areas and four 'asic s"ill areas. rom this analysis si&ty-five

competencies were identified. oc"ing 2 4493 descri'es how he was part

of a pro,ect in $ustralia in 4<; that involved specifying the competencies

of more than one hundred trades.I

0 Chapter 5





In the $ustralian igrant Education Program+ one of the world1s largest

providers of language training to immigrants+ a competency-'ased

approach is used. >earning outcomes are specified in terms of wor"-

related competencies such as the followingFo'-see"ing s"ills sample competencie.s

) Can inquire a'out an employment opportunity

) Can read and interpret advertisements for employment

) Can prepare a ,o'-9-pplication letter

!or"place language sample competencies

) Can follow and give oral instructions relevant to the wor"place

) Can read diagrammatic and graphic wor"place te&ts

J


) Can write formal letters relevant to a wor"place conte&t

In the $ustralian program competencies are descri'ed in terms of

) elements that 'rea" down the competency into smaller components and

refer to the essential linguistic features involved

) performance criteria that specify the minimal performance required to

achieve a competency

) range of varia'les that sets limits for the performance of the competency

) sample te&ts and assessment tas"s that provide e&amples of te&ts and

assessment tas"s that relate to the competency $s the e&amples a'ove illustrate+ competency descriptions are very

similar to statements of o',ectives. They can 'e regarded as o',ectives

that are lin"ed to specific domains or activities.

CHITICIS S @ TBE DSE @ C@ PETE%CIES





) To discourage attending school while receiving welfare

) To develop the attitude that the purchasing and use of secondhand items

is appropriate

) To identify common entry-level ,o's that can 'e held 'y those with limitedEnglish ahility

) To respond appropriately to supervisors1 comments a'out quality of wor"

on the ,o'+ including mista"es+ wor"ing too slowly+ and incomplete wor"

2Tollefson 4;<+ <55-<5<3

Tollefson 2 4;<+ <5<-<5?3 points out that such competencies encourage

refugees 6to consider themselves fortunate to find minimum-wage

employment+ regardless of their previous education. oreover+ the

competencies attempt to inculcate attitudes and values that will ma"e

refugees passive citi(ens who comply rather than complain+ accept rather

than resist+ and apologise rather than disagree.6

Criticisms such as these essentially argue for a different curriculum

ideology than C7>T+ such as a learner-centered or social-reconstructionist

model. C7>T is not necessarily lin"ed to the ideology Tollefson e&poses.

$s with the use of o',ectives+ appropriately descri'ed and chosen

competency descriptions can provide a useful framewor" for course

planning and delivery+ though they may 'e more appropriate for certain

types of courses than others. They seem particularly suited to programs

that see" to teach learners the s"ills needed to perform specific tas"s and

operations+ as found in many "inds of ESP programs.The standards movement

The most recent reali(ation of a competency perspective in the Dnited

States is seen in the 6standards6 movement+ which has dominated

educational discussions since the 44 s. $s =laser and >inn note



In the recounting of our nation1s drive towards educational reform+ the last

decade of this century will undou'tedly 'e recogni(ed as the time when a

concerted press for national educational standards emerged. The press

for standards was evidenced 'y the efforts of federal and state legislators+presidential and gu'ernatorial candidates+ teacher and su',ect-matter

specialists+ councils+ governmental agencies+ and private foundations.

2=laser and >inn 440+ &iii3

Standards are descriptions of the targets students should 'e a'le to reach

in diffeteni domains of curriculum content+ and throughout the 44 s there


was a drive to specify standards for su',ect matter across the curriculum.

These standards or 'enchmar"s are stated in the form of competencies.

In $ustralia+ c8ay 2 444+ 5/3 reports

>iteracy 'enchmar"s at Mears 0. 5 and ? are currently under development

centrally in consultation with StatesLTerritories+ literacy e&perts and

professional associations. The 'enchmar"s are to 'e short statements

and to 'e 6e&pressed in plain+ accessi'le English+ clearly understanda'le

'y a community audience6. . They are to 'e accompanied 'y professional

ela'orations 6to assist teachers and other educational professionals to

assess and report student progress against the 'enchmar"s.6

Second and foreign language teaching in the Dnited States has alsoem'raced the standards movement. 6It quic"ly 'ecame apparent to ES>

educators in the Dnited States at that time 2 44 3 that the students we

serve were not 'eing included in the standards-setting movement that was

sweeping the country6 2Short 44?+ 3.



