Play in Early Childhood: From Birth to Six Years, 3rd Edition

2001c5dfcoverv05bjpg

PLAY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Based on the pioneering work of Mary D Sheridan Play in EarlyChildhood is a classic introductory text to play and development ndashkey topics for all those who work with young children Updated fora contemporary audience and fully evidence-based it explains howchildrenrsquos play develops and how they develop as they play

With over eighty illustrations and observations of play from birthto six years this new edition presents classical and contemporaryliterature making clear links between play and all areas of childrenrsquosdevelopment It includes activities to consolidate thinking andsuggestions for further reading throughout Play in Early Childhoodconsiders

the development value and characteristics of play

issues relating to culture adversity and gender

play from recreational therapeutic and educational perspectives

the role of parentscaregivers and professionals in supporting play

Suitable for those new to the area or for more experienced workerswanting a quick reference guide this easy-to-follow book meets theneeds of students and professionals from a wide range of healtheducation and social care backgrounds including early yearsprofessionals playworkers childrenrsquos nurses speech and languagetherapists and social workers

Mary D Sheridan was a renowned researcher in child developmentand the author of From Birth to Five Years (Routledge 2007)

Justine Howard is a chartered psychologist and developmental and therapeutic play specialist She is a senior lecturer at SwanseaUniversity where she is responsible for a number of courses relatingto play and child development

Dawn Alderson is a senior academic tutor in the School of Humanand Health Science at Swansea University where she teaches onpostgraduate courses relating to play and creativity


From birth to six years

3rd edition

Mary D Sheridan

Revised and updated by Justine Howard and Dawn Alderson

First published 2011 by Routledge2 Park Square Milton Park Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge270 Madison Avenue New York NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor amp Francis Group an informa business

copy 1977 2011 Mary D Sheridan Revised and updated by Justine Howard andDawn Alderson

The right of Mary D Sheridan Justine Howard and Dawn Alderson to beidentified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance withsections 77 and 78 of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilizedin any form or by any electronic mechanical or other means now known orhereafter invented including photocopying and recording or in any informationstorage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataPlay in early childhood from birth to six years Mary D Sheridan ndash 3rd ed rev and updated by Justine Howard and Dawn Aldersonp cmIncludes bibliographical references1 Play I Howard Justine II Alderson Dawn III Title[DNLM 1 Play and Playthings 2 Child Development 3 Child Preschool 4 Infant WS 1055P5]HQ782S53 2011155418ndashdc222010030194

ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash57789ndash2 (hbk)ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash57790ndash8 (pbk)ISBN13 978ndash0ndash203ndash83260ndash8 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor amp Francis e-Library 2011

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor amp Francis or Routledgersquoscollection of thousands of eBooks please go to wwweBookstoretandfcouk

ISBN 0-203-83260-4 Master e-book ISBN

Contents

About the authors vii

Introduction 1

1 Theorizing about play 4Defining play 4Functions of play 8Types of play 12Summary 18Give yourself some time to think 18Useful reading 18

2 Observing the development of childrenrsquos play 19Sheridanrsquos observations3ndash6 months 206ndash12 months 2212ndash18 months 2518ndash24 months 292ndash3 years 353ndash4 years 375ndash6 years 44Summary 47Give yourself some time to think 47Useful reading 47

3 Outlines of some particular play sequences 48Cup play 49Bell play 50Block play 51

Vc o n t e n t s

Mark making 53Small world play 55

4 Variation in childrenrsquos play 57Culture 57Gender 59Adversity and atypicality 62Inclusive play practice 64Summary 66Give yourself some time to think 67Useful reading 67

5 Providing for play 68Provisions for play 68Play in different contexts 72The role of play professionals 77Summary 84Give yourself some time to think 85Useful reading 85

Useful play links 86

References 88

Index 94

VI c o n t e n t s

About the authors

Mary D Sheridan was a highly respected community paediatricianand health educator with more than forty years of experience insupporting childrenrsquos health and development Her pioneering workincluding the extensive documentation of childrenrsquos developmentled to the production of two influential and well-received textsChildrenrsquos Developmental Progress (1975) and Spontaneous Play inEarly Childhood (1977) The timeless value of her work is evidentin the continued popularity of revised versions of these texts whichbased on observations of real children in real situations continue tosupport parents and professionals working in a variety of contexts

Justine Howard is a chartered psychologist and developmental andtherapeutic play specialist She has wide-ranging classroom experi-ence and has worked for a number of years alongside children withadditional learning needs before training in psychology and laterin therapeutic play She specializes in developmental psychology andthe psychology of education Her PhD focused on childrenrsquosperceptions of their play and she has since spent more than a decaderesearching this area She is particularly interested in how playcontributes to childrenrsquos development and wellbeing and her workhas resulted in numerous publications Justine is the programmedirector of the MA in Developmental and Therapeutic Play atSwansea University

Dawn Alderson has a background in primary teaching and has beena senior academic tutor at Swansea University since 2002 She hasbeen involved with initial and in-service teacher training and cur-rently lectures on undergraduate and postgraduate courses in theSchool of Human and Health Science She has a masterrsquos degree ineducation which focused on meta-cognition in the early years More

VI Ia b o u t t h e a u t h o r s

recently Dawn has been involved with research and freelance workin the areas of play childrenrsquos health and wellbeing and creativityin education She is in the latter stages of completing a doctorate ineducation about creative partnerships with upper-primary-agedchildren in Wales

VI I I a b o u t t h e a u t h o r s

Introduction

In his foreword to the original version of this book ndash Mary SheridanrsquosSpontaneous Play in Early Childhood (1977) ndash Professor Jack Tizarddescribed how at the time of Sheridanrsquos writing services concernedwith childrenrsquos intellectual physical and social needs were groundedin knowledge about the nature of child development Sheridanrsquosobservations of childrenrsquos spontaneous play were invaluable inproviding practitioners with an insight into the development of lsquorealchildren in real situationsrsquo allowing the reader to enrich theirtheoretical knowledge and validate their own experiences

Play is recognized in Article 31 of the United Nations Conventionon the Rights of the Child (United Nations 1989) and a growingevidence base as to the value of play for childrenrsquos developmenthealth and wellbeing has contributed to governmental policiesdesigned to ensure that all children have access to appropriate play experiences There are initiatives promoting recreational playopportunities sport and leisure activities and play is pivotal withinschool curricula designed for children in the early years There couldnot be a more appropriate time for us to return to a basic con-sideration of how childrenrsquos play develops and how they develop asthey play

We would all agree that understanding childrenrsquos developmentremains at the heart of services for children However publicationsfor practitioners are often now directed towards the area in whichwe work for example separate publications are written for teachersnurses and other play specialists As we describe in Chapter 5 thisoften means that childrenrsquos development is discussed within aparticular context or with a particular developmental outcome inmind In educational texts for example there might be a much more

1i n t r o d u c t i o n

substantial focus on learning through play rather than on childrenrsquosgrowing ability to play However learning through play relies onchildrenrsquos ability to play and understanding this by reference totheories of child development and detailed observations andillustrations (such as those of Sheridan) remains invaluable Ateacher who observes a child who does not engage in role play forexample becomes able to ask themself why this might be the caseDoes the child have the skills necessary for this type of play Shouldmy next step be to try to encourage them to engage in role play orshould I provide different play opportunities that might help in thedevelopment of their representational abilities Similarly how might a child with mobility sensory or co-ordination difficulties beencouraged to learn more about the properties of objects to enrichtheir play Using knowledge of how childrenrsquos play usually developsand the skills associated with this was precisely what motivatedSheridan to write this book so that she could provide the highestlevel of support for the children in her care

Much has been written about play and within an introductory text of this kind it is impossible to offer comprehensive coverage of all issues Similarly the depth to which issues might be discussedis also limited Rather than oversimplifying the complexities thatsurround for example the play of children who are deaf or phys-ically disabled or facing adversity we have attempted to indicate thekinds of challenges these children might face and the kinds ofquestions we might ask in order to understand and best support theirplay Sheridanrsquos focus was on spontaneity in play and a theme thatemerges throughout this book is that childrenrsquos spontaneous play isdefined by a sense of freedom choice and control These featuresunify play professionals working across a variety of contexts andensure inclusive practice A sense of freedom choice and control inplay means that boundaries are set and regulated by childrenthemselves As a result play promotes and protects esteem andmaintains attention so that learning can take place

As Professor Tizard noted Sheridanrsquos original work was undistortedby theory but her knowledge of child development is clearly evidentthrough her observations As her book on play was an accom-paniment to her more substantial book on childrenrsquos development

2 i n t r o d u c t i o n

perhaps explicit reference to theory was not considered necessaryIn addition Sheridan was keen for her work not to become overlyladen with scientific and controlled laboratory-type studies whichshe believed detracted from the value of her first-hand observationsWe have endeavoured to enhance Sheridanrsquos original work with thecareful introduction of supporting literature including some keytheoretical ideas and selected research We hope that providing thiscontext will ensure that readers gain maximum benefit from thedepth and detail of her observations We have tried to maintain afocus on childrenrsquos growing repertoire of play skills while at the sametime considering the developmental potential of play from socialemotional linguistic physical and intellectual perspectives Inaddition we have tried to offer scope for readers to develop theirown philosophy of play through reflective activities and furtherreading

Professor Tizard acknowledged the special place of Mary Sheridanin British paediatrics noting her as the most distinguished and seniorpractitioner in the field We hope that this revised edition serves toensure that readers continue to benefit from her experience andexpertise It is a great privilege to have been asked to revise her work

Justine HowardDawn Alderson


Theorizing about play

Consistent with the original Sheridan text this chapter will focus ondefinitions of play functions of play and predominant play types

The specific aims of the chapter are

To consider the issue of defining play and in doing so to highlightplay as a behaviour a process and an approach to task

To consider why children play and what makes it valuable froma developmental perspective

To introduce play types in which children typically engage andplay types through which children typically progress

To highlight that play both influences and reflects childrenrsquosdevelopment

When we begin to study any given concept or phenomenon one ofthe first steps we take is to define what we understand that conceptor phenomenon to mean What is play and how is it different fromother types of behaviour While everyone has some idea about whatit means to play and what play might look like deciding on a clearand agreed definition has proven problematic Indeed it has beenargued that play is so complex that it defies definition (Moyles1989) Considering the struggle to define play however providesan important narrative that reveals the complexity of play as abehaviour a process and an approach to task In particular thefreedom and choice inherent in spontaneous play make it a vitalingredient for childrenrsquos healthy development

4 t h e o r i z i n g a b o u t p l a y

1

Defining play

Dictionary definitions of play suggest it is characterized by beingfrivolous fun or light-hearted However this is at odds with the deepseriousness that can often be apparent when we observe children at play Some theorists have suggested that for an activity to beregarded as play certain characteristics must be observed Forexample Krasnor and Pepler (1980) suggest that for an activity to be defined as play we must observe voluntary participationenjoyment intrinsic motivation pretence and a focus on processover product A problem with this type of approach however is thatwhile these characteristics might be clearly evident in some instancesof play in other situations they are more difficult if not impossibleto identify Pellegrini (1991) proposes that the more characteristics

5t h e o r i z i n g a b o u t p l a y

Sheridan (1977) writes

For the purpose of my own deliberations and discussions Ievolved the following

Play is the eager engagement in pleasurable physical ormental effort to obtain emotional satisfaction

Work is the voluntary engagement in disciplined physicalor mental effort to obtain material benefit

Drudgery is the enforced engagement in distasteful physicalor mental effort to obtain the means of survival

We all know that play and work may merge into each other(I would define this as ploy) and work and drudgery mayalso merge (I would define this as slog) but play anddrudgery are incompatible

The everyday world of school children provides a foretasteof the adult world in that their daily work consists ofuneven and fluctuating combinations of ploy acquiredcompetence and slog just as our own work consists ofvarying amounts of exciting research skilled practices andpedestrian plodding

Play as a behaviour

that are present the more like play the activity becomes Howeverwhat if some of these characteristics are more important to play thanothers Or what if two different observers see things differently Forexample one observer might believe that an activity being voluntaryis far more important than it not having an end product whereasanother observer might make their decision based on signs of funand enjoyment Letrsquos consider two examples of children playing withLego blocks

Child (A) takes the blocks from the toy shelf in their bedroomThey take them to the table and become intently focused onbuilding a replica of the model presented on the box packagingThere is no laughter or smiling they appear lost in concentrationsearching for the pieces and frequently glancing towards the boxchecking if their structure is the same as the one pictured

Child (B) is handed the Lego blocks by their teacher and they takethem to the carpet They appear to be haphazardly building thebricks the structure takes no particular form and they changewhat they do as they go along Sometimes they organize the bricksinto piles by colour Sometimes they put the bricks in pilesaccording to size They occasionally smile and laugh as they buildup the bricks and then knock them down

Which of these activities would be defined as play Child (A) choseto take part in the activity there is clearly an end product and thereare no overt signs of pleasure and enjoyment The activity waschosen for Child (B) they showed signs that the activity wasenjoyable and fun and they didnrsquot appear to be working towards anyend product or goal Neither of the scenarios demonstrates anyelement of pretence

In fact both of the children described their activities as play and thishighlights how seeing play from an observational perspective can beproblematic Our approach to defining play is often based on adultviews of what play looks like rather than taking the childrsquos per-spective and play means different things to different people atdifferent times (Howard 2009) For example the lsquoplayrsquo of the pro-fessional footballer will be very different from the lsquoplayrsquo that occurs


between friends at an after-school knock-around (Saracho 1990)It seems that to understand play we need to find out what playersthemselves think about the nature of their activities Various typesof play activity are detailed later in this chapter but it is not enoughfor activities to look like play We also need to understand whatmakes children approach activities in a playful way

Until quite recently little research had focused on childrenrsquos ownperceptions of their play Studies that have investigated what playmeans to children have been fruitful and have led to much deeperinsight as to what separates play from other types of activityResearch demonstrates that preschool children define play as activitythat is freely chosen and self-directed Surprisingly children do notoften define play as being something that is necessarily fun (Robson1993 Keating et al 2000)

In addition to choice and control activities that occur on the floorrather than at a table and outside rather than inside are more likelyto be seen as play (Howard 2002 Parker 2007) The nature anddegree of adult involvement are also important (McInnes et al2009) Bundy (1993) argues that the way children approach anactivity may be far more important than the actual activity itselfThe same activity might be described by children as play or not playdepending on the freedom choice and control they are afforded

The characteristics associated with play and non-play becomeparticularly important when children enter a nursery or classroomsituation and they begin to experience structured activities It is herewhere we begin to see them comparing play with work activity inthe way suggested by Sheridan However what about the play ofbabies and infants who have yet to make a distinction between playand other types of activity Piaget (1951) and Hutt (1976) proposethat activity progresses from exploration to play as children becomefamiliar with objects and their environments At the explorationstage children are finding out what an object does whereas duringplay they begin to consider what they can do with that objectTherefore much of the activity we can observe in young infantsmight be categorized as exploration This exploration is comparableto the more structured learning experienced in later childhood Early


Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration

exploration is important as it acts as a springboard for the develop-ment of future play skills

Play is a behaviour an approach to task but also a process Childrenmove in and out of play according to their own needs and wishesand other influences within the environment Other influences onchildrenrsquos play might include location the availability of materialstime and the involvement of other people Sturrock and Else (1998)suggest that play is a cycle of activity They propose that childrencommunicate the desire to play using a series of signals and that forplay to maintain momentum these signals must be responded toappropriately Perhaps the simplest example of this is one childinviting another to engage in a game of catch Throwing a ball toanother child might be seen as a signal or invitation to engage in thegame The second child responds to the signal and the ball is thrownback and forth Then one child decides they no longer wish to playthe game and they stop returning the ball The signal to play isnrsquotresponded to and the play comes to an end Alternatively the secondchild may decide they want to change the nature of the game and sothey begin to bounce rather than throw the ball They invite theoriginal child to engage in a new game If the original child bouncesthe ball back they accept the game change and the flow continuesIf not they might either revert back to their original throwingbehaviour in a bid to maintain the flow or end the play completelyIn order to maintain a state of play the needs and wishes of theplayers are negotiated This process is similar to the flow stateidentified by Csikszentmihalyi and Csikszentmihalyi (1988) wherechoice and control over activity are said to lead to deep concen-tration pleasure and satisfaction

