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Ecological Engineering 70 (2014) 337–348
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ecological Engineering
journa l homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate /eco leng
oint sources of nutrient pollution in the lowland river catchment inhe context of the Baltic Sea eutrophication
dyta Kiedrzynskaa,b,∗, Marcin Kiedrzynski c, Magdalena Urbaniaka,b,rtur Magnuszewskid, Maciej Skłodowskib, Anna Wyrwickae, Maciej Zalewskia,b
European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology under the auspices of UNESCO, Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Tylna Street, 90-364 Lodz, PolandUniversity of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Applied Ecology, 12/16 Banacha Street, 90-237 Lodz, PolandUniversity of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Geobotany and Plant Ecology, 12/16 Banacha Street, 90-237 Lodz,olandWarsaw University, Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies, Institute of Physical Geography, Krakowskie Przedmiescie 30, 00-927 Warsaw, PolandUniversity of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 12/16 Banacha Street, 90-237odz, Poland
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:eceived 17 August 2013eceived in revised form 25 April 2014ccepted 23 June 2014vailable online 16 July 2014
eywords:altic Sea input
a b s t r a c t
Eutrophication is a major problem in the Baltic Sea caused by the inflow of large loads of nutrients. This islargely due to diffuse and point sources of pollution such as wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), whichdischarge poorly treated wastewater via rivers to the sea. The paper quantifies the problem of point sourcepollution in the Pilica River catchment (central Poland), one of the largest, second order subcatchments ofthe Vistula River. The main objectives of the research were: (i) quantification of nutrients transfer alongthe Pilica River continuum from the source to the estuary into the Vistula River, and (ii) evaluation of theinfluence of WWTPs on eutrophication of the Pilica River and the Baltic Sea. The study showed that the
astewater treatment plantshosphorusitrogenilica River catchmentcohydrology
average total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) load discharged from the Pilica catchment amountedto 0.057 t TP km−2 and 1.655 t TN km−2, respectively, and was two and three times higher, respectively,compared to the annual average loads in the Polish territory and the Baltic States. Moreover, the paperpresents possible solutions of sustainable planning and management in river catchments based on theecohydrological concept and ecological engineering.
stwwpparwr
. Introduction
Export of nutrients to rivers and coastal zones driven byuman-related activities is a major problem in river catchmentsnd coastal marine ecosystems (Howarth, 2008). The intensifiednthropogenic input of nutrients, especially phosphorus (P) anditrogen (N), to the environment and landscape from point and dif-
use sources resulted in the spatial variation of the riverine nutrientxport, which has been observed worldwide (Bricker et al., 2007;ussell et al., 2008; Han et al., 2011; Kiedrzynska and Zalewski,
012). Anthropogenic contaminants are divided into two groupsccording to their transportation routes: point sources that refero contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable∗ Corresponding author at: European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology underhe auspices of UNESCO, Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Tylna Street, 90-364 Lodz,oland. Tel.: +48 42 6817007; fax: +48 42 681 30 69.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Kiedrzynska).