The TES@> organi(ation undertoo" to develop school standards for ES>

for grades 8 I/. These are descri'ed in terms of competencies 6The

standards ... specify the language competencies ES@> students in

elementary and secondary schools need to 'ecome fully proficient inEnglish+ to have unrestricted access to grade-appropriate instruction in

challenging academic su',ects+ and ultimately to lead rich and productive

lives6 2TES@> 44?+ 03. The standards are framed around three goals and

nine standards. Each standard is further e&plicated 'y descriptors+ sample

progress indicators+ and classroom vignettes with discussions 2see

$ppendi& 03.

%onlanguage outcomes and process o',ectives

$ language curriculum typically includes other 8inds of outcomes apart

from language-related o',ectives of the "ind descri'ed a'ove. If the

curriculum see"s to reflect values related to learner centeredness+ social

reconstructionism. or cultural pluralism+ outcomes related to these values

will also need to 'e included. 7ecause such outcomes go 'eyond the

content of a linguistically oriented sylla'us. they are sometimes referred to

as nonLcmguage outcomes. Those that descri'e learning e&periences

rather than learning outcomes are also "nown as process o',ectives.

Fac"son reports that a group of teachers of adult immigrants in $ustralia

identified eight 'road categories of nonlanguage outcomes in their

teaching 2Fac"son 440+ /3

J social+ psychological+ and emotional support in the new livingenvironment

09 Chapter 5 .

) confidence

) motivation



) cultural understanding

) "nowledge of the $ustralian community conte&t

) learning a'out learning

) clarification of goals) access and entry into employment+ further study+ and community life

@',ectives in these domains relate to the personal+ social+ cultural+ and

political needs and rights of learners. If these are not identified+ they tend

to get forgotten or overloo"ed in the curriculum planning process. Fac"son

2 440+ ;3 comments

%on-language outcomes represent more than desira'le or optional 'y-

products of the language learning process. They are essential

prerequisites for on-going and meaningful involvement with the process of

language learning and learning in general. %on-language outcomes are

thus teaching and learning issues strongly related to issues of access and

equity for non-English-spea"ing 'ac"ground learners and wor"ers. It is

important that the development of "nowledge and learning s"ills represent

a significant component of the adult ES> curriculum.

Fac"son gives the following e&amples of o',ectives in on-arrival programs

for immigrants that relate to understanding the conte&t of local service

institutions 2 440+ 953

) to assist students to identify ma,or local providers of services for

. the unemployed

/. employment0. education and training

) to assist students to identify the main functions of the a'ove

) to situate main functions of a'ove services in conte&t of educational

provision as a first step in the process of ongoing adult education





with others+ and so on. Thus Banley+ !hitla+ oss+ and !alter identified

the aims of a course titled 6 an $ Course of Study6 as

) To initiate and develop in youngsters a process of question posing

) To teach a research methodology where children can loo" for information) To help youngsters develop the a'ility to use a variety of firsthand

sources

as evidence from which to develop hypotheses and draw conclusions

) To conduct classroom discussions in which youngsters learn to listen to

others as well as to e&press their own view

) To legitimi(e the search+ that is+ to give sanc i0n and support to upcn-

ended

discussions where definitive answers to many questions are not found

) To encourage children to reflect on their own e&periences

) To create a new role for the teacher+ who 'ecomes a resource rather

than an authority

2Banley+ et al. 4? + 53

!ith this approach it is suggested that detailed specification of o',ectives

is not needed. The curriculum specifies instead the content students will

study and the activities and processes they are e&pected to engage in

while studying the content. Stenhouse 2 4?53 e&plains

The curriculum1 is not designed on a pre-specification of 'ehavioral

o',ectives. @f course there are changes in students as a result of the

course+ 'ut many of the most valued are not to 'e anticipated in detail. The power and the

possi'ilities of the curriculum cannot 'e contained within o',ectives

'ecause it is founded on the idea that "nowledge must 'e speculative and

thus indeterminate to student



outcomes if it is to 'e worthwhile.