Sheridanrsquos focus was on childrenrsquos spontaneous play suggesting anatural inclination or drive towards play activity Early philosophicalaccounts explain spontaneous drive towards play as being the resultof evolution or biological functioning

Pre-exercise theory (Groos 1901) suggests that play behaviourexists as a means of practising key skills that are essential to adultsurvival


The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play

Recapitulation theory (Hall 1920) suggests that in play childrenact out behaviours that were once essential for human survivalbut are no longer necessary such as building dens or climbingtrees

Relaxation theory (Patrick 1916) suggests that we are driven toplay because it involves minimal cognitive demands Periods ofplay allow us to relax storing energy in preparation for moreimportant cognitive activity

Surplus energy theory (Spencer 1898) suggests that play allowsus to release excess energy that has not been spent fulfillingsurvival needs As children are largely looked after by others theirunspent energy levels are high resulting in the propensity to play

Providing evidence as to why children seem to have a naturalinclination towards play is difficult It seems likely that there is acombination of reasons as to why play is childrenrsquos preferred modeof action Children certainly seem motivated to explore the worldaround them and to make sense of their experiences and the devel-opment of their play skills seems to stem from this motivation Fromtheir earliest sensory experiences and interactions with otherschildren develop a repertoire of play skills that support theirdevelopment Of importance is that children choose to learn aboutthe world through play and a sense of choice remains an importantelement of their play throughout childhood

There is widespread recognition that childrenrsquos play serves a usefuldevelopmental function The role of play in promoting and sup-porting development has become a principal focus for scholars andprofessionals across many fields We have seen the introduction ofpolicies dedicated to ensuring that children have appropriateopportunities to play and the importance of play is recognized inArticle 31 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of theChild (United Nations 1989) There is a history of play withinchildrenrsquos services and the specific role of play for learningrecreation and therapy is discussed further in Chapter 5


Sheridanrsquos recognition of the value of play in relation to the whole child is echoed in recent documentation such as Best Play(Department for Culture Media and Sport 2000) which states thatduring play children learn and develop as individuals but also as members of the wider community

Social and emotional development In play children have theopportunity to learn about themselves and others They becomeaware of the impact of their behaviour and develop skills inconflict resolution negotiation trust and acceptance They cantry out different ways of dealing with social situations and try onfeelings emotions and social roles

Cognitive development Play offers opportunities to learn aboutobjects concepts and ideas for example sorting sequencing



A childrsquos developmental progress may be conveniently observedand defined within the context of the following parameters

Motor Development involving body postures and largemovements These combine high physical competence andeconomy of effort with precise forward planning in timeand space

Vision and Fine Movements involving competence in seeingand looking (far and near) and manipulative skills inte-grating sensory motor tactile and proprioceptive activities

Hearing and Listening and the Use of Codes of Com-munication

Social Behaviour and Spontaneous Play involving com-petence in organization of the self (ie self-identity self-careand self-occupation) together with voluntary acceptance ofcultural standards regarding personal behaviour and socialdemands

weight and balance Children develop problem-solving strategiesand the ability to allow one thing to stand for something else (forexample in pretend play) is a precursor to more complex waysof thinking

Language development Play offers opportunities for the devel-opment of language skill in relation to vocabulary pronunciationsentence construction and the transmission of meaning and intent

Physical development Play involves gross and fine motor move-ments and as such promotes co-ordination and visuo-spatialability The increased aerobic activity resulting from sustainedactive play promotes physical health and fitness in terms of thecardio-vascular system muscle tone and maintenance of optimumweight

However children learn in lots of different ways for example viaimitation by rote and through direct instruction A key question forthose studying play has been to identify what makes learningthrough play so valuable Researchers have sought to be able to showthat play rather than other types of activity makes a difference tochildrenrsquos development With this in mind we begin to appreciatethe importance of clearly defining what play actually is

Significant advances have been made here by focusing on childrenrsquosperceptions of play Research has shown that when children believean activity to be play rather than work their performance in problem-solving tasks is significantly improved and they show much deeperlevels of engagement and motivation (McInnes et al 2009) Ring(2010) found that encouraging a playful approach to drawing in theearly years by offering children freedom choice and control led toincreased participation and progress in their ability to use drawingas a tool for meaning making and communication In additionWhitebread (2010) demonstrated that during activities defined as playchildren show higher levels of meta-cognition and self-regulation

These findings are consistent with the proposition that taking aplayful approach to a task is far more important than the task itself(Bundy 1993) While children learn in a number of different waystheir learning is enhanced across all developmental domains when

1 1t h e o r i z i n g a b o u t p l a y

an activity is approached as play Sutton-Smith (1974) and Bruner(1979) suggest that playful activity is particularly beneficial forchildrenrsquos development as it promotes flexible thinking skillsHoward and Miles (2008) suggest that the improved performanceevident when children approach tasks as play is a result of reducedbehavioural thresholds When children are in a playful modeoutcomes are flexible fear is reduced and consequently more poten-tial behaviours become available to try out A sense of freedomchoice and control in play means that boundaries are set andregulated by children themselves As a result play promotes andprotects esteem and maintains attention for learning to take place(Howard 2010a)

It is important to note that play both influences and reflects devel-opment Some typologies of play document the activities we are likelyto see children engaging in throughout the course of their childhoodsWe can note how these different types of play are contributing todevelopment These typologies can be simplistic or complex

Hutt (1976) proposes a distinction between epistemic play thatfocuses on the acquisition of knowledge and skill and ludic playwhich is more concerned with fantasy and make believe

In contrast Hughes (1999) has compiled an extensive typology thatdescribes sixteen different play types

Rough and tumble ndash close-encounter activity involving touchtickling and the use of relative strength with an indication thatthe activity is play

Socio-dramatic ndash the enactment of real and potential humanexperience

Social ndash play with rules for social engagement

Creative ndash play that facilities a number of potential outcomes orresponses

Communication ndash play using words nuances or gestures

Dramatic ndash play which dramatizes events in which the child is nota direct participant


Types of play

Symbolic ndash play where one thing can stand for another

Deep ndash play which allows the child to encounter risky experiences

Exploratory ndash play to access factual information about objects orconcepts

Fantasy ndash play which rearranges the world in the childrsquos way away which is unlikely to occur

Imaginative ndash play where the conventional rules that govern thephysical world do not apply

Locomotor ndash movement in any or every direction for its own sake

Mastery ndash control of the physical and affective ingredients of theenvironment

Object ndash play which uses infinite and interesting sequences ofhandndasheye manipulations and movements

Role ndash play exploring ways of being although not normally of anintense personal social domestic or interpersonal nature

Recapitulative ndash play that allows the child to explore ancestryhistory rituals stories rhymes fire and darkness

Other typologies of play have a more developmental focus andoutline progression through certain play types as children acquire a growing repertoire of skills Here the focus is on how childrendevelop their ability to play



Different types of play emerge in developmental sequence asthe child learns to use first their sensory and motor equipmentto best advantage and later their powers of communicationand creativity Every step forward depends upon successfulachievement of previous stepping-stones


1 Active play presumes lsquogross motorrsquo control of head trunkand limbs in sitting crawling standing running climbingjumping throwing kicking catching and so on It is directlyconcerned with promotion of physical development andnecessitates the provision of adequate free-ranging space tomove about in and natural obstacles to overcome togetherwith simple safe playground equipment mobile and fixed

2 Exploratory and manipulative play beginning at about 3 months with finger play presumes possession of age-appropriate gross-motor fine-motor and sensory function-ing These components are essential not only for acquisitionof handndasheye co-ordination but also for attending to andlocalizing everyday sounds for recognition of the per-manence of objects and for learning to appreciate theimplications of space and time Integration of these separatephysical and cognitive elements into total meaningfulexperience necessitates the availability of a number ofsimple things for manipulation such as everyday domesticobjects as well as traditional playthings like rattles dollsballs building blocks boxes toys to grasp and move aboutby hand and sound-making instruments

3 Imitative play becomes clearly evident from 7ndash9 months Itpresumes a childrsquos ability to control their body manipulateobjects integrate and interpret multi-sensorial experienceand comprehend simple language or perhaps more accu-rately their caregiversrsquo vocal tunes It reflects what a childsees and hears going on around them providing a livelyrecord of their perceptual learning At first this imitationis fragmentary and follows immediately upon the childrsquosattention being attracted in some way to the activity whichthey imitate Later they recall and repeat for their ownamusement or for applause a series of these meaningfulactions Imitative play is necessary in order for a child notonly to learn the quickest and most effective way of per-forming meaningful actions themselves but also gradually


to understand that adults have differing roles and respon-sibilities

4 Constructive (or end-product) play beginning with verysimple block-building at about 18ndash20 months presumespossession of all the aforementioned motor and sensoryabilities together with increasing capacity to make use ofthe intellectual processes involved in recognition andretrieval of previously stored memories Additionally itrequires ability to create preliminary lsquoblueprintsrsquo in the mindand realize these in practical form This type of play growsdirectly out of early exploratory and manipulative play butalso implies capacity to combine early lsquopurersquo imitation withpurposeful anticipation

5 Make-believe (or pretend) play beginning a couple ofmonths before 2 years and elaborated for several yearsafterwards presumes previous acquisition of all the fore-going types particularly imitative role play Having learnedfrom experience the probable causes and effects relating tothe activities they have observed and copied children nowdeliberately invent increasingly complex make-believesituations for themselves in order to practise and enjoy theiracquired insights and skills In this way they improve theirgeneral knowledge and most importantly of all refine theirsocial communications Make-believe play depends upon achildrsquos ability to receive and express their ideas in some formof language-code Consequently its spontaneous employ-ment is of considerable diagnostic significance to pro-fessional workers concerned with the health welfare andeducation of young children

6 Games-with-rules presuppose a high degree of skill in allthe foregoing types including full understanding andacceptance of the abstractions involved in sharing takingturns fair play and accurate recording of results Theyusually start at about 4 years when small groups of peer-

Sheridan observes how childrenrsquos spontaneous play changes overtime and the types of play she describes are consistent with theoristswho suggest that play follows a developmental trajectory It isgenerally accepted that the ages associated with any stage theory of development are approximate however of importance is thesequence in which behaviours emerge The behaviours predom-inantly associated with one stage may occur concurrently withanother and the play behaviours are cumulative rather thanexclusive The progressive nature of play has been documented froma cognitive social and emotional perspective

Piaget (1951) proposed three stages of play that corresponded withcognitive development

Practice play in the sensorimotor stage of development (approxi-mately birth to two years) children explore their own bodies andthe objects around them using sight sound touch and taste theplay here is often repetitive

Symbolic play early in the pre-operational stage (approximatelytwo to seven years) children develop the ability to allow one thingto stand for another and pretend play or make believe begins toemerge

Games with rules in the latter part of the pre-operational stageof development and into the concrete operational stage (approxi-mately age seven to eleven years) play becomes increasinglygoverned by rules

Parten (1932) observed children aged two to five years in theirpreschool environment Through extensive observations she noted


age children under tacitly acknowledged leadershipimprovise their own rules for co-operative play Teamgames which challenge competitiveness in older childrenand adults become increasingly subject to rules imposedfrom without and to be rewarding must be played strictlyaccording to the recognized constitution

that play became increasingly social with age She described six socialstages of play

Unoccupied behaviour not playing simply observing

Solitary play child plays alone uninterested in others

Onlooker behaviour child watches the play of others and maytalk to the children involved but this talk does not relate to theplay

Parallel play child plays alongside others often imitating whatis being played near by but no interaction

Associative play the children appear to be playing together buttheir activities are not organized

Co-operative play playing together in more organized activitieswhere they share intentions about the progress of the play

Erikson (1963) focused on the emotional benefits of play andsuggested that childrenrsquos play served as a means of developing a senseof competence and positive self-esteem

Autocosmic play during the first year of life of most significanceto Erikson was that early play focused on the childrsquos explorationof the body and the senses Awareness of the bodily self was seenas an important precursor to self-esteem in that we cannotevaluate the self without first having a basic awareness of whatthat self comprises

Microspheric play in their second year children begin to playwith objects and during this time they begin to understand theimpact that their own actions can have on the environment

Macrospheric play at around three years when children mayenter preschool or nursery play becomes more social Activitiesare shared and children become aware that their environment andtheir sense of self are not only controlled by themselves but areinfluenced by others They learn how to maintain a positive senseof self in the wider social world


Play reflects but also supports childrenrsquos development

Play is more than just a behaviour it is a process and a way ofapproaching an activity

Children are more likely to approach an activity as play whenthey are afforded freedom choice and control

Development is enhanced when children approach activities asplay

Observe a child or group of children engaged in play

Why do you think the activity is play

Do you think the children would agree

In what ways do you think this play reflects and supportschildrenrsquos development

Lester S and Russell W (2008) Play for a Change London NationalChildrenrsquos Bureau Central Books

Smith P K (2010) Children and Play West Sussex Wiley-Blackwell


Summary

Giveyourselfsome timeto think

Usefulreading

Observing the development of childrenrsquos play

This chapter presents Sheridanrsquos original observations of the agesand stages at which significant manifestations of behaviour usuallyappear supporting the development of childrenrsquos repertoire of playskills Understanding childrenrsquos development can help us to makethe best provision for their play However it is important to bear inmind that wide variations are to be expected The chapter describeschildrenrsquos development in age-defined sections however the agesprovided should be taken only as a guide and they are not necessarilythe earliest or latest points at which a behaviour might appear Thisvariation is evident in the illustrations used by Sheridan to exemplifyher observations where sometimes the age of the child pictured doesnot match the age with which the section is principally concernedOf particular importance is the growth of childrenrsquos ability to playand how their acquired play skills feed into further developmentNote how Sheridan has captured the behaviours and skills shediscusses within the illustrations

The specific aims of this chapter are

To highlight the value of Sheridanrsquos real-world observations indocumenting childrenrsquos development in play

To encourage readers in light of the depth and detail presentedby Sheridan to reflect on their own observation skills

19o b s e r v i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p l a y

2

The newborn quickly learns to attract and welcome the attention ofprimary caregivers who are usually their first playmates Althoughvigorous movements smiles and coos indicate babyrsquos response toenjoyable stimulation behaviour becomes more purposeful over thecoming months and is no longer merely a manifestation of stimulusand response but increasingly a question of selective sensory intake(reception) which is then processed within the brain (interpretation)and results in some appropriate motor outcome (expression)

20 o b s e r v i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p l a y

Sheridanrsquosobservations3ndash6 months

6 weeks Caregivers are usually thefirst playmates and livelyinterchange involves lookinglistening vocalizing and bodymovements

10 weeks Baby can grasp the bar and focus on a coloured ball but isnot yet able to co-ordinate hand and eyes

12 weeks Lying on their frontthey scratch at the table coverenjoying simultaneous sight andsound

3 months With head and back well supported baby demonstratesgood handndasheye co-ordination infinger-play

Handndasheye co-ordination is demonstrated at about 10ndash12 weekswhen a recumbent child deliberately brings their hands together overthe upper chest and engages in finger-play About the same timewhen lying on their stomach holding the head and shoulders upsteadily they will open and shut their hands to scratch the surfacewhere they lie with some appreciation of the simultaneous pro-duction of sight and sound A handheld toy (such as a rattle) can beclasped and brought towards the face but sometimes baby may bashtheir chin and any glances made at it are fleeting

By about 14 weeks baby develops increased control over head neckand eye muscles simultaneously to hand grasp and can hold the toyand steadily regard it At about 18ndash20 weeks they can reach for andgrasp an offered rattle look at it with prolonged gaze and shake itThey can clasp and unclasp objects alternately and bring objectstowards and away from the mouth

By 6 months muscular control vision and handndasheye co-ordinationare so advanced that baby can reach for and seize any nearby objectThey have not yet developed voluntary hand release They discovertheir feet and often use them as auxiliary claspers Every graspedobject is brought to the mouth They are beginning to comprehendthe permanence of people but not yet the permanence of thingsWhen a toy falls from their hand unless it is within their range ofvision it ceases to exist