l(NriceE
ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.06.010925-8574/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
ource, such as a pipe or ditch, e.g. discharges from a wastewaterreatment plant, a factory, or a municipal storm drain, domesticastewater and industrial pollution, and diffuse sources whereater is coming from the agricultural landscape and atmosphericrecipitation. It is important to analyze point sources of nutrientollution, such as WWTPs, on the catchment scale to understandnd characterize their contribution in the riverine export along theiver continuum and eutrophication of water bodies. In this papere review the impact of nutrient export from WWTPs to a lowland
iver in the context of the Baltic eutrophication.Eutrophication is currently regarded as the most serious eco-
ogical problem for the surface waters, and for the whole Baltic SeaDucrotoy and Elliott, 2008; Artioli et al., 2008; Lundberg, 2013).onetheless the conditions in the sea depend both on the natu-
al processes and human activities. Human activities and nutrient
nputs to the Baltic basin have dramatically increased over the lastentury and are considered to be a major cause of the current over-nrichment (Gren et al., 1997; Yurkovskis, 2004; Wulff et al., 2007;lofsson, 2010). High nutrient concentrations stimulate the growth
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38 E. Kiedrzynska et al. / Ecologic
f algae, which leads to impaired water quality, reflected in e.g.xtensive blooms of potentially toxic blue-green algae (cyanobac-eria) that are not only a nuisance to bathers and others searchingor recreation along the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but also pose threatso human health and animals (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Vahterat al., 2007; Aleksandrov, 2010). The geographical distribution ofyanobacteria blooms in the Baltic Sea varies between years, buthey usually occur in the central basin of the sea during the sum-
er months. The decay of algae gradually leads to partial oxygeneficit (hypoxia) in the deep water and thereby causes damage toiodiversity reflected in the reduction of specific fish and other ani-al populations (Conley et al., 2002). Currently, the Baltic Sea has
he largest dead zone in the world (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008).Waterborne inputs to the Baltic Sea amounted to
52,143 tonnes (t) of nitrogen (N) and 29,044 t of phosphorusP) in 2008. Poland discharged the largest load of TN (22%,44,499 t) and TP (28%, 8137 t P) compared to other nine Balticountries (HELCOM, 2011). According to HELCOM (2011), about5% of the TN load and at least 95% of the TP load enter the seaia rivers or as direct waterborne discharges. About 25% of theitrogen load comes as atmospheric deposition (HELCOM, 2011).hosphorus from the riverine input has accumulated over time inhe Baltic Sea largely because P has a sedimentation cycle and cane removed only via export, and the latter is limited because of a
ong residence time of approximately 30 years (Hong et al., 2012).herefore, it is critical to properly address the problem of riverineand N loads to the Baltic Sea.
BSAP (2007) is a milestone for environmental governance in thealtic Sea region by setting the environmental targets for sea basinshat require clear goals for nutrient reduction (Backer et al., 2010).he main goal of BSAP is to achieve a good ecological status of theea by 2021, and the main objectives include the prevention ofutrophication and reduction in the input of nutrients. The reduc-ions have been allocated to responsible countries, assuming thenowledge of distribution and retention of nutrient sources acrosshe Baltic basin (Hong et al., 2012).
Prevention of eutrophication should primarily rely on thenderstanding of the migration process and transfers of nutri-nts, and their quantification in individual catchments, and thenn the sustainable management of water resources, both on theocal, regional and transborder scale, and on the mitigation meas-res aiming at the reduction of contamination and eutrophicationpread. The paper quantifies the problem of point source pollutionn the Pilica River catchment – one of the largest subcatchmentsf the Vistula River. The Vistula River is the second longest river1092 km) draining into the Baltic (after the Neva) and one of the
ost polluted rivers in Europe (Buszewski et al., 2005). The Vistuland Pilica River traverse some of the most industrialized and pol-uted areas in Europe, especially in Silesia. The main objectives ofhe research were as follows: (i) quantification of nutrients transferlong the Pilica River continuum from the source to the estuary intohe Vistula River, and (ii) evaluation of the role played by WWTPs inutrophication of the Pilica River and the Baltic Sea. Moreover, theaper presents possible solutions of sustainable planning and man-gement in river catchments based on the ecohydrological conceptnd ecological engineering. Therefore, the paper is not only of localnterest, but has a wider, national and international context, due tots implications for the quality of the Baltic waters.
. Material and methods
.1. Characteristics of the study catchment
The research was carried out in the Pilica River catchment,hich is 9258 km2 in area and is located in central Poland (Fig. 1).
