Plant Design and

OperationsSecond Edition

Ian Sutton

Author, Sutton Technical Books, Ashland, Virginia

GGulf Professional Publishing

\ja An imprint of Elsevier

II

Contents

Preface xxv

CHAPTER 1 Safety in Design 1

Introduction 1

Standard Examples 2

Terminology 2

Regulations, Standards, and Guidance 2

Regulatory Agencies (the United States) 3

Regulations (International) 3

Industry Standards 5

Health, Safety, and Environment 7

Process Safety Management 9

Risk Management 10

Units of Measurement 11

SI Units 12

Date Format 12

Engineering Drawings 13

Block Diagrams 13

Process Flow Diagrams 14

Piping and Instrument Diagrams 15

Spec Breaks 18

Isometric Drawings 18

Electrical Single-Line Diagrams 18

Materials of Construction 19

Flammable and Combustible Materials 19

Fire Triangle 20

Flammable Range 21

Flash Point 21

Flammable/Combustible Liquids 22

Ignition Sources 23

Lightning 25

Area Classification 25

IEC Code 27

Regulations and Standards 27

Temperature Code 29

Classification Plan 29

V

vi Contents

Fireproofing Insulation 30

Fireproofing Materials 33

Cryogenic Systems 34

Maintenance 34

CHAPTER 2 Siting and Layout 35

Introduction 35

Regulations and Standards 36

Siting 36

Layout 38

Layout Risk Analysis 40

Facility Orientation 41

Hazardous Areas 41

Blocks and Roads 42

Piping 42

Drainage Systems 43

Loading/Unloading Facilities 44

Routine Access and Egress 45

Explosion Protection 46

Safe Areas 46

Emergency Escape 47

Manual Alarm Call Points 47

Process Isolation Valves 48

Firefighting 49

Emergency Showers and Eyewashes 49

Equipment Spacing 51

Pressure Vessels 54

Hydrocarbon Storage Tanks 56

Pumps 57

Compressors/Compressor Drivers 58

Heat Exchangers 59

Boilers 59

Fired Equipment 59

Air Intakes 60

Equipment Stacking 61

Piping and Valves 61

Piping 61

Valves 62

Flares and Vents 62

Buildings 63

Utilities 64

Contents vii

Stairways and Ladders 64

Stairways 65

Ladders 67

Platforms 71

Guardrails, Handrails, and Toeboards 71

Ramps 72

CHAPTER 3 Equipment and Buildings 73

Introduction 73

Regulations and Standards 74

Pressure Vessels/Columns 74

Pressure Vessel Code 74

Fire Hazard 79

Maximum Allowable Working Pressure 79

Vessels Under Vacuum 80

Storage Vessels 81

Reflux Vessels 82

Manways 82

Nameplate/Documentation 82

Storage Tanks 82

Functions of Storage Tanks 84

Types of Storage Tank 85

Fixed Roof Tanks 86

Floating Roof Tanks 87

Plastic Tanks 89

Bund Walls/Berms 89

Tank Farms 90

Stairs and Platforms 90

Tank Design 91

Tank Fires 93

Boilover/Foamover 95

Rag Layers 95

Bottoms Sediment and Water 96

Pumps 97

Types of Pump 98

Shutdown and Alarm Systems 99

Suction Piping 99

Minimum Flow Protection 99

Fire Protection 100

Sealless Pumps 100

Sparing 100

viii Contents

Pump Isolation 100

Vibration 101

Pump Casing 101

Seals and Packing 101

Compressors 102

API 618 102

Seals 102

Shutdown and Alarm Systems 102

Liquid Knockout 104

Relief Valves 104

Compressor Isolation 104

Surge Protection 105

Sparing Policy 105

Turbines 105

Gas Turbines 105

Steam Turbines 106

Heat Exchangers 106

Shell and Tube Exchangers 108

Tube/Shell Side 108

Tube Leakage 108

Air-Cooled Exchangers 110

Cooling Towers Ill

Natural/Forced Draft Ill

Safety 113

Fired Heaters 114

Heat Transfer Fluids 115

Air Preheaters 117

Safety 118

Flares/Blowdown 119

Emergency Depressurization 119

Flaring 120

Thermal Oxidizers 125

Boilers 125

Internal Combustion Engines 126