41frasl2 months With consistenthandndasheye co-ordination babyholds the teething ring betweentheir hands opening and closingthem alternately

51frasl2 months Baby discovers their feetand reaches out to themdemonstrating foot hand and eyeco-ordination

Develops a strong bond with responsive primary caregiver

Handndasheye co-ordination improves and movements become morecontrolled and purposeful

Objects are brought to the mouth for exploration

Begins to understand the permanence of people but not objects

At about 7 months baby is able to pass a toy from one hand to theother with voluntary hand release From about 8 months baby cansit steadily on the floor stretch out in all directions for toys withinreach without falling over and is able to reach towards eye-catchingobjects

From 9 months babies usually first regard a new toy appraisinglyfor a few moments as if to judge its qualities before reaching for it and they enjoy manipulating one toy at a time A little later from imitation or discovery they can combine two objects in someactive way such as banging a couple of wooden spoons together orrattling a spoon in a cup During this time baby is beginning todevelop an ability to differentiate between familiar people andunfamiliar strangers Object permanence develops around 9ndash10months as baby will lift a cushion to look underneath it for a half-hidden play object It is not long after that a developed ability existsto detect a hidden object During this time babies enjoy producing


6 months With highconcentration baby makescharacteristic age-related two-handed approach to a block

6 months A bell is grasped withboth hands the bell is transferredto one hand and then brought tothe mouth

6ndash12 months

Key observations

the simultaneous noise and tactile sensation of banging or slidingsolid objects All babies as they become more mobile increasinglyseek proximity to their primary caregiver partly for the reassuranceof constant availability and partly to seek co-operation in play

From 9ndash12 months babies begin to understand the import of theprimary caregiverrsquos spoken communications first the cadences ofvocal intonation then of a few single-word forms and eventually ofthe simply phrased instructions and boundaries in recurrent situa-tional contexts Babies begin to find meaning in their homely world


9 months Sitting competently onthe floor baby reaches sideways totake the pegs from their holes butis not yet able to replace them

9 months Although not yet able torelease the blocks into the cupbaby has some notion of thenature of the container and keepson trying

9 months Having watched aplaymate build a tower of blocksto knock over baby tries toimitate Grasping right hand andpointing left index finger are wellshown

10 months Creeping towards aneye-catching plaything andreaching for it

and like to watch and listen to familiar adults be touched talked toand played with The attention relationships and play of the babyare still engaged and satisfied mainly at the level of ongoingperceptions but immediate brief imitations indicate the possessionof a short-term memory and baby proceeds with the establishmentof a long-term memory-bank For the latter all sorts of memoriesbecome stored related to significant somatic cognitive and affectiveexperiences for the purpose of instantaneous recognition retrievaland creative assembly when needed

Early play remains repetitive unless the primary caregiver indicatesthe next step In these homely ways a child learns during the firstyear that things keep their properties even in movement but thebehaviour of people tends to be unpredictable Babies must be ableto move about their familiar world so as to acquire a workingknowledge of its nature and its possibilities while learning to controltheir own behaviours and relationships within it before they cancommunicate wishes attitudes and intentions with regard to itBabies are also able to recognize situational constancy in homesurroundings For instance they know when the primary caregiveris out of sight for a short time and they begin to tolerate extendedintervals of time and space between themselves and the primarycaregiver


10 months Enjoying thesimultaneous sight and soundmade by sliding plastic pastrycutters on the table

11 months Having acquired theability to crawl baby explorestheir environment

At home babies balance a need for closeproximity to the primary caregiver with aneed to explore nicely integrating motoractivity with sensory alertness and emo-tional satisfaction In the first 12 monthsbaby has already travelled a far distancefrom early dominance by neonatal reflexesto present individualistic manifestations ofcapability and personality To achieve fullpotential baby must be supported to traveleven further and more rapidly during thenext couple of years

Acquires hand-release skill and can now pass objects from handto hand and drop things voluntarily

Understands the permanence of objects

Can tolerate short intervals of time away from the primary care-giver but will seek proximity for reassurance and co-operation inplay

Begins to manipulate individual objects

Some brief imitative behaviour begins to emerge and baby willenjoy banging rattling and sliding solid objects

In this period children become increasingly mobile inquisitive andwilful They have an increased ability to attend to detail and a grow-ing recognition of cause and effect The child is no longer satisfiedwith mainly perceptual phenomena and quickly loses interest in eventswhich are presented mainly as distant repetitious or unrewardingThis understanding is first manifest through their own experiencesand actions The child is dominated by an urge to explore and exploitthe surrounding environment for example when exploring cup-boards to manipulate smell and taste the objects within sometimespresenting them to the primary caregiver Children at this stage arealso able to manipulate blocks with a good pincer grasp

Percussion tools are still employed to experiment in the synchron-ization of sound and strike and with increasing skill in upright


11 months Babyimproves their skill inlocomotion by carryingtwo objectssimultaneously

Key observations

12ndash18 months

ambulation and navigation the child is able to push and pull largewheeled toys and guide small ones by hand or on the end of a stringYoung children during this period are still tied to everyday familyrealities where role play features in short episodes They also beginto communicate needs and feelings quite effectively in a medley of


11 months First steps requirecaregiver encouragement andconsiderable courage

12 months Holding on to thefurniture and stepping sidewaysthey cruise about the roominvestigating objects of interest

14 months Having gained someappreciation of the phenomenon ofcontainer and contained theygreatly enjoy putting objects in andout of the wastepaper bin

12 months Holds the pencil in anage-typical fashion A fewmoments later the pencil wasshifted to the other hand

large expressive gestures loud tuneful vocalizations and a small butever-increasing repertoire of single words while showing a growinginterest in naming objects and pictures in repeating words and inlistening to people talking

At this developmental stage of limited cognitive social and languageappreciation a doll or animal toy is treated like any other playthingFor the child objects hold no true emotional significance owing to immature preoccupation with the lsquomersquo and only very primitiverealization of the lsquonot mersquo Consequently so far as the child isconcerned young babies (who do not lsquointendrsquo anything) are notpersonalities in their own right but merely objects Social learningis undoubtedly entirely ego-centred at first that is lsquoself-tiedrsquo ratherthan lsquoself-ishrsquo Acceptable externalized or lsquodetached-from-selfrsquoactivities leading later to the practice of unselfishness sharingtaking turns and eventually to compassionate behaviour do notindeed cannot develop until a child has learned first the primarydistinction of lsquomersquo and lsquonot mersquo then the distinction of lsquomersquo andlsquoyoursquo and finally the distinction of lsquousrsquo and lsquothemrsquo which is thekeystone of social communication Some of this learning dependsupon appreciation of what is lsquominersquo and what is lsquonot minersquo and ofwhat is lsquoyoursrsquo and lsquotheirsrsquo


12 months Having thrown out allthe playthings they call loudly toget them back

12 months This give-and-takeplay involved not only playthingsbut linguistic interchange

Until this final stage of cognitive and emotive maturation has beenreached the childrsquos egocentricity leads to the unshakeable convictionthat all things rightfully belong to the child As soon as children aremobile they should be provided with some playthings and a place(for territory) so that they may learn not only the satisfactions butthe accepted conventions of personal and territorial possessionincluding the need to respect the rights of others

Increased mobility widens opportunities for exploration

There is less repetitive action and increasing attention to objectdetail


12 months Theycannot yet name theseobjects but they are wellable to demonstratetheir use in relation tothe self

12 months Shows a vague notionof the objectsrsquo application outsideof the self

12 months This interest in booksis greatly encouraged by thecaregiver

13 months The puppet evokesdelighted pointing and loudvocalization

15 months They now clearlyunderstand the functions of acomb and speak a recognizableversion of the word

Key observations

Enjoyment of push-and-pull toys indicates some recognition ofcause and effect

Can communicate needs and wishes using an increasing repertoireof words and gestures

Remains relatively egocentric and unable to separate lsquomersquo fromlsquonot mersquo

Between 18 and 24 months with rapidly improving control of thebody and limbs a child engages in many gross-motor activities suchas pushing pulling and carrying large objects as well as climbingon furniture low walls and steps Sitting on a small tricycle the childcan steer it on course but propels it forward with feet on the groundA sense of danger like understanding and use of language is stillvery limited However a desire for independent action is boundlessTherefore the child requires constant supervision to be protectedfrom danger

The child becomes increasingly interested in the nature and detailedexploitation of small objects constantly practising and refiningmanipulative abilities Young children will play contentedly at floorlevel for prolonged periods with suitable durable toys provided theyknow that a familiar and attentive adult is near The child will enjoyputting small toys in and out of containers and is able to build towers


15 months They cannot quite linkup these train carriages

15 months Squatting on the floorthey study the picture book withinterest but turn several pages at atime

18ndash24 months

of blocks varying from 3 at 18 months to 6 or more at 2 yearsChildren are able to experiment for lengthening periods of time withwater and sand or malleable materials like clay and dough usingtheir hands and simple tools effectively but as yet without the abilityto plan or achieve an end-product

Drawings have no real pictorial representation and although onehand is tending to show dominance such preference is still very


20 months An irresistible urge toget in and out of large boxesperhaps learning their relative sizeand position

20 months Enjoys thesimultaneous sight and sound andmuscular precision of thehammering activity

18 months Discovering control ofa push-and-pull toy

18 months They walk backwardsand sideways pulling and steeringa trolley containing a collection ofbricks

variable the child continues to use either hand freely and sometimesboth together These manifestations of unequal shifting or perhapsnon-simultaneous appreciation and control of laterality continuewith decreasing frequency throughout the pre-school years

The child is still ego-centric but is actively building memories frommimicking the behaviours of those around them Role play and situ-ational lsquopretendrsquo play which are characteristic of this stage might


18 months Crawling swiftly upthe garden steps (The usualsequence of movements ndash righthand left foot left hand right footndash is clearly shown)

18 months Playing with the sametoys as three months earlier theyare now able to link the traincarriages

2 years Having competentlyassumed this position theydelightedly call attention to thefacts and implications of thesituation

2 years Having successfully linkedup the trucks they pull the wholetrain through the doorwaywalking backwards and round thecorner

involve the child using materials that are readily to hand For examplenearby cushions and coverings might be used opportunistically whilethe child plays for a few moments at pretending to go to bed Thechild is able to put two or three toys together meaningfully ndash a dollon a chair bricks in a truck ndash but seldom as yet makes one objectrepresent another or uses mime to symbolize absent things or events

From 15ndash18 months onwards a child also becomes increasinglyinterested in picture books first to recognize and name peopleanimals objects and familiar actions (eating and drinking gettinginto a car posting a letter) Soon they can follow a simple story readaloud while exploring the pictures Next they begin to makecomments and ask questions Some of this love of books and storieswhich is very beneficial for language development is associated witha continued need for close proximity to the primary caregiver anormal phase of socialization

By 18 months the child usually speaks a few single words such aslsquotuprsquo (cup) and lsquodinkrsquo (drink) in appropriate context as well as anumber of meaningful utterances (holophrases) which to the childare single words such as lsquogimmersquo (give me) and lsquohee-yarsquo (here youare) action is linked to what is being said About 21 months thechild begins to put two or more lsquorealrsquo words together to frame littlesentences These usually refer to very familiar matters or to needsand happenings in the lsquohere and nowrsquo The child is now able to


21frasl2 years Having triedunsuccessfully to step into thetrain they are still a little confusedregarding the relative size of truckand teddy

2 years Medical role play

communicate effectively wishes refusal likes and dislikes througha combination of gestures and may include a few words and phrasesThe child can comprehend most simple language they hear

Also at about 21 months children begin to demonstrate theirappreciation that miniature (ie dollsrsquo-house-size) toys representthings and people in the real world They clearly show this exter-nalization (or expression) of previously internalized (ie memorized)experiences by spontaneously arranging the little toys in meaningfulgroups by actively indicating their use in everyday situations andoften by simultaneously talking about them

Constant sympathetic but non-stressful adult encouragement toengage in every sort of spontaneous play is essential not only to thecontentment but to the fundamental learning of children between 1and 2 years of age Through manipulation of playthings they firstdiscover through their visual auditory and tactile perceptions whatthey are and what special properties they possess (ie their specialquality) then go on to learn what can be done with them (ie theirspecial function) and finally how objects can be adapted to suit theirown requirements constructional or make believe (their poten-tialities) This investigative behaviour is often evident during make-believe play


2 years Imitative role playdeveloping into inventive makebelieve

Concentration span increases and desire for independence grows

Now that the child is familiar with objects within their environ-ment they begin to utilize them in play

There is simple imitative role play of familiar scenes (ie mumand baby)


13frasl4ndash21frasl4 years Parallel play usingmusical instruments in a daynursery

21frasl2 years The bag provides endlessopportunities for explorationmanipulation and imitation

21frasl2 years Threading beadsmaintains the childrsquos interest nowfingers have acquired sufficientskill

21 months The beginnings ofclearly representative play withminiature toys

Key observations

Engages in play with miniature objects but objects are used real-istically and not symbolically (ie toy bricks might be placed intoa toy truck)

There is a growing interest in print and mark-making activity

From the age of 2 years a child is becoming increasingly skilful in every form of motor activity and may be able to ride a tricycleforwards using the pedals and steer it round corners Skills ofkicking throwing and catching a ball increase

Childrenrsquos manipulations and constructive skills steadily improveand they are able to hold a pencil halfway down the shaft or nearthe point scribbling or imitating to and fro lines and circles on asheet of paper The child enjoys simple jigsaw puzzles and can matchfour or five colours and several shapes

Children instinctively use a lively form of lsquototal communicationrsquocomposed sometimes separately but more often simultaneously ofwords gestures mime and occasionally language codemes Thesedevelopments are immediately reflected in their play The child willstill follow familiar adults around the house imitating and joiningin their activities calling attention to their own efforts demandingapproval and asking innumerable questions Extending earlier roleplay children invent little make-believe situations which become


2ndash3 years

21frasl2 years Two lsquoeducational toysrsquobeing employed for inventivemake-believe play The man is atthe top of the lighthouse

21frasl2 years Painting at the diningtable indifferent to the fact thatthe pictures are upside down

increasingly organized and prolonged and which they lsquoplay outrsquowith high seriousness During these mini-dramas they talk aloud tothemselves in appropriate terms describing and explaining what isbeing done instructing themselves with regard to immediatelyforthcoming actions or formulating their uncertainties Later theyextend their inventions adding some relevant dialogue to the roleplay and indicating the beginnings of forward planning such ascollecting suitable items for a dollsrsquo tea party or materials toconstruct and drive a make-believe car

After 21frasl2 years childrenrsquos moveable lsquoself-spacersquo remains chieflyrelative to themselves and caregivers but children are now preparedto admit one or two familiar children briefly into their playworldand to venture intermittently into other childrenrsquos play Althoughthey play in close proximity however the play itself is mainly of thelsquosolorsquo type so each child needs their own set of playthings and theirown piece of lsquoterritoryrsquo At this developmental stage a child seemsto realize their physical separateness before appreciating their owncognitive and affective individuality For some time therefore thechild remains convinced that the primary caregiver automaticallyapprehends what the child is feeling needing and intendingHowever under 3 years or so the child does not expect otherchildren to share the inner workings of their own mind but assumestheir own right to exercise dictatorial behaviour


21frasl2 ndash3frasl2 years Water play in anursery school providing anexcellent example of parallel playEach child has their own playmaterials and play space

3frasl2 years Gymnastics on theplayground slide

Role play extends to situations reflecting the wider social world(eg shopkeeper doctors and nurses) and some simple narrativesmay begin to emerge

The child might substitute one object for another in play (ie Legoblocks used to represent food in a mealtime scene)

The child can match some shapes and colours in a simple jigsawpuzzle

With increased motor control children will enjoy kickingthrowing and catching a ball

May play in the proximity of other children but solitary play ispredominant and childrenrsquos own space and materials are impor-tant

Pencil control improves and the child may be able to copy simplecircular or up-and-down marks