ol
ineering 70 (2014) 337–348
he Pilica River (342 km long) is the biggest left-bank tributary ofhe Vistula River. The catchment area is predominantly agriculturals agricultural lands account for more than 60% of its total area, andorests cover about 31% of the catchment. The remaining area con-ists of urban areas and other forms of land use. The total supplyf nutrient compounds from point and diffuse sources is a resultf significant eutrophication of the Pilica River water resourcesnd massive blooms of toxic cyanobacteria in the Sulejów Reser-oir (Mankiewicz-Boczek et al., 2011; Mankiewicz-Boczek, 2012;agała et al., 2013). The Pilica riverbed has a natural, meanderingharacter along the entire study length. The river’s banks and theoodplain, the place of highly efficient flood-water retention andutrient sedimentation processes, are covered with macrophytesnd riparian willow communities (Kiedrzynska et al., 2008a, 2008b;kłodowski et al., 2014). On average 59% of the human populationn the Pilica River catchment is connected to wastewater treat-
ent plants (WWTPs) – the range from 51.3 to 70.5% dependingn the region of the catchment. The technology with the increasedutrients removal is applied in 43.6% of the existing WWTPs (PCSO,010).
.2. Monitoring station for the analysis of river water quality
Monitoring of the hydrological situation and water quality in theilica River was conducted at six stations located along the riverontinuum from the upland to the lowland estuary into the Vis-ula River (R1 – Przedbórz, R2 – Sulejów, R3 – Smardzewice, R4 –pała, R5 – Nowe Miasto, R6 – Białobrzegi) (Fig. 1, Table 1). Station2 – Sulejów was situated above the Sulejów Reservoir and R3 –mardzewice was located on the dam at the outflow from the reser-oir, which was built on the Pilica River. The reservoir has a totalolume of V = 77.4 million m3 which, compared to the long-termverage river inflow of the Pilica River Q = 24.2 m3 s−1, gives theetention time of about 40 days. Analysis of the hydrological situa-ion in the river at all stations R1–R6 was carried out based on theaily measurements of water levels which were read from waterauges belonging to a national network of hydrological gauges andonverted to a daily discharge.
River water samples were taken at approximately 4-day inter-als (90 samplings at each station, 540 samplings for all stations)etween 19 May 2010 and 19 May 2011. Water samples were col-
ected using a PIHM bathometer. Each time, two samples of 1 L wereollected from the river and well mixed in order to obtain a rep-esentative sample. Subsequently, two subsamples of 100 mL wereaken from the latter, one for the analysis of dissolved forms ofutrients and the second one to analyze the total forms of nutri-nts. The samples were transported to a laboratory in a car at aemperature of 4 ◦C.
Boundaries of the Pilica River catchment and differential sub-atchments have been extracted from the National Hydrographicap of Poland (Fig. 1, Table 1). Discharges of the Pilica River at
articular riverine monitoring stations (R1–R6) from the period of951–1990 presented for comparison with the discharges duringhe study period come from the Atlas Gauges Stations (1996).
The comparison between the average rainfall of 570 mm year−1
data from the climate station in Sulejów) for the period of981–2010 and the rainfall of 691 mm recorded during the periodrom 19 May 2010 to 19 May 2011 reveals that this period was inhe group of wet years.
.3. Monitoring of point sources of pollution
Wastewater (WW) samples were collected from the outletsf 17 municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (Fig. 1)ocated in the Pilica River catchment, which were divided into
E. Kiedrzynska et al. / Ecological Engineering 70 (2014) 337–348 339
Fig. 1. Location of the Pilica River catchment (Poland) and location of riverine monitoring stations (R1–R6) along the Pilica River continuum and WWTPs monitoring stations(S1–S17).
Table 1Characteristics of riverine monitoring stations (R1–R6) and differential subcatchments between particular riverine monitoring stations in the Pilica River continuum.
Station Town name ofa station
Km of the river(from the estuary)
Station type in theriver continuum
Geographic location Differentialsubcatchment
Area ofsubcatchment [km2]
N E
R1 Przedbórz 201.2 River 51.088321 19.873345 R1 2545.2R2 Sulejów 161.3 River (inflow to
Sulejow Reservoir)51.343568 19.885790 R1–R2 1390.5
R3 Smardzewice 136.3 Sulejów Reservoir(outflow)
51.474139 20.005846 R2–R3 997.5
R4 Spała 119.4 River 51.537340 20.134163 R3–R4 1034.1R5 Nowe Miasto 78.8 River 51.609218 20.573166 R4–R5 745.0R6 Białobrzegi 45.3 River 51.657669 20.950391 R5–R6 1943.7
Table 2Characteristics of the monitored municipal WWTPs in the Pilica River catchment.