Starter Systems 127

Intake, Exhaust, and Fuel Systems 127

Electrical Equipment 127

Transformers 128

Equipment Grounding 128

Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters 128

Contents ix

Buildings 129

Administrative Buildings 130

Control Buildings 130

Process Buildings 135

Warehouses and Workshops 136

Temporary Buildings 136

CHAPTER 4 Piping 139

Introduction 139

Regulations and Standards 140

Pipe Specifications 140

Pipe Sizing 143

Nominal Pipe Sizes 144

Pipe Schedule 144

Fluid Velocity 146

Materials 146

Steel 146

Other Metals 146

Polymers 147

Equipment 148

Underground Piping 148

Fittings 149

Welding 150

Threaded Piping 150

Expansion Loops/Compensators 150

Small Pipe Connections 152

Flanges 153

Gaskets 154

Blinds 154

Line Blinds 156

Spectacle Blinds 156

Insulation 156

Heat Tracing 157

Steam Tracing 158

Electrical Tracing 158

Flame Arrestors 159

Thermal Flame Arrestors 159

Water Seal Flame Arrestors 160

Velocity Flame Arrestors 161

Detonation Arrestors 161

Vortex Breakers 161

Hoses 162

x Contents

CHAPTER 5 Valves 165

Introduction 165

Regulations and Standards 166

Valve Symbols 166

Block Valves 166

Gate Valves 166

Ball Valves 168

Butterfly Valves 170

Plug Valves 170

Needle Valves 171

Excess Flow Valves 171

Self-Closing Valves 172

Globe/Control Valves 173

Check (Non-return) Valves 174

Rotary Valves 175

Flangeless Valves 176

Emergency Isolation Valves 177

Valve Seat Materials 177

Valve Position 177

Steam Traps 178

Pressure Relief Devices 178

Causes of Overpressure 179

Pressure Safety Relief Valves 179

Pilot-Operated Pressure Relief Valves 181

Block Valves 182

Thermal Relief Valves 183

Rupture Disks 183

Hatches/Doors 185

CHAPTER 6 Instrumentation and Control 187

Introduction 187

Regulations and Standards 188

Operating/Safe Limits 188

Process Control 193

Distributed Control Systems 193

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems 194

Safety Instrumented Systems 195

Safety Integrity Level 196

Testing and Inspection 197

High-Integrity Pressure Protection System 198

Contents xi

Fire and Gas Detection 199

Fire Detection 200

Toxic Gas Detection 203

Layout of Detectors 204

Portable Gas Detectors 206

Alarm Systems 206

Alarm Signaling 208

Response to Alarms 208

Response Matrix 210

Limitations 211

Alarm Flooding 211

CHAPTER 7 Transportation 213

Introduction 213

Terminology 214

Regulations and Standards 214

International Safety Guide 217

CAP 437—Offshore Helicopter Landing Areas 218

Tank Trucks 219

Loading/Unloading 220

Loading Racks 220

Static Electricity 222

Bonding 225

Switch Loading 225

Additives 226

Vacuum Trucks 226

Tank (Rail) Cars 228

Tank Car Markings 228

Pressure Vessels 229

Empty Cars 229

Graffiti 230

Marine Operations 230

Ships and Barges 231

Small Boats 231

Jetty Terminals 233

Personnel Transfer 233

Cargo Baskets 236

Helicopters 236

Pipelines 239

One Call 239

Pigging 241

Slug Catchers 247

xii Contents

CHAPTER 8 Operations 249

Introduction 249

Regulations and Standards 249

Housekeeping 251

Storage and Handling of Hazardous Materials 252

Flammable Liquids 252

Oxidizing Agents 253

Catching Samples 253

Gas Storage Cylinders 255

Tank Operations 256

Filling and Emptying 256

Purging and Cleaning 257

Rotating Equipment 257

Emergency Response 258

Manual Emergency Shutdown 258

Evacuation, Escape, and Rescue 258

Personnel Tracking 260

Nonprocess Operations 260

Outside Storage 260

Coal and Coke Storage 261