From 3 years onwards children still need to play The child is able torun freely climb over and about the usual nursery apparatus nego-tiate slides crawl through barrels and jump on small trampolinesThe child is able to develop skills in riding a tricycle confidently usingthe pedals and steering safely round sharp corners The child now has


3 years Enjoying the appearanceand behaviour of bubbles

3 years The expression is full of wonder at the changingappearance of the world beneathas they swing

3ndash4 years

Key observations

a clear appreciation of space in relation to their own body in size andshape at rest and in movement The child is able to carry large blocksplanks and boards with the help of co-operative playmates to buildconstructions in which to conduct a host of vivid make-believeactivities

Hand skills are also rapidly improving through play with small toyslike blocks jigsaw puzzles miniature cars dollsrsquo houses and so onand the child enjoys pencil work and cutting out shapes with scissorsBlock building remains popular for many years proceeding fromsimple towers to more elaborate structures ingeniously planned andcarefully executed Children first employ blocks purely as manip-ulative objects then through imitation copying and instruction theygradually extend their forward programming or lsquoblueprintingrsquo to theconstruction of structures which (like their spontaneous drawings)they name beforehand Later these constructions are often takeninto other more complicated and fanciful play with miniature carsfurniture and dolls to form part of the settings

From 3 years onwards puzzles with a greater number of pieces areneeded It is noticeable that many children of this age are moreinterested in analytical fitting together of the shapes than buildingup the picture so they will construct it from the plain wooden back


31frasl2 years Simple insert jigsawpuzzles retain their fascination formuch longer than one expects

3 years Recently started nurseryschool this child is still a shyonlooker

without regard for the attractively coloured and designed front Laterassembly of a picture with many more pieces becomes all-importantIt is not clear why some children perform in this fashion but it maybe that they are manifesting the commonly found sequence oflearning which proceeds from general overview through separateanalysis of details to final immediate synthesis into a well-appre-hended whole

Play with plasticine and other malleable materials can be enjoyablefrom 3 years onwards and particularly with over-4s Spontaneousdrawings of 3s and 4s (as distinct from copy-design) become increas-ingly elaborate and diverse in colour form and content althoughthey still remain chiefly concerned with people houses vehicles andflowers The 3-year-old does not name the drawing until it is finishedThen about 4 years the child will announce beforehand what isabout to be drawn indicating some sort of preliminary lsquoblueprintrsquoin thinking prior to beginning By 4ndash41frasl2 years children may beexpected to engage amicably in all sorts of self-directed play activitieswith peers At this stage improvised constructional building tableand floor games dressing up and make-believe play are greatlyfavoured Children need opportunities through play for discussionplanning sharing taking turns and recognition of agreed rules

Interest in music-making usually in the form of percussion instru-ments or simple wind instruments often begins to show itself from


3 years Supremely secureengaging in elaborate role andmake-believe play

3 years There are two participantsin the dialogue using differenttones of voice and choice of words

31frasl2 to 4 years Children can manifest unusually sophisticated tastesvery early not only in their listening but in expression recognizingand recalling tunes learned from adults and older children or heardon the radio Some may ask for and even manage to play suchmusical instruments as are within their capacity to manipulateMeanwhile between 3 and 4 years a childrsquos ability to use spoken


31frasl2 years They are well able tocope with this more complicatedjigsaw puzzle although its largesize necessitated frequentunhurried contemplation

31frasl2 years Gracefully mounting alarge old rocking horse

31frasl2 years Active play merges intomake-believe show jumping

31frasl2 years After the show jumpingthe horse is fondly fed from ashopping bag

language rapidly improves both in vocabulary and syntax so thatin spite of residual infantile mispronunciations and grammaticalerrors speech is generally intelligible even to people outside theimmediate family Children and their playmates informally com-municate in a glorious mixture of words exaggerated vocalcadences facial expressions and telling gestures and they understandeach other perfectly

By 4 years verbal interchanges of every sort ndash friendly informativequestioning argumentative explanatory and instructive ndash becomeincreasingly evident in all aspects of play especially in make-believe


21frasl2ndash4 years Children enjoyingactive play in the park with theircaregivers near by

21frasl2ndash4 years Young children in anadventure playgrounddemonstrating several interestingaspects of activity play

31frasl2 years Demonstrating skilfulmotor control and excellent spatialsense

3 and 31frasl2 years Children makingsmall plasticine models of domesticand other objects

situations Once free communication has been established withinany group the signs of leadership show up clearly with the domi-nant child deciding who shall play the major roles and who shall bethe subsidiary characters The leader may or may not generouslyagree to later interchanges of roles and taking turns At this stagechildrenrsquos make-believe and subjective worlds can be so vivid tothemselves that what is fact and what is fiction can become hazyinexperienced caregivers may be startled by apparent blatantdisregard for objective truth Four-year-olds delight in rhymesriddles simple jokes and verbal teasing They love having storiesread to them especially when they can simultaneously look atillustrations Although they now appreciate peers to play with theystill enjoy being with their parents and siblings at home continuingto learn by imitating trying out new skills listening talking andasking endless questions

By this time the child can mentally detach the physical aspects oflsquoselfrsquo from those of lsquonon-selfrsquo sufficiently well to be able to envisagethe situation of hills houses bridges and other prominent featuresin the landscape from anotherrsquos position in space and they canappreciate some of the implications of visual perspective althoughthis does not yet appear in their drawings They also begin to


51frasl2 and 31frasl2 yearsManaging a verycomplicated jigsawpuzzle carefullyexplaining theirstrategies

41frasl2 years Handed a box ofminiature toys the childscrutinizes the collection in situbefore selecting items for assembly A younger child would probably first spreadthem all out on the table-top

41frasl2 years A few minutes laterassembly is almost completedomestic items together bathlsquoupstairsrsquo and items of transportlsquooutsidersquo

demonstrate a growing sense of compassion and responsibilityAppetite for adventure is not always matched by appreciation of thedangers children enjoy taking risks that end in self-discoveredboundaries

Children now enjoy playing with similar-aged peers

Role play and make believe become increasingly imaginative andcomplex

In a small social group children learn to negotiate roles to shareand take turns

Increased mastery of language allows children to delight in simplejokes and rhymes

There is a clear appreciation of body size and shape and the childcan run freely climb crawl and jump

Advanced fine motor skill facilitates more detailed drawing andchildren may be able to cut out simple shapes using scissors

Children will enjoy the process of making things using for exam-ple dough or building blocks or gluing and sticking


31frasl2 and 5 years Elaborate make-believe house play

31frasl2 and 5 years Playing cowboys

Key observations

From this stage onwards the child steadily continues to developeveryday competence and powers of communication In play theyshow an increasing enjoyment not only of elaborate make-believeactivities but of complicated indoor and outdoor games whichrequire knowledgeable preliminary instruction hard practice strictadherence to rules and a sense of fair play Personal aptitudes forsports crafts and the creative arts become ever more apparent in thechildrsquos selective use of leisure time choice of companions and thegames they play whether at home in playgrounds with specialequipment or in open fields and streets with no equipment at all


5ndash6 years

41frasl2 years Coloured plastic shapesprovide excellent opportunities forinventive picture-making andconversation

41frasl2 and 5 years At playgroup thechildren collaborate inconstructing an elaborate streetscene complete with church high-rise flats flyover and traffic

41frasl2 years Cutting out a carpet forthe dollsrsquo house

3ndash5 years Children attending aday nursery This elaborateconstruction assembled anddismantled every day providesopportunity for every kind ofoutdoor play

other than the chants and rituals of long-unwritten tradition coupledwith lively contemporary improvisations

For the next few years the separate interests of boys and girls areclearly evident in their spontaneous play although in school play-grounds teachers usually organize and encourage mixed-play activities

Children steadily continue to develop everyday competence andpowers of communication

There is an increasing enjoyment of more structured rule-basedgames


31frasl2 and 5 years Co-operativeactivity play on the slide

4 years Elaborate building withlarge wooden blocks involvingconsiderable forward planning andprecise construction

5 years Child on a slide 5 years Gymnastics on the slideinvolving appropriate verbalinstruction of the doll

Key observations

Increased improvisational ability means play often needs minimalprops and good use can be made of open-ended materials

Personal aptitudes for sports crafts and the creative arts becomeever more apparent


A group of familiar friends on theroundabout in the park

The same children performingskilfully on a more difficultroundabout (they call it lsquodoingOlympicsrsquo)

A certain element of danger addsto the attraction of this swing

41frasl2 years A competent performeron the trampoline

Sheridanrsquos observations document how as children grow theydevelop new competencies that contribute to their ability to play indifferent ways Using the secure base formed through attachmentwith the primary caregiver they explore the environment at firstusing their senses Through continued interaction with others theygradually develop communication and social skills recognizing aworld outside of the self With mobility and dexterity they exploreobjects and their properties utilizing them in increasingly complexways Through this expanding repertoire of play behaviour childrenlearn about themselves about others and about the world aroundthem developing through play Beginning with early sensory experi-ences through the controlled manipulation and symbolic use ofobjects to imaginative make believe childrenrsquos progressive play skillsoffer them unique ways to experience and make sense of their world(Jennings 1999) The pattern of lsquoWhat is thisrsquo lsquoWhat does this dorsquolsquoWhat can I do with thisrsquo and lsquoWhat could I do with thisrsquo is evidentin possibility thinking across the lifespan (Craft 2005)

Spend some time considering how Sheridanrsquos observations mapon to the developmental sequences of Piaget Parten and Erikson(described in Chapter 1)

ndash What do you think are the notable advances in social cognitiveand emotional development

Observe a child or group of children at play

ndash How easy did you find the observation process

How did you decide what to observe and how to record theinformation

How do your observations fit with Sheridanrsquos in relation toobserved competencies and the childchildrenrsquos age(s)

Hughes F (2010) Children Play and Development (4th Edition) LondonSage

Riddall-Leech S (2008) How to Observe Children (2nd Edition) HarlowHeinemann


Summary


Usefulreading

Outlines of some particular play sequences

In the previous chapter we presented Sheridanrsquos original obser-vations of childrenrsquos play Through her observations Sheridanillustrated how play changes with age as children gradually acquirenew competencies that both reflect and influence their developmentWe saw how play progresses from that which is sensory in natureto symbolic play imaginative play and play that incorporates rulesSheridan also detailed the increasingly social nature of play

To exemplify the changes she had noted in childrenrsquos play over timeSheridan selected observations of children using particular materialsand grouped these together in lsquoplay sequencesrsquo We present thesesequences here As in Chapter 2 the ages noted below each illus-tration represent the childrsquos age at the time of observation and arenot necessarily indicative of the earliest or latest time at whichbehaviours might emerge Also remain mindful that wide variationis to be expected


To outline some particular play sequences involving cup bell andblock play mark making and small world activity

To highlight by showing children of different ages interactingwith the same materials the ways in which play changes overtime

48 o u t l i n e s o f s o m e p a r t i c u l a r p l a y s e q u e n c e s

3

49o u t l i n e s o f s o m e p a r t i c u l a r p l a y s e q u e n c e s

Cup play

6 months Having grasped withboth hands baby passes to onehand and brings the mostprominent feature of the cup to the mouth

9 months Grasping the cup rightside up with both hands babybrings the rim to their mouthlooking at the caregiver

12 months Having justobserved me place cup andspoon on table after testingtheir hearing by stroking therim of this cup they seize the cup and spoon andsuccessfully imitate

12 months The foregoingimitation reminds them of the true function of cups andspoons and they promptly offer a clear example ofdefinition-by-use

21frasl4 years Cups spoons andother related domestic itemsare happily incorporated intomake-believe play


Bell play

24 weeks Grasps bell at base withboth hands obviouslyconcentrating serious attention onactivity Immediately afterwardsthe top of the handle is brought tothe mouth

9 months Grasps mid-handle withone hand and delightedly bangsnoisily and repeatedly on table-top

10 months Seizes top ofhandle with one hand andrings bell enjoying musicalsound

11 months Pokes at clapperwith index finger

12 months The bell shapereminds them of a cup and theyact accordingly It is difficult todecide whether this isfortuitous exploration ordeferred definition-by-use


Block play

9 months Holding a blockcompetently in each hand theybring them together in interestedcomparison A few moments laterthe child found considerablepleasure in clicking them together

12 months Having found a blockhidden under the cup the childbegins to explore some furtherpossibilities on their own account

15 months Blocks are arranged asshown entirely by the child Theyseem to be recalling some previousgame of lsquopushing a trainrsquo with anolder playmate

15 months The child has alwaysenjoyed handling blocks andreadily builds little towers of twoor three with their right handwhile grasping a larger stuffedanimal toy with the left


2 years A particularly competentyoung architect Having built halfthe tower with their right handthey shift attention to the left Thisinteresting form of self-training isvery common

3 years A fine example of previouslearning using up every block toform a bridge and counting themaloud

31frasl2 years The caregiver is buildingthree steps out of bricks behind a screen ndash a difficult lsquotestrsquo at this age

31frasl2 years But with long experienceof constructive block play the childhas no difficulty in copying themodel


12 months Imitative artist atwork Typical grasp of pencil at itsproximal end with right hand withlsquomirrorrsquo posturing in left hand A moment later the pencil waspassed from right to left againmarking paper

15 months Firmer grasp of thepencil now and held lower downthe shaft end product of to andfro lines and dots is improvedMirror posture in left hand

21 months Larger brushwork atan easel Productions are still morein the nature of visuo-motoractivities than representativepictures

31frasl2 years Interesting example ofsimultaneous two-handedperformance The pencil grip neartip is more mature but theproduction is still non-pictorial

Mark making


31frasl2 years Right-handed maturegrip of pencil with non-engagement of left The childasked to be given a letter to copyThey did not seem to realize thatwhat had been copied was upsidedown

4 years Drawing a typical age-characteristic house with corneredwindows simultaneously thinkingaloud about it The mature grip ofright hand and the helpful use ofleft (to steady the paper) are wellshown

31frasl2 and 4 years Painting humanfigures One used only black paint the other several coloursThe end products are both fairlyage-characteristic Originallyreported these as self-portraits but cheerfully admitted manyinaccuracies

43frasl4 years The child produces acolourful self-portrait withnumerous common environmentalembellishments ndash yellow sun bluesky green trees brown earth Theyprint their name beneath workingbriskly and silently in happyconcentration


Small world play

15 months Miniature toys aremerely small items to bemanipulated and put in and out of an upright box-likecontainer

18 months The miniature toys areobjects for give-and-take play withthe caregiver The caregiver namestoys and the child repeats thename but still does not appreciatethat the toys represent real-lifeobjects

21frasl2 years The child knows that thetoys are representative but prefersto assemble them in smallerseparated groups outside the dollrsquoshouse 31frasl4 years The child plays with the

miniatures inside one room of thehouse carrying on a long audiblemonologue for their own and theirdollrsquos benefit


5 years Playing constructively allover the house Although silentthey are busily engaged

6 and 612 years lsquoSpecial friendsrsquothey said engaged in elaborate co-operative make-believe play inthe dollrsquos house The play goes oncontinuously from day to dayThey had papered the walls andmade all of the furnishingsthemselves

Variation in childrenrsquos play

Consistent with Sheridanrsquos original focus this chapter will considerplay and atypical development However in addition it will includea discussion of variation in play according to gender culture andadversity


To highlight some of the key issues relating to play according togender culture atypical development and adversity

To consider the value of understanding variation apparent in playin relation to professional play practice and providing for play

Understanding variation in play is important because it provides an insight into the uniqueness of different cultures facilitates cultur-ally appropriate professional practice and highlights the dynamic and ever-changing structure and social organization of families(Roopnarine et al 1998) Through her observations Sheridandemonstrates how children develop a repertoire of play behavioursthis repertoire growing with childrenrsquos increasing social physicalintellectual and emotional competencies Children across all cul-tures play in the ways described by Sheridan developing a repertoireof skills to support play that involves the use of senses objects sym-bolism and pretence and an understanding of rules As Hughes(2010) states play is a true cultural universal and even children withsubstantial domestic or agricultural duties seem to find opportunitiesto play during their day (Maybin and Woodhead 2003) Howeveralthough there appears no cultural variation in the development ofchildrenrsquos ability to play culture both influences and is manifestedin childrenrsquos play behaviour Variation that exists in childrenrsquos playbehaviour both within and across cultures is likely to reflect the way