@',ectives in the category of learning how to learn refer to learning

strategies. >earning strategy theory suggests that effective learning

involves

0< Chapter 5

9

) developing an integrated set of procedures and operations that can 'e

applied to different learning that is+ strategies

) selecting strategies appropriate to different tas"s

) monitoring strategies for their effectiveness and replacing or revising

them if necessary

any difTerent "inds of learning strategies may 'e relevant to particular

groups of learners. or e&ample+ a description of o',ectives for a national

secondary school curriculum in an E > country includes the following

The course should develop students1 awareness of the learning process

and their role as learners 'y developing the following "nowledge and

s"ills

. ways of organi(ing learning and dividing learning tas"s into smaller su'-

tas"s

/. familiarity with how to use reference words designed to assist them in

independent learning 2e.g.+ dictionaries+ reference grammars+ study

guides30. awareness of their own learning styles and strengths and wea"nesses

9. familiarity with various techniques of voca'ulary learning and

identification of techniques that are particularly useful to themselves



5. awareness of the nature of learning strategies and the difference

'etween effective and ineffective strategies

<. a'ility to monitor their own learning progress and ways of setting

personal rvoals foi language improvementFac"son 2 440+ 9 3 gives e&amples of o',ectives designed to help develop

different types of learning strategies. The following relate to developing

strategies for effective organi(ation and management of time

) to e&plicitly introduce students to the concept of time allocation in relation

to study

) to assist students to identify realistic times and time spans for home

study and individual study in the learning center

) to assist students to prioriti(e study time allocation in relation to other

everyday activities and family commitments

) to assist students to create a dailyLwee"ly timeta'le of study

The English >anguage Sylla'us for the Teaching of English at Primary

>evel 2 I 44 I3 in Singapore includes a num'er of categories of process

o',ectives. These are descri'ed as follows

Thin"ing s"ills

$t the end of die course+ pupils should 'e a'le to

i

Planning goals and learning outcomes 0?

) e&plore an idea. situation+ or suggested solution for a specific

purpose ) thin" creatively to generate new ideas+ to find new meanings+ and to

deal with relationships

) analyse andLor evaluate an idea+ a situation. or a suggested solution

for a specific purpose



>earning how to learn

$t the end of the course. pupils should 'e a'le to

) apply a repertoire of li'rary. information. and study s"ills

) ta"e some responsi'ility for their own learning ) use some of the 'asic s"ills relating. to information technology

>anguage and culture

$t the end of the course+ pupils should 'e a'le to

) appreciate that there are varieties of English reflecting different

cultures and use this "nowledge appropriately and sensitively in

communication

) adopt a critical+ 'ut not negative+ attitude toward ideas+ thoughts+ and

values reflected in spo"en and written te&ts of local and foreign origin

The $merican Council on the Teaching of oreign >anguages in its

%ational Stan.ards for oreign >anguage >earning. 2 44<3 2pail of the

standards movement referred to earlier3 identifies a num'er of o',ectives

for language programs that relate to the philosophy of cultural pluralism.

or e&ample

) Students demonstrate understanding of the concept of culture

through comparisons of the cultures studied and their own.

) Students acquire information and recogni(e the distinctive viewpoints

that are only availa'le through the foreign language and its cultures.

The planning of learning outcomes for a language course is closely

related to the course planning process. Issues involved in developing andorgani(ing course content are the focus of Chapter <.

iscussion questions and activities



I. Choose a language teaching conte&t you are familiar with and

characteri(e the ideology underlying the curriculum. $re there any

limitations

) of the ideology you na e identified# ti

0; Chapter 5

/. !hat limitations might there 'e in a focus on practical and functional

s"ills in a language curriculum#

0. Bow has the philosophy of learner-centeredness influenced approaches

to language teaching in recent years# !hat is such a philosophy a

response to#

9. o you thin" it is appropriate for language teachers to see" to empower

students# If so+ give e&amples of issues you thin" should 'e addressed

and how these might 'e the focus of teaching.