Drum Storage 261

Cranes and Rigging 261

Lifting Precautions 262

Wire Ropes, Chains, and Slings 263

Tag Lines 263

Start-Up 263

Commissioning 264

Operational Readiness Review 264

Start-Up 264

CHAPTER 9 Maintenance 265

Introduction 265

Regulations and Standards 266

Maintenance Management System 266

Types of Maintenance 267

Repair Maintenance 267

Condition-Based Maintenance 267

Scheduled Maintenance 268

Reliability-Centered Maintenance 268

Procurement 269

Spare Parts 269

Contents xiii

Documentation 270

Factory Acceptance Tests 270

Maintenance Task Organization 271

Step 1—Plan the Work 271

Step 2—Conduct a JHA 273

Step 3—Prepare/Issue a Work Permit 273

Step 4—Shutdown and Isolate Equipment 273

Step 5—First Break 274

Step 6—Perform the Work 275

Step 7—Close Out the Work 275

Step 8—Handover to Operations 275

Pressure Tests 276

Testing Procedure 277

Installing Blinds 278

Test Medium 279

Tightness Test 281

Strength Test 281

Pressure Test Manual 282

Records 282

Online Cleaning and Repair 283

Corrosion 285

Cathodic Protection 285

Corrosion Under Insulation 286

C02 Corrosion 288

Sulfide Stress Cracking 288

Controlling Corrosion 288

Simultaneous Operations 289

Managing SIMOPs 289

SIMOPs Matrix 290

Conducting SIMOPs 290

CHAPTER 10 Energy Control 293

Introduction 293

Regulations and Standards 294

29 CFR 1910.119 294

API 2015 296

API 2026 298

API2217A 299

ANSI Z117.1 300

NFPA69 301

xiv Contents

Example 304

Risk Management 304

Energy Control Program 305

Step 1—Job Hazards Analysis 305

Step 2—Work Permit 305

General Work Permits 306

Hot Work Permits 306

Confined Space Permits 308

Issuing the Permit 308

Multiple Work Permits 308

Changes in Conditions 308

Barrier Tape 309

Step 3—Vent, Drain, and Purge 309

Inert Gas 309

Air-Blowing Hydrocarbon Lines 310

Step 4—Isolate the Equipment 311

Positive Isolation 311

Nonpositive Isolation 315

Step 5—Open the Equipment 316

Test for Oxygen 316

Heavy Sludge Deposits 317

Step 6—Complete Work/Return to Service 317

Lockout/Tagout 317

Car Seals 319

Group Lockout/Lockboxes 319

Padlocks 320

Tags 320

Removing Locks and Tags 320

Electrical Isolation 321

Confined Space Entry 321

Types of Space 323

The Entry Permit 324

Personnel 325

Test 326

Excavations 327

Tie-ins 329

Hot Tapping 330

Plugged Lines 330

Prevention of Pluggage 330

Unplugging a Line 331

Mechanical 332

Differential Pressure 332

Contents xv

CHAPTER 11 Inspection 335

Introduction 335

Regulations and Standards 336

API RP 510 337

API 653 340

API RP 580 341

Organization 342

Inspection Programs 343

Initial Inspection 344

Routine External Inspection 344

Complete External Inspection 345

Internal Inspection 345

Inspection Frequency 346

Nondestructive Testing 347

Continuous Monitoring 347

Equipment and Piping 348

Pumps 348

Tanks 348

Relief Valves 349

Inspection Records and Report 350

Risk-Based Inspection 350

Analyze Risk 352

Determine Costs 352

Allocate Resources 352

CHAPTER 12 Firefighting 353

Introduction 353

Regulations and Standards 354

API 2021 356

NFPA 10 357

Fire Scenarios 358

Leak Sources 358

Types of Fire 359

Single Fire Concept 359

Radiant Heat 359

Fire Prevention 359

Release Prevention 359

Preventing Ignition 360

Fire Protection 361

Operating Response 361

Safety Instrumentation 361

xvi Contents

Passive Fire Protection 361

Active Fire Protection 361

Firewater Systems 362

Firewater Supply 364

Firewater Pumps 365