57v a r i a t i o n i n c h i l d r e n rsquo s p l a y

4

Culture

adults interact with their children with the emphasis placed on thevalue and function of play and the play environment

As has been previously noted parents or primary caregivers oftenserve as a babyrsquos first playmate The literature surrounding parentingbehaviour suggests that cultural variations exist in the nature of earlyinteractions between children and their primary caregivers (Darlingand Steinberg 1993) Of importance to the process of developingplay skills however is that effective early parentndashchild interactionsserve to ensure that the child feels emotionally secure and able toexplore their social and material environment Lieberman (1977)talked of parents and teachers as lsquocultural surrogatesrsquo inhibiting or encouraging childrenrsquos play In a review of the literature onparentndashchild interaction during play OrsquoReilly and Bornstein (1993)demonstrated that the level of sophistication in childrenrsquos play wasrelated to the quality and nature of early parentndashchild interactionsEffective early interactions are characterized by the provision ofboundaries and emotional responsiveness Darling and Steinberg(1993) remind us that parenting occurs within a cultural contextand the way that parents express emotional responsiveness and setboundaries in play often reflects parenting practice which itself isdeeply embedded within a cultural context Hughes (2010) describeshow American mothers tend to set broad boundaries in play encour-aging children to take notice of and explore the wider environmentconsistent with their promotion of autonomy and independence Bycontrast he describes how Japanese mothers tend to encourage playthat involves close and controlled social interaction such as nur-turing doll play promoting a sense of dependency Haight et al(1999) also describe how the themes of pretend play reflect social-ization goals for example European and American caregiversemphasize individuality self-expression and independence whileChinese caregivers emphasize harmonious social interactionobedience respect and rules

The transmission of cultural values through play is also evident inthe emphasis placed on play within education In China play hastraditionally been seen as recreational rather than educational andnot related to intellectual development (Cooney and Sha 1999)Whereas messy play areas are common to early years classrooms in

58 v a r i a t i o n i n c h i l d r e n rsquo s p l a y

the United Kingdom David and Powell (2005) found that Chinesepractitioners failed to understand why an area that encouragedchildren to get dirty should be promoted as it contradicted theprinciples of cleanliness and order

Variation also exists in the availability or suitability of play materi-als Lindon (2001) describes how in some cultures dolls holdparticular spiritual or ceremonial significance and as such might not be considered suitable for play Where toys are not available forplay children will often construct what they need from materialsfound in their environment Play materials in Kenya among Massaichildren for example include toys made from wood straw animalskins and bone stones and other found objects Sometimes propsare not needed at all and play revolves solely around sharedknowledge and understanding (Haight et al 1999) for example inthe development of game-playing rules in street culture (Sobel2001) At the other end of the spectrum the influence of ourtechnological world is reflected in the replica toys made available for even the youngest children for example pretend mobile phonesand baby laptops The miniaturization of the technology associatedwith consumer electronics means that children may now interactwith sophisticated materials as they play

Globalization and an increasingly multicultural society are alsoreflected in childrenrsquos play The festivities associated with Halloweena celebration that involves dressing up as ghosts and ghouls andplaying such games as apple-bobbing and trick or treat originatedin American culture but have since spread to many other parts ofthe world Play in an East Indian context is often influenced by cere-monial activities such as the celebration of Diwali where childrenand families tell ancient stories through puppetry music and danceand celebrate colour and light through mark making and fireworks(Roopnarine et al 1998) In a growing multicultural society thesecelebrations are increasingly likely to be shared by children andfamilies from a variety of backgrounds through community activi-ties and school experiences

Gender influences and is manifested in childrenrsquos play behaviour inmuch the same way as culture Variation reflects adult interactions


Gender

with children childrenrsquos interactions with each other as well asgendered norms and values projected through marketing and themedia

The words lsquogenderrsquo and lsquosexrsquo are often used interchangeably Forexample on forms or questionnaires we may be asked to tick a boxto indicate our lsquogenderrsquo as being male or female The responserequired however relates to our biological sex Arguably genderrelates to the characteristics associated with our biological sexcharacteristics which are often learned via the process of social-ization Distinguishing between sex and gender in research isimportant as findings relating to sex differences would suggestvariation between boys and girls from a biological or geneticperspective whereas findings relating to gender difference wouldinclude variation resulting from the process of socialization As thedevelopment of play skills is largely a social process unpicking thatwhich is a result of biological sex and that which is a result ofsocialization can be difficult if not impossible If we consider theobservations of Sheridan in relation to the social physical intel-lectual and linguistic competencies associated with the developingrepertoire of play skills then from a biological perspective boysand girls progress in much the same way Variation is more apparentin relation to what they choose to play

Research has consistently demonstrated that given a choice of toysto play with children show a preference for those that are commonlyassociated with their own gender for example girls choose to playwith dolls prams or tea-sets while boys choose cars trucks orbuilding blocks (Hines and Kaufman 1994) Servin et al (1999)demonstrated that these gendered choices became apparent as earlyas 12 months However even at this young age it is still difficult toconclude that the behaviour is a result of any differences due tobiological sex Returning to Sheridanrsquos point about parents actingas childrenrsquos first play partners it seems likely that in a more generalsense styles of interaction with children from birth could contributeto the development of their gendered toy preferences Mothers andfathers have been shown to interact with their children in subtlydifferent ways with mothers tending towards intimate communi-cative forms of interaction and fathers tending towards more


physical activity (Sun and Roopnarine 1996) The gender of thechild also influences the style of our interactions Lindahl andHeimann (1997) studied the social behaviour of motherndashdaughterand motherndashson dyads and found that motherndashdaughter dyadsremained in closer proximity to one another and engaged in morephysical and visual contact It may be that the close proximity andintimate communication apparent in interaction with baby girlslends itself to nurturing types of play while the emphasis on physicalactivity and opportunities for independence and exploration arereflected in boys choosing to play with mobile toys such as cars andtrucks

Interestingly gendered differences in day-to-day parentndashchildinteractions reduce with age perhaps because they have served theirpurpose in provoking childrenrsquos initial awareness of being male orfemale However Lindsey et al (2010) found that despite showingno gender differences in day-to-day caregiver interaction parentscontinued to engage in gendered patterns of behaviour with theirchildren during play Rogoff (2003) explains that young childrenactively develop their understanding of gender through playexploring the concepts of lsquoboyrsquo and lsquogirlrsquo and acting out the extremesof each role As well as imitating what they see in their home envi-ronments a widened social network coupled with exposure to tele-vision broadcasting reinforces their gender knowledge Differencesare manifest within more complex types of play for example in thetypes of role-playing games in which they choose to engage and inthe specific roles they adopt within this play The patterns ofpreferential toy choice made in the first year extend into laterchildhood where girls seek out information about human relation-ships and boys seek out action (Kalliala 2006) Boysrsquo tendency toengage in more rough-and-tumble activity is perhaps the most widelydocumented gender variation in childrenrsquos play Research hasconsistently shown that across cultures boys tend to engage in moreof this physical type of play than girls (Jarvis 2006) Themes in roleplay among boys also tend to involve war or pseudo-violence andmuch has been done in the United Kingdom to curtail this type ofactivity However there is no clear evidence that engagement incombat play leads to future violence (Holland 2003) and as we saw


in the previous section children are likely to follow their desired playpatterns even in the absence of props either doing without or mak-ing toys out of found items

It seems unlikely that variation in the spontaneous development ofchildrenrsquos play behaviour is directly influenced by gender or cultureWhile the content of their play may differ boys and girls acrossmany cultures develop the physical cognitive social and linguisticcapacities to play in the variety of ways described by Sheridan Anydifferences in the predominance of play behaviour according togender or culture in the main appear to emerge as a result ofenvironmental stimuli and the assimilation of cultural norms andvalues for example through the availability of materials parentingbehaviour peer interaction or exposure to the media Observationsof childrenrsquos play among those facing severe adversity or those whohave particular developmental needs may be more likely to indicatedifferent or disrupted patterns of play behaviour

Sheridan describes how with adequate opportunity and supportchildren gain mastery over their actions integrating sensory andmotor experiences This mastery builds esteem and confidence andchildren spontaneously seek out new challenges They use theirexisting play skills and emotional security as resources to supportfuture development Adversity and atypicality can alter or interruptthis process

In the case of adversity children may not be provided with theopportunity to play or to create a strong emotional base throughsecure attachments Webb and Brown (2003) demonstrated howregular interaction with others and being offered opportunities to play greatly improved the development of children who hadpreviously been confined to hospital beds in Romania Alternativelychildren may face such severe disruption that the prospect of a newchallenge overwhelms them and they may stop playing or return toearly play behaviours with which they feel comfortable Accordingto Hyder (2005) the majority of children can be helped to over-come adversity through their own play After the 2006 Lebanesewar UNICEF funded the development of recreational areas torestore childrenrsquos play behaviours and found that reintroducing


Adversity andatypicality

opportunities to play in a safe space contributed greatly to childrenrsquoswell-being Of course for some children specialist support is nec-essary and complex trauma might involve children working withplay therapists or psychotherapists Here play is employed moredirectly as a means of communicating and resolving emotional issues

Atypically developing children may have physical disabilitiessensory social or intellectual impairment or a combination of thesethings which makes integrating learning experiences more chal-lenging Writing about deaf children Marschark (1993) suggeststhat in a bid to view disability more positively we can often dismisswhat he terms self-evident truths in that atypically developingchildren often experience a more limited world their interactionsare guided by different rules and constraints and these differencesare likely to impact on their development in complex and numerousways He proposes that the key issue is to look beyond superficialdifferences to those that have functional significance those thatimpact on childrenrsquos development and subsequent life experiencesFrom a developmental perspective children with sensory social andintellectual impairments often show a preference for more solitaryor parallel types of play and engage in less imaginative role play orsymbolic play with objects (Hughes 2010) More important thanobserving differences in childrenrsquos play patterns however is under-standing why these differences occur whether these differences arelikely to impact on achievement enjoyment and quality of life andif so whether support based on childrenrsquos abilities can be tailoredto broaden skills and experiences Unpacking the social cognitivelinguistic and physical demands of play and reflecting on childrenrsquospotential to meet these demands mean we are better able to provideplay opportunities that are appropriately challenging but do not riskfrustration boredom or emotional distress

Children can be helped to overcome adversity and to make the mostof their play with considered support that builds on their strengthsand abilities Considered support will undoubtedly involve parentsand professionals working with children in partnership providingfor enjoyment of the here and now of play as well as supportingdevelopmental progress Sheridan remarks that lsquosome of the so-calledplay pressed upon atypically developing children always with the


best intention has been perilously close to drudgeryrsquo (1977 p 13)It is important that we do not overemphasize play as a way ofbecoming at the detriment to play as a way of being (Sturrock et al 2004) We must remain mindful that a sense of freedomchoice and control is paramount to the broad range of play experi-ences we offer to all children (Howard 2010b)

Sheridanrsquos observations of real children engaged in their ownspontaneous play reveal how social physical linguistic and cognitivecompetencies gradually accrue to enable increasingly complex formsof play Development of and through play reflects the increasinglyeffective integration of sensory and motor experiences and theseexperiences are supported by social interaction Information basedon developmental milestones often feeds into targets for attainmentand it has been argued that this emphasizes a top-down or deficitmodel of development that focuses on the skills children have yet toachieve rather than their current abilities (Lindon 2001) Howeverunderstanding the skills associated with childrenrsquos behaviour isimportant even in a bottom-up approach At a basic level it allowsus to plan the experiences and materials we might make availablefor children but importantly it also helps us to understand andsupport their development better The Birth to Three Matters agenda(DfES 2002) suggests that development is best supported throughplay as it enables children to explore the world around them andoffers rich opportunities for social interaction However enablingchildren to learn through play relies on our understanding that playitself is a developmental process and like other developmentalprocesses is subject to variation Play behaviours and play skills canbe indicative of andor influenced by culture atypicality and adver-sity Best practice recognizes childrenrsquos growing ability to play aswell as supporting their development through play

Throughout this book we have been reminded that while childrenlearn in lots of different ways the sense of freedom choice andcontrol inherent in play renders it particularly useful for develop-ment When children are at play their development is enhancedRemaining mindful of these characteristics can ensure inclusive andsupportive play practice Most notably good practice starts with the


Inclusive playpractice

child and emphasizes achievement rather than attainment (DfES2001) If we seek to promote activities that afford a sense of freedomchoice and control we can be more certain that our practice beginswith the child We can support childrenrsquos application of what theyknow and can do fostering their personal learning journeysInclusive play practice is accessible to all children and allows themto demonstrate achievement whatever their ability As will bediscussed in the following chapter adults have an important role insupporting childrenrsquos play experiences They make decisions as tothe time space and materials made available for safe play accom-modating and supporting childrenrsquos repertoire of play skills Theyrecognize the value of childrenrsquos own initiated activities and under-stand factors that might influence or be manifested in childrenrsquos playThey negotiate their position as a play partner responding sensi-tively to childrenrsquos play cues to maintain or extend the play flowSupporting childrenrsquos ability to play as well as promoting theirdevelopment through play involves constant reflection

Establishing a partnership with the child and their family ensuresthat we begin planning play experiences with as much knowledge aspossible Information can be shared across multidisciplinary teamsand might consider

cultural values and beliefs

family structure

strengths and challenges social physical cognitive linguistic andemotional

likes and dislikes

any issues of adversity

Information gained from talking to the child their parents or otherprofessionals is combined with expertise in child development andplay to guide planning and provision This might consider

What kinds of experiences will best support the child Why

What kinds of activities and materials are suitable Why


Do planned experiences support ability to play as well as develop-ment through play

Do the experiences afford the child a sense of freedom choice andcontrol

What will your role be in these activities and how will this bemanaged

Once play is ongoing a constant process of reflection informsdevelopmental progress future planning and our own professionaldevelopment This might include planned opportunistic structuredor unstructured observations and talking to children about theirplay perhaps using photographs or artefacts as conversationalprompts It might involve thinking about time space and materialsfor play or about our own role in play activities Some questions toask might include

How enjoyable or desirable are the activities

How are spaces and materials being used

Is the child able to employ current skills Can they develop newones

How do the observations feed into knowledge of the child inrelation to previously noted strengths and weaknesses

What was your role in the play Was this as planned Was iteffective

All children seem to engage in play

Play reflects cultural norms and values

Socialization can influence childrenrsquos play preferences

Play can help children to overcome adversity

Inclusive play practice fosters ability to play as well as develop-ment through play


Summary

Take some time to research a culture that is different to your own

ndash Do you find anything that might impact on childrenrsquos play oryour own play practice

Next time you are watching television or reading a magazine lookout for gendered information

ndash Towards whom is the material directed

ndash What impact might this have on childrenrsquos developing genderidentity

Fromberg D and Bergen D (2006) Play from Birth to Twelve ContextsPerspectives and Meaning Sussex Routledge

Hyder T (2005) War Conflict and Play Maidenhead Open University PressMacintyre C (2009) Play for Children with Special Needs Sussex Routledge



Usefulreading

Providing for play

This chapter will focus on the ways in which childrenrsquos developmentcan be supported through play Extending our discussion of reflectivepractice from the previous chapter we will consider the role of adultsin play including parents or primary caregivers along with a varietyof different play professionals who may be encountered by childrenas they grow


To consider provision for play in relation to adult roles playmatesand resources

To explore the roles of different play professions and the theo-retical underpinnings of these roles

Sheridan (1977) identifies four provisions as being of primary impor-tance to enable spontaneous play playthings playspace playtimeand playmates

68 p r o v i d i n g f o r p l a y

5

Provisions forplay


Playthings must be appropriate for the childrsquos age and stageof growth and development Not too few or the child willlack stimulation and not too many or they will becomeconfused and unable to concentrate

Playspace is needed for the lsquofree-rangingrsquo activities whichare commonly shared with others but every child must alsopossess a small personal lsquoterritoryrsquo which they know is theirown and provides a secure home base