5. To what e&tent is cultural pluralism an issue in the conte&t in which you

wor" or will wor"# If it is an issue+ how would you address it in the

curriculum#

<. !hat approach to planning learning outcomes is used in a program you

are familiar with# Bow effective is it#

?. =ive e&amples of aim statements that are appropriate for the following

"inds of courses

a course for English in primary school

a course in listening s"ills for intermediate-level learners;. Hewrite the following aim statements so that they descri'e changes in

learners

Students will study English grammar Spud nt will improve their

pronunciation







minimum num'er of errors+ or to a certain level of comprehensi'ility# The

following are e&amples of 'ehavioral o',ectives for a common-core ES>

program 2 indlay and %athan 4; + //<3

) =iven an oral request NconditionO the learner Nstudent as su',ectO will sayNaction that defines 'ehaviorO hisLherLname+ address and telephone

num'er to a native 7rea"er of English as spell hisLher name+ street and

city so

9 Chapter 5

J

that an interviewer may write down the data with accuracy Nlevel of

perfonnance,.

) =iven oral directions for a 9-step physical action+ the learner will follow

the directions with accuracy.

7ehavioral o',ectives of this "ind are even more difficult to write than the

simpler o',ectives illustrated a'ove and perhaps for this reason have not

'een widely used in language teaching. In most circumstances+ o',ectives

in the more general form illustrated earlier provide sufficient guidance for

program planning and instruction.

$ppendi& / >istening and conversation s"ills

. $n e&ample of a s"ills ta&onomy for the domain of listening s"ills 2from

7rindley 44?3.

@rienting oneself to a spo"en te&t

. Identifying the purposeLgenre of a spo"en te&t

./ Identifying the topic

.0 Identifying the 'road roles and relationships of the participants 2e.g.+

superiorLsu'ordinate3

/ Identifying the main ideaLs in a spo"en te&t



/.K istinguishing main ideas from supporting detail

/./ istinguishing fact from e&ample

/.0 istinguishing fact from opinion when e&plicitly stated in te&t

0 E&tracting specific information from a spo"en te&t 0. E&tracting "eydetails e&plicitly stated in te&t

0./ Identifying "ey voca'ulary items

Dnderstanding discourse structure and organisation 9. ollowing

discourse structure

9./ Identifying "ey discourseLcohesive mar"ers 9.0 Tracing the

development of an argument

5 Dnderstanding meaning not e&plicitly stated

5. Helating utterances to the socialLsituational conte&t

5./ Identifying the spea"er1s attitudesLemotional state

5.0 Hecognising the communicative function of stressLintonation patterns

5.9 Hecognising the spea"er1s illocutionary intent

5.5 educing meaning of unfamiliar words

5.< Evaluating the adequacy of the information provided J

5.? Dsing information from the discourse to ma"e a reasona'le prediction

Ir

Qr

Planning goals and learning outcomes 9/. $n e&ample of a description of conversation s"ills.)

) turn ta"ing

) giving feed'ac" and hac"channeling

) maintaining conversations



) initiating conversations

) closing interactions appropriately

) guessing the meanings of unfamiliar words

) see"ing clarification) as"ing for repetition

) structuring spo"en information

) giving spo"en instructions

) developing spo"en te&ts as anecdotes

) using appropriate voca'ulary

) using appropriate intonation and stress patterns

$ppendi& 0 ES@> standards for grades 9-; 2from TES@> 44?3

escriptors

) sharing and requesting information

) e&pressing needs+ feelings. and ideas

) using nonver'al communication in social interactions

) getting personal needs met

) engaging in conversatioas

) conducting transactions

Sample progress indicators

) as" peers for their opinions. preferences+ and desires

) correspond with pen pals+ English-spea"ing acquaintances+ and friends

) write personal essays

) ma"e plans for social engagements) shop in a supermar"et

) engage listener1s attention ver'ally or nonver'ally

) volunteer information and respond to questions a'out self and family

) elicit information and as" clarification questions



) clarify and restate information as needed

) descri'e feelings and emotions after watching a movie

) indicate interests. opinions. or preferences related to class pro,ects

) give and as" for permission) offer and respond to greetings+ compliments+ invitations+ introductions+

and farewells

) E&tract reprinted from ocus on Spea"ing 'y $. 7urns and B. Foyce

2 44?3 with permission from the %ational Centre for English >anguage

Teaching and Hesearch 2%CE>TH3. $ustralia. @tsLla. quarie Dniversity.

I%

9/ Chapter 5

) negotiate solutions to pro'lems+ interpersonal misunderstandings+ and

disputes

) read and write invitations and than"-you letters

) use the telephone

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