Main Fire Pumps 365

Jockey Pumps 366

Firewater Distribution 366

Ring Main/Header 366

Capacity and Rates 367

Disposal of Firewater 367

Materials of Construction 368

Firewater Delivery 368

Hydrants 368

Fire Monitors 369

Sprays 370

Deluge Systems 373

Testing 373

Other Firefighting Media 373

Halons 373

Steam 373

Foam 374

Carbon Dioxide 375

Inergen 375

Earth-Moving Equipment 376

Portable Fire Extinguishers 376

Water Extinguishers 377

Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers 377

Dry Chemical Extinguishers 377

Organization and Training 378

First Response Team 378

Communications 378

Firefighting Vehicles 378

Fire Training Ground 379

CHAPTER 13 Occupational Safety 381

Introduction 381

Regulations, Standards, and Guidance 382

Measuring Performance 382

Safety Manual 384

Incident Reporting 388

Contents xvii

Vehicle Incidents 389

Near Misses 389

Behavior-Based Safety 389

Management Commitment 390

Observed Hazard Card 391

Timeout Policies 391

Lone Worker Policy 393

Machinery Safety 393

Dropped Objects 393

Overhead Power Lines 394

Emergency Showers and Eyewashes 395

Design of Emergency Showers 395

Operating the Shower 399

Eyewash Units 399

Testing 399

CHAPTER 14 Personal Protective Equipment 401

Introduction 401

Types ofPPE 402

Regulations and Standards 403

Guidance Documents 405

OSHA3151 405

HSE Personal Protective Equipment 405

Clothing 406

Flame-Resistant Clothing 406

Impervious Clothing/Proximity Suits 407

Bunker Gear 407

Head Protection 408

Additional Equipment/Markers 408

Color Schemes 409

Maintenance and Storage 409

Hand Protection 409

Foot Protection 410

Eye/Face Protection 410

Respiratory Protection 410

Supplied Air Respirators 411

Air-Purifying Respirators 412

Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus 412

Chemical Canister Rebreathers 412

Disposable Respirators 412

xviii Contents

Fall Protection 412

Definitions 413

Fall Protection System 414

Fall Arrest System Equipment 415

CHAPTER 15 Health 417

Introduction 417

Regulations and Standards 418

Employee Access to Records 418

Asbestos 418

Radiant Heat 420

Noise 421

Definitions 422

Noise Limits 423

Noise Control 425

Vibration Control 427

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material 427

Regulations and Standards 427

Technologically Enhanced NORM 428

Exposure 428

Treatment 428

Water/Dry Blasting 428

Safe Limits 428

Protective Measures 428

Lifting 429

Heat Stress 429

Heat Index 429

Types of Heat Stress 430

Heat Stress Factors 430

Heat Stress Prevention 430

Thermal Radiation 431

Cold Stress 432

Equivalent Chill Temperature 433

Controlling Cold Stress 433

Food and Galley Hygiene 433

Methods of Preservation and Treatment 434

Treating Contamination 434

Storage and Cooking Temperatures 435

Facilities and Equipment 435

Alcohol and Drug Policy 435

Coverage 435

Affected Participants 436

Contents xix

Applicants for Employment 437

Testing 437

Legal Drugs 437

Contractors 437

CHAPTER 16 Human Factors and Ergonomics 439

Introduction 439

Regulations and Standards 440

Process Safety Management 441

Principles of Human Behavior 442

Improving Human Factors 444

Change the Work/Workplace 444

Change Work Performance 444

Change the Person 444

Human Error 445

Automation of Functions 445

Control Rooms 445

Work Stations 446

Operation of Valves 447

Critical Valves 447

Noncritical Valves 448

Nonoperational Valves 448

Valve Criticality Analysis 448

Signs 449