In commercial society we can often feel overwhelmed with toysdesigned to have pre-planned outcomes that promote culturalmaterialistic values Items with such fixed purposes often appear tocontradict the notion of spontaneity in play Indeed sometimes theseitems place a strong emphasis on developmental or educationaloutcomes rather than offering real play value Hyun (1998) suggeststhat parents from European and North American backgrounds oftenvalue play for its potential to promote cognitive development andthat this influences them when choosing toys for their childrenHowever in Chapter 1 we saw how the same activity could be seenas play or not play by children where the approach taken to theactivity is more important than the materials themselves Childrenrsquosplaythings are often the simplest of items objects that can be usedflexibly in a variety of ways Fabrics of different colours and texturesstimulate the senses and at the same time provide endless ideas fordressing up As Sheridan demonstrates in her observations card-board boxes can be climbed into and out of as children learn abouttheir relative size and they can be used to make dens or otherconstructions Children can make great use of household items andwill often choose these over plastic imitations preferring realsaucepans and spoons in their imitative domestic play Saucepansand spoons are also ideal for noise making Random collections of

69p r o v i d i n g f o r p l a y

Playtime must be reasonably peaceful and predictable Itshould be adequate for fulfilment of whatever activity isengaging the childrsquos interest without premature inter-ruption likely to cause frustration or undue prolongationleading to boredom loneliness or feeling of neglect

Playfellows are required at all stages of developmentEncouraging adults are not only essential to dependentinfants but also in the period of solo-play which is char-acteristic of children under 21frasl2 years who are still unawareof such abstract principles as equal rights sharing andtaking turns The need for companionship proceeds associal communications improve

Playthings

items in a box or basket invite rather than direct the young child toexplore objects and their properties (Goldschmied and Jackson1994) Children being creative with items that are not restricted bya particular use is also framed within Nicholsonrsquos theory of looseparts (1971) This emphasizes the value of offering children open-ended and often natural play materials that give them the oppor-tunity to develop their play ndash introducing modifying and changingideas When choosing materials for play it is useful to consider theirpurpose and play value and their potential for open and closed useOf course materials must always be safe for children and checkedfrequently for wear and tear

When creating time and space for play it is useful to be aware thatchildren become attuned to details such as where when and withwhom activities take place and they learn to distinguish play fromother activities through their experiences (Howard 2002) Toencourage children to take a playful approach to a wide range ofactivities adults can ensure that play is not restricted to a particularlocation unnecessarily timed socially prescriptive or secondary toother activities Time available for play need not be excessive andchildren seek out opportunities to play amid the busiest of sched-ules If children are in control of their play the potential for themto become bored restless or prematurely interrupted is kept to aminimum

Sheridan stresses the importance of both shared and personal spacesfor childrenrsquos play Children need space where they can play withothers but also smaller quiet spaces for their own solitary activityproviding opportunities for autonomy and independence but also a secure base to which they can return or retreat as and whennecessary Indoor and outdoor places are both important Childrenseek adventure and challenge in their play outdoors they exploreplaces and enjoy transforming spaces to create imaginary worlds(Tovey 2007) A particular challenge is providing play spaces thatstimulate childrenrsquos abilities within the boundaries of health safetyand wellbeing (NCB 1998)


Time and space

Living and learning with others are essential skills for life As isdocumented in Chapter 1 play becomes increasingly social overtime Interacting with others in play increases childrenrsquos social skillsan awareness of self and an awareness of norms and values

A newborn baby is able to communicate and respond to theirmotherrsquos voice face touch taste and smell Mothers appear inher-ently prepared to respond to their babies form a lasting attachmentand are sensitive to their babiesrsquo needs Spontaneous play ofteninvolves primary carers being the babyrsquos best toy Early inter-actions encourage social interaction and playfulness for examplepeek-a-boo and imitation games Early relationships are particularlyimportant for the development of attachments which enable theyoung child to feel secure enough to explore their world Recentlarge-scale research has demonstrated the importance of high-qualityadultndashchild interactions for childrenrsquos development in the early years (Sylva et al 2004) Quality parentndashchild interaction involveslistening to respecting and supporting the child to encourage anexploration of strengths and limitations within secure boundaries

Friendship longevity develops over time Young children often referto playmates as their friends For example when a 3-year-old sayslsquoI am your friend nowrsquo it probably means lsquoI am playing with younowrsquo (Dowling 2000) Children develop a closeness to friends inter-ested in playing the same games through shared play experiencesInitial friendship choices are based on proximity and being play-mates During this play however children develop the skillsnecessary to learn about themselves and others enabling them tomake friendship decisions based on personal characteristics

Lindon (2001) identifies the important roles adopted by adults inplay including

Play partner ndash becoming an equal in the play

Observer ndash observing childrenrsquos development and progress

Admirer ndash showing that you value the play

Facilitator ndash easing play along


Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults

Model ndash showing how play materials might be used

Mediator ndash resolving conflict

Safety officer ndash ensuring safety

Taking on a range of roles is important A predominantly mediatingor modelling role can influence whether children accept adults intotheir play on future occasions (Howard 2002) Engaging as an equalpartner in play affords children an authentic sense of control andcommunicates that we value their own directed activities The natureof the dialogue that occurs is also important Particular types ofquestion posing can enable possibility thinking and creativity(Chappell et al 2008) and teachers who use open-ended questionsand authentic dialogue are more likely to be accepted by children asplay partners (Howard and McInnes 2010)

Stepping back and listening to the child offers empowerment thechild is in a position to take control in decision-making rather thanfollowing the adultrsquos decisions Being sensitive showing respect andtaking an empathetic stance will allow the practitioner and child toestablish a trusting relationship The child will feel sufficiently safeto take risks that are framed by a shared understanding of boundaries

The opportunities for development within authentic play activitiescannot be neatly compartmentalized Play supports childrenrsquos devel-opment across multiple domains


Play in differentcontexts


Play provides opportunities to strengthen the body improvethe mind develop the personality and acquire social com-petence it is as necessary as food warmth and protective careIt represents

Apprenticeship ie practice leading to competence in every-day skills

Opportunities for apprenticeship research occupational therapyand recreation exist in all play particularly when children areafforded freedom choice and control However various play pro-fessionals emphasize opportunities differently For example theeducational value of play has traditionally focused far more on therole of play for exploration discovery and the development of skillsfeatures of Sheridanrsquos apprenticeship and research roles

One of the first advocates of play in early education was Froebel(1782ndash1852) Froebel designed particular materials to support whathe described as the occupation of play As a result his ideas are ofteninterpreted as being structured and focused on skills developmentThis was certainly true for Montessori (1870ndash1952) who developedsets of apparatus to stimulate physical and sensory ability Froebelhowever argued that play was the highest form of human expressionand paid particular attention to the importance of open-ended playexperiences for supporting personal and emotional developmentIsaacs (1932) shared this view and argued that the autonomyafforded to children in play supported a positive sense of self whichin turn promoted intellectual development Publishing in the sameera Piaget who argued that play was secondary to real learningbecame better known He suggested that childrenrsquos developmentcould be documented in stages and that particular abilities and waysof thinking begin to emerge at key times Of importance was that thispattern of development would unfold without the need for instructionand that children benefited from being active in their own learningHis focus on the nature of cognition while invaluable for increasingknowledge of child development translated into age-related practices


Research ie observation exploration speculation anddiscovery

Occupational therapy ie relief from pain boredom ordistress

Recreation ie simple enjoyable fun

Educational play

and the need for activities to work towards promoting childrenrsquosachievement of particular skills His emphasis on the childrsquos activerole translated into discovery-based learning techniques but inad-vertently led to a rather redundant role for practitioners

Vygotsky (1978) placed stronger emphasis on the social and culturalelements of play He suggested that play served as the first form oflanguage and communication and that during play children learnedto understand the nature of rules and symbols Social interactionwas of particular importance and his notion of a zone of proximaldevelopment suggested that adults and more competent peers wereable to support childrenrsquos learning enabling the completion of morecomplex tasks that they would eventually be able to complete aloneAlthough Vygotsky emphasized the social nature of learning forhim childrenrsquos own play activity served as a facilitator much likethe adult or more competent peer Indeed he argued that in playchildren behave as though they are a head taller than themselves

The ideas of Piaget and Vygotsky are synthesized in the work ofBruner (1960) Heavily influenced by Piaget Bruner proposed threedifferent modes of exploration in early childhood

Enactive ndash direct manipulation of objects

Iconic ndash mental manipulation of objects

Symbolic ndash abstract manipulation of symbols

Bruner challenged the Piagetian idea that children needed to be readyfor certain types of learning He suggested that almost any conceptcould be introduced to children in some form at any time and thatthe three different modes of exploration could be used withoutrestriction He argued that children needed to develop fundamentallearning skills rather than facts and that the best way to do this wasvia repeated exposure to basic ideas In this spiral approach childrenare able to extend their thinking accruing skills and abilities thatthey can transfer to different contexts

The proposition that childrenrsquos learning is best supported by certaincontinuous learning opportunities as well as more directed tasks


is echoed in current curricula initiatives in the United Kingdom such as the Foundation Phase in Wales (DCELLS 2008) and theFoundation Stage in England (DCSF 2008b) There is also morewidespread recognition that the freedom and choice inherent in playsupports childrenrsquos emotional and intellectual growth (Laevers1994)

Play therapy grew from the psychoanalytic tradition of Freud(1856ndash1939) Anna Freud developed her fatherrsquos ideas documentingthe benefits of play to establish a relationship between the therapistand the child that could facilitate the process of psychotherapy Inaddition she suggested children used play to replay events andexplore ways of dealing with emotions Melanie Klein placed evengreater emphasis on the interpretation of childrenrsquos play as beingindicative of conflict or crises A major criticism of psychoanalyticplay therapy is the notion that play is representative of the uncon-scious mind and requires interpretation There are real dangersassociated with misover-interpretation or indeed whether any levelof interpretation is warranted Winnicott (1971) suggested that theprocess of play was far more important This coupled with theemergence of more humanistic approaches to therapy has led to avariety of play therapy practices that are distinct from the psycho-analytic tradition each involving different degrees of adult directionand interpretation (see Wilson and Ryan 2005)

The value placed by Sheridan on childrenrsquos spontaneous play accordswith the non-directive approach developed by Axline (1989) Thisemphasizes both the significance of the play process and the impor-tance of a warm and accepting therapeutic relationship Thisapproach is guided by eight principles that ensure the child feels theirown initiated play activities are valued The therapist recognizes thisby reflecting back to the child what is being done showing they arepresent and aware There is acknowledgement but not praise whichensures that the play proceeds in the way the child wishes ratherthan promoting any compliance to social desirability Whereastherapies following the psychoanalytic tradition can be difficult toevidence more support is available for the beneficial effects of thisnon-directive approach The non-directive approach supports not


Therapeutic play

only childrenrsquos emotional needs but the development of play skillsAfter ten sessions of non-directive play therapy Trostle (1988)observed not only improvements in childrenrsquos emotional health butmore complex imaginative play

There are parallels between non-directive play therapy and goodpractice in other professional contexts Emphasis is placed on theplay process and the naturally occurring therapeutic effects childrenrsquosown spontaneous play activity can offer Arguably any setting wherechildren are allowed to play freely following their own intentionwill offer the therapeutic effects encompassed in Axlinersquos approachThis underpins the proposition of Hyder (2005) who argues thatfor many children the challenge of adversity can often be met withopportunities to play rather than therapy

Cohen (2006) suggests that the provision of recreational play spacessuch as parks and playgrounds grew out of initiatives designed forsocial engineering He describes how playgrounds were initiallyprovided to keep children off the streets offering places where they could engage in purposeful physical and social activity Theemphasis was on needing to control childrenrsquos urge to play so as to avoid moral decline In the 1930s however rather than beingdriven by any psychological pedagogical or social outcomeSorenson a Danish landscaper questioned whether society could domore to facilitate childrenrsquos play needs and designed the first junkplayground It housed waste materials such as timber old cars andboxes

The first adventure playground was opened in 1943 in DenmarkFollowing its success there was a prolific growth in playgroundprovision The opportunistic visit of Lady Allen of Hurtwood to theDanish junk playground in 1946 led to the adoption of the idea inthe United Kingdom These playgrounds came to be known asadventure playgrounds and were characterized by affording childrenthe opportunity to play as freely as possible within safe limits Theadventure playground movement recognized the need for childrento satisfy their spontaneous drive to play and understood that playwas necessarily child directed Children needed outdoor spaces totake risks and try out new ideas free from unnecessary rules and


Recreational play

constraint Childrenrsquos ownership of the play was of principal impor-tance and this underpins current playwork practice

Gill (2007) suggests opportunities for outdoor play might be reducedin modern Western society due to increased traffic media scarestories about paedophilia and ever-increasing concerns about liti-gation among professionals who work with children Support forthe need to increase recreational play opportunities is evidenced byfunding for provision being made available via initiatives such as thePlay Strategy (DCSF 2008a) Outdoor play is also emphasized incurrent early years curricula and the Forest School movement(Knight 2009) Following a small scale study Waters and Begley(2007) suggest that risk taking behaviours are supported by theForest School environment as it promotes a permissive ethos towardsphysical challenge and offers a diverse natural environment

The play activity that frequently occurs in outdoor spaces contributesgreatly to bodily awareness balance and co-ordination (Greenland2006) Tovey (2010) describes how flexible play spaces promote risk-taking behaviour and allow children to explore the unknownShe proposes that managing risk is an essential transferable life skillA principal benefit of outdoor play is arguably the fact that it hasreduced or self-regulated boundaries which maximize childrenrsquossense of freedom choice and control

Within the realms of early education play has been described as aprincipal vehicle for learning and it is central to such curriculuminitiatives as the Foundation Phase in Wales (DCELLS 2008)Emphasis is placed on the development of the whole child andteachers and classroom assistants must support childrenrsquos devel-opment through the indoor and outdoor play opportunities theyprovide Given the amount of time children spend in the schoolenvironment teachers and classroom assistants are arguably ourmost important play professionals Their jobs require extensiveknowledge of play learning and child development and the skillsto combine this successfully with the requirements of the curriculum


The role of playprofessionals

Teachers and

classroom

assistants

Playwork is rooted in the belief that childrenrsquos opportunity to playhas been curtailed by modern society Playworkers are guided by aset of principles that emphasize the freedom and spontaneity of playand as such there is a focus on open-access provision where childrencan come and go as they please Playworkers use their extensiveknowledge of play to provide and enrich spaces where children canengage in activities within safe boundaries Emphasizing childrenrsquosownership of the play their role is often facilitative and is neverdirected towards a particular outcome Positions might include work


Claire nursery nurse UK

Irsquove been a nursery nurse for eleven years now and I startedwith a BTEC National Diploma qualification Irsquove seen manychanges to the curriculum and we are currently working withthe Foundation Phase which is a play-based approachBalancing play provision with a need to show that children arelearning can be hard work We also have to balance the needfor children to take risks with health and safety requirementsso many games and activities I remember playing are notallowed any more conkers marbles and climbing trees forexample A particular challenge is making sure that staff arewell trained In education the focus of training is often onlearning and not much time is spent on play I think good playpractice relies on practitioners really understanding why playis important but therersquos not much training available Irsquove beenproactive in developing my knowledge and have even starteda higher degree in play With my training and experience Inow value the process of play rather than focus on outcomesI feel privileged when I am invited to join in childrenrsquos activitiesand I especially look forward to free play sessions Of coursewe do some structured activities too but I try to make theseplayful by allowing children to take the lead I feel more likean equal There are often unexpected outcomes and this isexciting

Playworkers and

play development

officers

within out-of-school clubs holiday play schemes or adventure play-grounds Teams of playworkers might be co-ordinated by a playdevelopment officer usually an experienced playworker who hasundergone additional training

Specialist knowledge about the process of play and its developmentaland therapeutic potential can be utilized in a range of contexts Itcan be an extension to the playworker role however not all special-ists in developmental and therapeutic play will have this backgroundFor example developmental and therapeutic play is less likely to beopen-access provision and activities may be developed to meet