Prohibition 450

Mandatory Action 451

Warning 452

Safe Condition 453

The Safety Diamond 454

Labeling 456

Color Coding 457

General Application 458

American Public Works Association 458

Piping 458

Hoses 459

Refineries 460

Human Factors on Projects 462

Phase I—Concept Selection 462

Phase II—Preliminary Engineering 462

Phase IE—Detailed Engineering 463

xx Contents

CHAPTER 17 Chemicals 465

Introduction 465

Regulations and Standards 466

Safety Data Sheets (SDS) 466

Structure 466

OSHA Requirements 469

Global Harmonization System 470

Fluid Categories 471

Chemical Compatibility 471

Exposure Limits 472

Emergency Response Planning Guidelines (ERPG) 472

Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health 474

Permissible Exposure Limits 474

Threshold Limit Values 474

Short-Term Exposure Limit 475

Benzene 475

Carbon Dioxide 475

Carbon Monoxide 476

Chlorine 476

Hydrogen Fluoride 476

Unloading 477

KOH Beds 477

Dedicated Flare 477

Hydrogen Sulfide 477

Regulations and Standards 478

Toxicity 479

Location of Fixed Monitors 480

Sensor Technology 480

Flaring of H2S 480

Corrosion/Metallurgy 481

H2S Safety Plan 481

Lead 485

Nitrogen 485

Sulfur Dioxide 486

Oxygen 487

Oxidizing Agents 488

CHAPTER 18 Industries 491

Introduction 491

Offshore Oil and Gas 494

Platform Layout 495

Contents xxi

Rotating Equipment 496

Flares 497

Wellbay Area 497

Drilling Rigs 497

Noise 498

Emergency Evacuation and Rescue 499

Secondary Method of Escape 499

Tertiary Methods of Escape 502

Temporary Refuge 502

Oil Refineries 504

Distillation 506

Chemical Reactions 507

Chemical and Petrochemical Plants 507

CHAPTER 19 Common Hazards 509

Introduction 509

Process Hazards 510

High Flow 510

Low/No Flow 510

Reverse Flow 510

Misdirected Flow 512

High Pressure 512

Low Pressure 512

High Temperature 512

Low Temperature 514

High Level 515

Wrong Composition 515

Chemical Embrittlement 515

Strong Oxidizers 516

Static Electricity 516

Hazards of Utilities 516

Common Cause Failure 516

Process Contamination 516

Electrical Power Failure 516

Nitrogen 517

Reverse Flow to a Utility Header 517

Survivability of Utilities 518

Hazards of Water 518

Water in Very Hot Liquid 518

Water and Firefighting 519

xxii Contents

Hazards of Steam 519

Steaming Vessels During Turnaround 520

Reboiler Leak 520

Wet Steam in Turbines 520

Hazards of Ice 520

Line Freezing 521

Hydrates 521

Hazards of Compressed Gas 522

Gas Cylinders 522

Pigging 522

Hazards of Air 522

Flammable Mixture 522

Blowing a Line Clear 523

Hazards of External Events 523

Flooding 523

Earthquakes 523

Hazards of Equipment and Instruments 524

Furnace Firing 524

Fired Heater Burnout 524

Multiple Uses of Equipment 525

Distributed Control Systems 525

Hazards of Piping, Valves, and Hoses 526

Piping 526

Hoses 529

Valves 530

Shared Relief Valve 532

SDV Bypass 533

CHAPTER 20 Security 535

Introduction 535

Regulations and Standards 536

Types of Attack 537

Members of the Public 537

Sabotage 539

Terrorism 539

Cybersecurity 540

Security Vulnerability Analyses 541

Managing Security 541

Culture 541

Inherent Safety 542

Hazards Analysis 542

Contents xxiii

Rings of Protection 542

Transportation 544

Countermeasures 544

Access Security 545

Personnel Screening 545

Offshore 546

Transportation Worker Identification Credential (the United States) 546

Equipment Modifications 546

Response to a Threatening Call 546

Acronyms 549

Bibliography 553

Index 559