Jo play development officer UK

Irsquove been a play development officer with the local authority forfive and a half years I started with a playwork certificate buthave since completed a variety of additional qualifications incommunity development Forest School and youth work I alsohave a masterrsquos degree in play which extends my skills Everyday as a development officer throws up a new challenge Varietykeeps the job fresh and although I have an office base I workat different locations to deliver training attend meetings runevents and act as an advocate for play All this in addition toco-ordinating the open-access play schemes and my teams ofplayworkers I meet lots of different people and like to see thepositive contribution that our work has on communities Peopleoften donrsquot recognize the importance of play particularly riskyplay for childrenrsquos healthy and happy development With thecurrent climate of fear towards strangers increased traffic anda perceived lack of tolerance for playing children in thecommunity itrsquos particularly difficult to win people over in termsof how vital it is You really have to believe in what you do andhave a thorough knowledge of the benefits for both the childrenand their communities Itrsquos not easy to change peoplersquos beliefsand sometimes itrsquos frustrating

Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists

particular needs In addition there is increased responsibility for theindividual child or group rather than a general responsibility for theplay safety boundaries of the environment (Lindon 2001) The IrishAssociation for Play Therapy formalized the role of developmentaland therapeutic play specialists (DATPSs) in 2008 DATPSs use playto enhance childrenrsquos development and address delays imbalanceorganic difficulties or the consequences of early play deprivationTheir focus is on holistic development promoting and expandingchildrenrsquos play skills to enhance cognitive language social emo-tional andor physical development The work of DATPSs can havea remedial function but of importance is that it is often preventativeThe practitioner may be involved with the child in the context ofanother professional role (eg teacher playworker social workerspeech therapist) and may utilize their play skills in the context ofthat role


Kerri developmental and therapeutic playspecialist UK

I have been working as a developmental and therapeutic playspecialist in a primary school for two years My role is to makesure children get maximum benefit and enjoyment from theirexperience of being at school in particular helping them tomake the most of play The school I work in has a large multi-cultural population and I help to make sure that the play ofchildren from all cultures is nurtured Through play I workwith children who are finding it difficult to integrate into theschool perhaps because they are new to the area those whoneed help in developing their play skills those who have lowconfidence or perhaps behavioural issues I have a dedicatedplayroom for one-to-one or small-group sessions and thesemight involve craft activities clay puppets or music activ-ities I really love my job as I get to do something I ampassionate about ndash play Every day is unique rewarding andof course fun

The first hospital play staff were employed in 1957 by StBartholomewrsquos and St Thomasrsquo hospitals in London Over the nexttwo decades the amount of staff employed in hospitals to sup-port childrenrsquos play grew significantly and in 1972 the NationalAssociation of Hospital Play was established While the initial focuswas on providing opportunities for play while children were hospi-talized the role has grown considerably in scope and complexityover time Hospital play specialists support childrenrsquos holisticdevelopment during times of sickness and hospitalization but alsoutilize focused interventions to prepare children for hospital proce-dures Their observations of childrenrsquos play are also used to supportclinical judgements


Trish developmental and therapeutic playspecialist UK

I work as a developmental and therapeutic play specialist forWomenrsquos Aid On a typical day I could have two or threeoutreach appointments to visit children or young people inschool for therapeutic play support I take a mobile play kitand the children choose what theyrsquod like to do The sessionsare always child-led and it works really well This may be theonly aspect of their chaotic lives where the child or youngperson has control In the afternoon I run creative play sessionsfor small groups of children within the refuge Itrsquos great towatch the childrenrsquos self-esteem grow to see them overcomesome of the challenges theyrsquove faced and enjoy themselves inplay Funding is very poor though I am the only childrenrsquosand young peoplersquos worker within the organization and I ampushed for time I receive referrals on a daily basis

Hospital play

specialists

In play therapy play is the language by which children communicateexplore and resolve issues that may be impacting on their lives Theseissues might include developmental or organic problems adjustmentproblems or moderate psycho-social crises Some play therapists arealso trained in psychotherapy which allows them to consider chil-dren with more complex life histories or clinical issues Observationand assessment skills are crucial for both the therapy process and


Ann hospital play specialist UK

I trained as a hospital play specialist ten years ago havingworked for twelve years as a nursery nurse on the special carebaby unit I have been in my current post on the paediatricward for eight years I am one of three hospital play specialistswho with five play-leaders make up our play team We workclosely with the nursing and medical staff and other membersof the multidisciplinary team Play has a special function in thehospital environment It reduces anxiety aids in assessmentand diagnosis as well as speeding up recovery and rehabili-tation The children are not only ill but are separated fromtheir friends and familiar surroundings Play can really makea difference helping children to understand and cope withtreatment and illness As well as organizing daily play activitiesin the playroom or at the bedside we use play as a therapeutictool as in the preparation of children for theatre and otherhospital procedures I am based on the busy medical wardwith ages ranging from birth to sixteen No day is ever thesame I might start the day spending time with a toddler withfood aversions ndash we use different tactile stimulation in the formof food or messy play Another part of the day may be takenup with working with a child who is needle-phobic preparinghim for the necessary cannulation prior to his tonsil operationOr I may be talking to a teenager who thinks life is not worthliving after a row with her boyfriend No one can say this jobis boring or run-of-the-mill

Play therapists

appropriate referral In contrast to other play professions the focusof the work is the childrsquos inner world accessed in one-to-one therapysessions and the therapist avoids seeing the child in any othercontext so as not to confuse the relationship (McMahon 2009) Theprofession is relatively new but is represented by professionalorganizations across the world Play therapy is often a second careerand training is generally restricted to those who have previousexperience in working with children in some other capacity


Mary play therapist UK

I have been a play therapist for eight years but have workedwith children for considerably longer having originally trainedas a social worker My days are varied involving meetings withother professionals assessments and work for the courts inaddition to direct work with the children In the play sessionswe might use puppets clay sand and water I might end upbeing a noisy dinosaur or a crying baby when the childreninvolve me in their role play The best part of my job is knowingthat the children trust me to help them through bad times Ireassure them they are safe and help them to feel empoweredabout their future The job is challenging on lots of levels I oftenhave to convince other adults about the value of play as a wayfor children to communicate how they are feeling

Maria play therapist and psychotherapist Ireland

I have been employed as a play therapist in a service forchildren and adults with physical and intellectual disabilitiesfor the past two years I have a diploma in child play therapyand psychotherapy from the Childrenrsquos Therapy Centre inIreland The children I work with are often at early stages of

The best materials for play are often those that are the simplest

Space and time for play should not be unnecessarily constrained

Early relationships are particularly important for the developmentof secure attachments

Childrenrsquos friendships develop through play as they begin toappreciate characteristics about themselves and others

Adults can take a variety of roles in childrenrsquos play but it isimportant to maintain childrenrsquos sense of control over the direc-tion of the activity

Childrenrsquos development can be supported through play by avariety of professionals


development This means I have to balance my role in initiatingplay expanding play skills as well as working on any particularissues Their early stage of development can make it hard notto become attached The therapeutic process can also be veryslow and any benefits may not become visible as quickly aswith average-ability children The children I work with can bevery sick have extreme allergies and have very different waysof communicating their needs This means thorough back-ground checks and multidisciplinary teamwork are critical Ienjoy the teamwork approach ndash it gives me a real insight intothe childrenrsquos complete development and alerts me to anyforthcoming issues The majority of my work is done in aplayroom I usually have three sessions every day and these canbe individuals or groups For the remainder of the day I mightbe meeting with the team catching up on paperwork writingreports or researching I am in awe of my clients Not a weekgoes by when I donrsquot write down how amazing and brave theyare or how one of them has surprised me made me laugh orsurpassed some initial judgement I had of them

Summary

What challenges might adults face when interacting in play

What kinds of boundaries do we impose on play Are thesealways necessary

In what ways might we increase childrenrsquos sense of choice andcontrol in play

Broadhead P Howard J and Wood E (2010) Play and Learning in theEarly Years From Research to Practice London Sage

Kilvington J and Wood A (2009) Reflective Playwork For All Who WorkWith Children London Continuum

McMahon L (2009) The Handbook of Play Therapy and Therapeutic Play(2nd Edition) Sussex Routledge



Usefulreading

Useful play links

National Association of Hospital Play Staff

The professional organization for hospital play specialists httpwwwnahpsorguk

British Association of Play Therapy

Offers training routes in play therapy httpwwwbaptinfo

PTUK

Offers training routes in play therapy httpwwwplaytherapyorguk

Irish Association of Play Therapy and Psychotherapy

A professional association for play therapy therapeutic play andpsychotherapy httpwwwiaptnet

International Play Association

An international non-governmental organization that aims to protectpreserve and promote the childrsquos right to play httpipaworldorg

The Association for the Study of Play

A multidisciplinary organization whose purpose is to promote thestudy of play httpwwwtasplayorg

TACTYC

An early years organization for anyone involved with the educationand training of those who work with young children httpwwwtactycorguk

86 u s e f u l p l a y l i n k s

Department for Education

Responsible for education and childrenrsquos services in the UKhttpwwweducationgov

Play England

An organization supporting childrenrsquos play in England httpwwwplayenglandorguk

Play Scotland

An organization supporting childrenrsquos play in Scotland httpwwwplayscotlandorg

Play Wales

An organization supporting childrenrsquos play in Wales httpwwwplaywalesorguk

4Children

A national organization promoting play and out-of-school carefacilities for all children httpwww4childrenorguk

National Childrenrsquos Bureau

An organization dedicated to ensuring childrenrsquos wellbeing httpwwwncborguk

Childrenrsquos Play Information Service

Provides information on childrenrsquos play as part of the NCBrsquos Libraryand Information Service httpwwwncborgukcpis

87u s e f u l p l a y l i n k s

References

Axline V (1989) Play Therapy Edinburgh Churchill LivingstoneBruner J S (1960) The Process of Education New York Vintage BooksBruner J S (1979) On Knowing Essays for the Left Hand Cambridge MA

Harvard University PressBundy A C (1993) Assessment of play and leisure delineation of the

problem American Journal of Occupational Therapy 47(3) pp 217ndash222Chappell K Craft A Burnard P and Cremin T (2008) Question-posing

and question responding the heart of possibility thinking in the early yearsEarly Years An International Journal of Research and Development28(3) pp 267ndash286

Cohen D (2006) The Development of Play (3rd Edition) Oxford RoutledgeCooney M and Sha J (1999) Play in the day of Qiaoqiao a Chinese

perspective Child Study Journal 29 pp 97ndash111Craft A (2005) Creativity in Schools Tensions and Dilemmas Oxford

RoutledgeCsikszentmihalyi I and Csikszentmihalyi M (1988) Optimal Experience

Psychological Studies of Flow in Consciousness New York CambridgeUniversity Press

Darling N and Steinberg L (1993) Parenting style as context an integrativemodel Psychological Bulletin 113(3) pp 487ndash496

David T and Powell S (2005) Play in the early years the influence of culturaldifference In J Moyles (ed) The Excellence of Play (2nd Edition)Maidenhead Open University Press

Department for Children Education Lifelong Learning and Skills (DCELLS)(2008) Foundation Phase in Wales Cardiff Welsh Assembly Government

Department for Children Schools and Families (DCSF) (2008a) Play StrategyNottingham DCSF Publications

Department for Children Schools and Families (DCSF) (2008b) StatutoryFramework for the Early Foundation Stage Nottingham DCSFPublications

Department for Culture Media and Sport (2000) Best Play London NationalPlaying Fields Association

Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2001) Special Educational NeedsCode of Practice Nottingham HMSO

Department for Education and Skills and Sure Start (DfES) (2002) Birth to

88 r e f e r e n c e s

Three Matters A Framework to Support Children in Their Earliest Yearsof Life Nottingham HMSO

Dowling M (2000) Young Childrenrsquos Personal Social and EmotionalDevelopment London Sage Publications

Erikson E (1963) Childhood and Society New York NortonFein G (1981) Pretend play in childhood an integrative review Child

Development 52 pp 1095ndash1118Garvey C (1991) Play (2nd Edition) Washington DC Fontana PressGill T (2007) No Fear Growing up in a Risk Averse Society London

Calouste Gulbenkian FoundationGoldschmied E and Jackson S (1994) People under Three Young Children

in Daycare London RoutledgeGreenland P (2006) Physical development In Bruce T (ed) Early

Childhood A Guide for Students London SageGroos K (1901) The Play of Man London HeinemannHaight W L Wang X Fung H Williams H and Mintz J (1999)

Universal developmental and variable aspects of young childrenrsquos playa cross-cultural comparison of pretending at home Child Development70(6) pp 1477ndash1488

Hall G S (1920) Youth New York A AppletonHines M and Kaufman F R (1994) Androgen and the development of

human sex-typical behavior rough-and-tumble play and sex of preferredplaymates in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) ChildDevelopment 65 pp 1042ndash1053

Holland P (2003) We Donrsquot Play with Guns Here War Weapon andSuperhero Play in the Early Years Buckingham Open University Press

Howard J (2002) Eliciting childrenrsquos perceptions of play using the activityapperception story procedure Early Child Development and Care 172(5)pp 489ndash502

Howard J (2009) Play learning and development in the early years In T Maynard and N Thomas (eds) An Introduction to Early ChildhoodStudies London Sage

Howard J (2010a) The developmental and therapeutic value of childrenrsquosplay re-establishing teachers as play professionals In J Moyles (ed) TheExcellence of Play (3rd Edition) Maidenhead Open University Press

Howard J (2010b) Making the most of play in the early years understandingand building on childrenrsquos perceptions In P Broadhead J Howard andE Wood (eds) Play and Learning in Early Childhood Research intoPractice London Sage

Howard J and McInnes K (2010) Thinking through the challenge of a play-based curriculum increasing playfulness via co-construction In J Moyles (ed) Thinking about Play Developing a Reflective ApproachMaidenhead Open University Press

Howard J and Miles G (2008) Incorporating empirical findings that link

89r e f e r e n c e s

play and learning into a behavioural threshold and fluency theory of playPaper presented at the BPS Psychology of Education Section ConferenceMilton Keynes November

Hughes B (1999) A Playworkerrsquos Taxomony of Play Types LondonPLAYLINK


Hutt C (1976) Exploration and play in children In JS Bruner A Jolly andK Sylva (eds) PlaymdashIts Role in Development and Evolution New YorkBasic Books

Hyder T (2005) War Conflict and Play Maidenhead Open University PressHyun E (1998) Making Sense of Developmentally and Culturally

Appropriate Practice (DCAP) in Early Childhood Education New YorkPeter Lang

Isaacs S (1932) The Social Development of Young Children A Study ofBeginnings London Routledge and Kegan Paul

Jarvis P (2006) Rough and tumble play lessons in life EvolutionaryPsychology 4 pp 330ndash346

Jennings S (1999) An Introduction to Developmental Play Therapy LondonJessica Kingsley

Kalliala M (2006) Play Culture in a Changing World Maidenhead OpenUniversity Press

Keating I Fabian H Jordan P Mavers D and Roberts J (2000) lsquoWellIrsquove not done any work today I donrsquot know why I came to schoolrsquoperceptions of play in the reception class Educational Studies 26(4) pp 437ndash454

Knight S (2009) Forest Schools and Outdoor Learning in the Early YearsLondon Sage

Krasnor L R and Pepler D J (1980) The study of childrenrsquos play some suggested future directions In K H Rubin (ed) New Directions forChild Development Childrenrsquos Play (Vol 9) San Francisco Jossey-Bass

Laevers F (1994) The Leuvens Involvement Scale for Young Children (LIC-YC) Leuven Belgium Centre for Experiential Education

Lieberman J N (1977) Playfulness Its Relationship to Imagination andCreativity London Academic Press

Lindahl L B and Heimann M (1997) Social proximity in early mother infantinteractions implications for gender differences Early Development andParenting 6(2) pp 83ndash88

Lindon J (2001) Understanding Childrenrsquos Play Cheltenham NelsonThornes

Lindsey E W Cremeens P R and Caldera Y M (2010) Gender differencesin motherndashtoddler and fatherndashtoddler verbal initiations and responsesduring caregiving and play context Sex Roles 65(5ndash6) pp 399ndash411


McInnes K Howard J Miles G and Crowley K (2009) Behaviouraldifferences exhibited by children when practising a task under formal and playful conditions Educational and Child Psychology 26(2) pp 31ndash39


Marschark M (1993) Psychological Development of Deaf Children NewYork Oxford University Press

Maybin J and Woodhead M (2003) Childhoods in Context Milton KeynesOpen University Press

Moyles J (1989) Just Playing Role and Status of Play in Early ChildhoodEducation Buckingham Open University Press

National Childrenrsquos Bureau (NCB) (1998) The Charter for Childrenrsquos PlayLondon Childrenrsquos Play Council

Nicholson S (1971) The theory of loose parts Landscape ArchitectureQuarterly 62(1) pp 30ndash34

OrsquoReilly A W and Bornstein M H (1993) Caregiverndashchild interaction inplay In M H Bornstein and A W OrsquoReilly (eds) The Role of Play inthe Development of Thought San Francisco Jossey-Bass

Parker C J (2007) Childrenrsquos Perceptions of a Playful EnvironmentContextual Social and Environmental Differences Unpublished thesisUniversity of Glamorgan

Parten M B (1932) Social participation among preschool children Journalof Abnormal and Social Psychology 27 pp 243ndash269

Patrick G T (1916) The Psychology of Relaxation Boston MA Houghton-Mifflin

Pellegrini A (1991) Applied Child Study A Developmental Approach NewJersey Lawrence Erlbaum

Piaget J (1951) Play Dreams and Imitation in Childhood LondonRoutledge and Kegan Paul

Ring K (2010) Supporting a playful approach to drawing In P BroadheadJ Howard and E Wood (eds) Play and Learning in the Early YearsLondon Sage Publications

Robson S (1993) lsquoBest of all I like choosing timersquo talking with children aboutplay and work Early Child Development and Care 92 pp 37ndash51

Rogoff B (2003) The Cultural Nature of Human Development New YorkOxford University Press

Roopnarine J L Lasker J Sacks M and Stores M (1998) The culturalcontents of childrenrsquos play In O N Saracho and B Spodek (eds) MultiplePerspectives on Play in Early Childhood Education New York StateUniversity of New York Press

Saracho O N (1990) Cognitive Style and Early Education New YorkGordon amp Breach Science Publishers

Servin A Bohlin G and Berlin L (1999) Sex differences in 1- 3- and


5-year-oldsrsquo toy-choice in a structured play-session Scandinavian Journalof Psychology 40 pp 43ndash48

Sheridan M D (1972) The childrsquos acquisition of codes for personal andinterpersonal communication In M Rutter and JAM Martin (eds) TheChild with Delayed Speech London Spastics International

Sheridan M D (1976) Childrenrsquos Developmental Progress from Birth to FiveYears Windsor NFER

Sheridan M (1977) Spontaneous Play in Early Childhood From Birth to SixYears (1st Edition) Windsor NFER

Sobel D (2001) Childrenrsquos Special Places Exploring the Role of Forts Densand Bush Houses in Middle Childhood Detroit MI Wayne StateUniversity Press

Spencer H (1898) Principles of Psychology New York AppletonSturrock G and Else P (1998) The playground as therapeutic space

playwork as healing [known as lsquoThe Colorado Paperrsquo] In G Sturrock and P Else (2005) Therapeutic Playwork Reader One Sheffield Ludemos

Sturrock G Russell W and Else P (2004) Towards Ludogogy Parts I II and III The Art of Being and Becoming through Play SheffieldLudemos

Sun L C and Roopnarine J L (1996) Motherndashinfant fatherndashinfantinteraction and involvement in childcare and household labour amongTaiwanese families Infant Behaviour and Development 19 pp 121ndash129

Sutton-Smith B (1974) How to Play with Your Children (and When Not to)New York Hawthorne Press

Sylva K Melhuish E Sammons P Siraj-Blatchford I and Taggart B(2004) The Effective Provision of Pre-school Education (EPPE) ProjectFindings from Pre-school to the End of Key Stage 1 London DfES

Tovey H (2007) Playing Outdoors Spaces and Places Risks and Challenge(Debating Play) Maidenhead Open University Press

Tovey H (2010) Playing on the edge perceptions of risk and danger inoutdoor play In P Broadhead J Howard and E Wood (eds) Play andLearning in the Early Years London Sage Publications

Trostle S L (1988) The effects of child-centred group play sessions on social-emotional growth of three- to six-year-old bilingual Puerto Rican childrenJournal of Research in Childhood Education 3(2) pp 93ndash106

United Nations (1989) Convention on the Rights of the Child Brussels UnitedNations Assembly

Vygotsky L S (1978) Mind in Society the Development of Higher Mental Psychological Processes Cambridge MA Harvard UniversityPress

Waters J and Begley S (2007) Supporting the development of risk-takingbehaviours in the early years an exploratory study Education 3ndash13 35(4)pp 365ndash377


Webb S and Brown F (2003) Playwork in adversity working withabandoned children in Romania In F Brown (ed) Playwork Theory andPractice Buckingham Open University Press

Welsh Assembly Government (2008) Framework for Childrenrsquos Learning for3ndash7-year-olds in Wales Cardiff Welsh Assembly

Whitebread D (2010) Play metacognition and self regulation In P BroadheadJ Howard and E Wood (eds) Play and Learning in the Early Years LondonSage

Wilson K and Ryan V (2005) Play Therapy A Non-directive Approach forChildren and Adolescents (2nd Edition) London Elsevier Science

Winnicott D W (1971) Playing and Reality London Tavistock Publications


0ndash12 months 14ndash15 17 20ndash51ndash2 years 15 17 25ndash352ndash5 years 16ndash17 35ndash435ndash6 years 44ndash6

ability to play 1ndash2 19 57 65active play 14 41 45ndash6 61 76ndash7adult roles in play 71ndash2

caregiversparents 21ndash4 32 3658 60ndash1 71 professionals 77ndash84

adventure playgrounds 76ndash7adversity and atypicality 62ndash4 76approach play as 7ndash8 11ndash12associative play 17autocosmic play 17Axline V 75ndash6

Begley S 77behaviour play as 5ndash7 57bell play 50block play 6 38 51ndash2Bornstein M H 58boundaries 58 72Brown F 62Bruner J S 12 74Bundy A C 7 11

caregivers interactions with 21ndash432 36 58 71 see also parentingbehaviour

Chappell K 72child development 1 9ndash11 13 16

63ndash5 77 79ndash80childrenrsquos perceptions 11choice 2 7 9 11ndash12 60ndash1 71 81classroom assistants 77ndash8cognitive development 10ndash11 27ndash8Cohen D 76communication 12 26ndash7 32ndash3 35

41ndash2 44competence 17 44 64 72constructive play 15 38 45control 2 7 11ndash12 72 78 81co-operative play 17 44ndash5

creative play 12 30ndash1 38ndash9 70Csikszentmihalyi I and M 8cultural difference 57ndash9 80cup play 49

danger understanding of 29 43Darling N 58David T 59deep play 13definitions of play 4ndash8developmental and therapeutic play

specialists 79ndash81disabilities 63Diwali 59Dowling M 71dramatic play 12 36dynamic process of play 8

educational play 7 12 73ndash5Else P 8emotional development 10 17 27ndash8emotional responsiveness 58empowerment 72 83enactive play 74end-product play 15engagement 11epistemic play 7 12 73ndash5Erikson E 17exploration 7ndash8 13ndash14 25 74 77

fantasy play 13Forest School movement 77Foundation Phase Wales 75 77ndash8Foundation Stage England 75freedom 2 11ndash12 76ndash8 81Freud Anna 75Freud Sigmund 75friendships 71Froebel Friedrich 73functions of play 8ndash12further reading 18 47 67 85

games-with-rules 15ndash16 44 59Gaskins S 59

94 i n d e x

Index

gender differences 45 59ndash62Gill T 77Goldschmied E 70Greenland P 77Groos K 8

Haight W L 58ndash9Hall G S 9Halloween 59hand-eye co-ordination 21health and safety requirements 78hearing 10Heimann M 61Hines M 60holistic development 80ndash1Holland P 61hospital play specialists 81ndash2Howard J 6ndash7 12 64 72Hughes B 12ndash13Hughes F 57ndash8Hurtwood Lady Allen of 76Hutt C 7 12Hyder T 62 76Hyun E 69

iconic play 74imaginative play 13imitative play 14ndash15 24 31inclusive play practice 64ndash6Irish Association for Play Therapy 80Isaacs S 73

Jackson S 70Japan 58Jarvis P 61

Kalliala M 61Kaufman F R 60Keating I 7Klein Melanie 75Knight S 77Krasnor L R 5

Laevers F 75language development 11 32ndash3 35

41laterality 30ndash1Lieberman J N 58Lindahl L B 61Lindon J 59 64 80Lindsey E W 61listening 10location of play 7 68 70 76ndash7locomotor play 13 25ndash6

ludic play 12

McInnes K 7 11 72McMahon L 83macrospheric play 17make-believe play 15 33 35ndash6 38

41ndash2 44manipulative playskills 10 14 22

25 29ndash30 35 38mark making 30ndash1 39 53ndash4Marschark M 63mastery play 13 62materials for play 59 68ndash70Maybin J 57me and not me 27 42microspheric play 17Miles G 12Montessori Maria 73motivation 9 11motor development 10 29Moyles J 4multiculturalism 59 80music 39ndash40

National Association of HospitalPlay 81

national contexts China 58ndash9Denmark 76 East India 59Europe 58 69 Kenya 59Lebanon 62 Romania 62 UK58ndash9 61 75ndash6 USA 58ndash9 69

Nicholson S 70non-directive approach 75ndash6

object play 13 22 29 33observational perspectives 5ndash6 19

0ndash12 months 20ndash5 1ndash2 years25ndash35 2ndash5 years 35ndash43 5ndash6years 44ndash6

occupational therapy 73onlooker behaviour 17openclosed use of playthings 70OrsquoReilly A W 58outdoor spaces 76ndash7

parallel play 17 36 63parenting behaviour 58 60ndash1 71 see

also caregivers interactions withParker C J 7Parten M B 16ndash17Patrick G T 9peers playing with 42ndash3 46 69 71Pellegrini A 5Pepler D J 5

95i n d e x

percussion tools 23 25 39permanence understanding of 21ndash2

24physical development 11 35Piaget J 7 16 73ndash4picture books 32play behaviour 5ndash7 57play development officers 78ndash9Play Strategy 77play therapy 80 82ndash4playworkers 78ndash9Powell S 59practice play 16pre-exercise theory 8pretend play 15 31process play as 8professional contexts 1ndash2professional perspectives

developmental and therapeuticplay specialists 80ndash1 hospitalplay specialists 82 nursery nurses78 play development officers 79play therapists 83ndash4psychotherapists 83ndash4

provision for play 1 9 68ndash72 indifferent contexts 72ndash7 role ofprofessionals 77ndash84

psychotherapy 75 82ndash4puzzles 38ndash9

recapitulation theory 9recapitulative play 13recreational play 73 76ndash7reflective activities 18 47 65ndash7 85relaxation theory 9Ring K 11risk taking 76ndash9Robson S 7Rogoff B 61role play 13 31 35 61Roopnarine J L 57 59 61rough and tumble play 12 61Ryan V 75

self-esteem 17 81sequence of play types 13ndash16 19

48ndash56Servin A 60sex and gender 60Sha J 58Sheridan M D 1ndash3 5 7 10

13ndash16 19 48 57 60 62 6468ndash9 72ndash3 75

signals to play 8

small world play 55ndash6Sobel D 59social development 10 12 17 27

36 41ndash3 60 71solitary play 17 36 63 69Sorenson Roy 76space understanding of 38 42Spencer H 9spontaneity 2 8 10St Bartholomewrsquos Hospital London

81St Thomasrsquo Hospital London 81Steinberg L 58structured learning experiences 7Sturrock G 8 64Sun L C 61surplus energy theory 9Sutton-Smith B 12Sylva K 71symbolic play 13 16 33 74

teachers 77ndash8theory 1ndash3 definitions of play 4ndash8

functions of play 8ndash12 types ofplay 12ndash17

therapeutic play 75ndash6 79ndash84time for play 69ndash70Tizard J 1ndash3Tovey H 70 77toy choice 60ndash1Trostle S L 76types of play 12ndash17 19 48ndash56

UN Convention of the Rights of theChild 1 9

UNICEF 62unoccupied behaviour 17

variations in play adversity andatypicality 62ndash4 76 culture57ndash9 gender 59ndash62 inclusiveplay practice 64ndash6

varieties of play 6ndash7vision 10vocalizations 23 27Vygotsky L S 74

Waters J 77Webb S 62Whitebread D 11Wilson K 75Winnicott D W 75Womenrsquos Aid 81Woodhead M 57

96 i n d e x


Based on the pioneering work of Mary D Sheridan Play in EarlyChildhood is a classic introductory text to play and development ndashkey topics for all those who work with young children Updated fora contemporary audience and fully evidence-based it explains howchildrenrsquos play develops and how they develop as they play

With over eighty illustrations and observations of play from birthto six years this new edition presents classical and contemporaryliterature making clear links between play and all areas of childrenrsquosdevelopment It includes activities to consolidate thinking andsuggestions for further reading throughout Play in Early Childhoodconsiders

the development value and characteristics of play

issues relating to culture adversity and gender

play from recreational therapeutic and educational perspectives

the role of parentscaregivers and professionals in supporting play

Suitable for those new to the area or for more experienced workerswanting a quick reference guide this easy-to-follow book meets theneeds of students and professionals from a wide range of healtheducation and social care backgrounds including early yearsprofessionals playworkers childrenrsquos nurses speech and languagetherapists and social workers

Mary D Sheridan was a renowned researcher in child developmentand the author of From Birth to Five Years (Routledge 2007)

Justine Howard is a chartered psychologist and developmental and therapeutic play specialist She is a senior lecturer at SwanseaUniversity where she is responsible for a number of courses relatingto play and child development

Dawn Alderson is a senior academic tutor in the School of Humanand Health Science at Swansea University where she teaches onpostgraduate courses relating to play and creativity



3rd edition

Mary D Sheridan














Contents


Introduction 1




Vc o n t e n t s





References 88

Index 94

VI c o n t e n t s

About the authors







Introduction






















1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x



3rd edition

Mary D Sheridan














Contents


Introduction 1




Vc o n t e n t s





References 88

Index 94

VI c o n t e n t s

About the authors







Introduction






















1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x













Contents


Introduction 1




Vc o n t e n t s





References 88

Index 94

VI c o n t e n t s

About the authors







Introduction






















1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x

Contents


Introduction 1




Vc o n t e n t s





References 88

Index 94

VI c o n t e n t s

About the authors







Introduction






















1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x





References 88

Index 94

VI c o n t e n t s

About the authors







Introduction






















1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x

About the authors







Introduction






















1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x



Introduction






















1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x

Introduction






















1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x


















1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x














1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x










1

Defining play










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x










Play as a behaviour












Play as an

approach to task

Play and

exploration






The dynamic

process of play

Functions of play



































Types of play























































Summary


Usefulreading







2























6ndash12 months

Key observations























Key observations

12ndash18 months





















Key observations









18ndash24 months


































Key observations







2ndash3 years


















3ndash4 years

Key observations











































Key observations



5ndash6 years













Key observations


















Summary


Usefulreading








3


Cup play







Bell play







Block play















Mark making







Small world play















4

Culture










Gender


























family structure


likes and dislikes





















Summary










Usefulreading

Providing for play







5

Provisions forplay








Playthings





Time and space










Partners in play

Parentscarers

and siblings

Peers and

friendships

Other adults


















Educational play














Therapeutic play






Recreational play







Teachers and

classroom

assistants





Playworkers and

play development

officers






Developmental and

therapeutic play

specialists









Hospital play

specialists





Play therapists















Summary









Usefulreading

Useful play links





PTUK








TACTYC





Play England


Play Scotland


Play Wales


4Children







References


















































































































94 i n d e x

Index








ludic play 12












95i n d e x










signals to play 8












96 i n d e x

Documents

Play in Early Childhood: From Birth to Six Years, 3rd Edition