Station WWTPs size class Location of WWTPs Population equivalent of WWTPs Outflow of wastewater [m3 day−1]
S1 I Koniecpol 600 100S2 I Rozprza 500 107S3 I Spała 350 130S4 I Wielgomłymy 1000 200S5 I Gorzkowice 700 224S6 I Wolbórz 800 241S7 I Ujazd 1500 300S8 II Przebórz 2000 373S9 II Tuszyn 4000 640S10 II Drzewica 6000 839S11 II Sulejów 7500 870S12 II Nowe Miasto nad Pilica 2583 1000S13 IV Białobrzegi 58,400 1500S14 IV Opoczno 75,000 5127S15 IV Warka 99,000 9900S16 IV Tomaszów Mazowiecki 80,000 10,050S17 IV Piotrków Trybunalski 80,000 14,541
3 al Engineering 70 (2014) 337–348
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40 E. Kiedrzynska et al. / Ecologic
hree size categories: class I: 0–1999; class II: 2000–9999, classV: 15,000–99,999 of the population equivalent (p.e.) (Table 2). Inhe period between 19 May 2010 and 19 May 2011, the waste-ater samples were collected three times on 19 May 2010 (highater level, flood), 27 September 2010 (low water level) and 19ay 2011 (medium water level). Samples were collected directly
n the wastewater outflow into the Pilica River or its tributaries.wo samples of 100 mL were taken, one for the analysis of the sol-ble form (after filtering), and the other one for the analysis of theotal form of nutrients. Based on the detailed data, the daily loador each WWTP and then the annual load were calculated.
.4. Analysis of nutrients in the river water and treatedastewater
Water samples for soluble forms of nutrients, e.g. soluble reac-ive phosphorus (SRP), NO3
−, NO2−, NH4
+, were filtered throughhatman GF/F 0.45 �m filters and analyzed with the Ion Chro-atography System (DIONEX, ICS 1000). Total phosphorus (TP) was
nalyzed in unfiltered water samples with the addition of the oxi-izing decomposition reagent Oxisolv (Merck) with the Merck MV00 Microwave Digestion System and determined by the ascor-ic acid method (Greenberg et al., 1992). Total nitrogen (TN) wasnalyzed using the persulphate digestion method (HACH, 1997).
.5. Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was conducted using STATISTICA 10. Dif-erences in the mean discharges and phosphorus and nitrogenoncentrations between particular riverine monitoring stationsR1–R6) in the Pilica River continuum were tested using the
ann–Whitney U test (p > 0.05) for independent samples. The dataoints were independent from each other, and their distributionsere not normal (tested by Shapiro–Wilk).
.6. Analysis of wastewater management in the catchment
Analysis of the wastewater management in the Pilica Riveratchment for 2010 was performed based on the data from fivearshal Offices, which are provincial government units. Data
n the number of WWTPs and the volume of wastewater out-ow from WWTPs came from permits for treated wastewaterischarge. WWTPs were divided into three groups, i.e. domes-ic, industrial and municipal depending on the type of purifiedastewater. Domestic wastewater came from water used in house-olds for personal hygiene, flush sanitation, food preparation, etc.
ndustrial wastewater contained a variety of chemicals, which arey-products of manufacturing processes used in industrial plants.unicipal sewage was a mixture of domestic and industrial waste-ater and rainwater.
Points showing the location of WWTPs have been georeferencedy WGS-84 geographical coordinates. Data from Marshal Officesn WWTPs have been verified whether they represented pointsocated within the Pilica differential subcatchments. Distributionf WWTPs was plotted as a point layer in the GIS format in thercMap 9.2 software (ESRI Inc. 1999–2008, Redlands, CA, USA).
. Result
.1. Water quality along the river continuum
During the study period, the mean discharges of the Pilica Riverere increasing along the river continuum from R1 (201.2 km)
o R6 (45.3 km), and ranged from 29.39 m3 s−1 to 70.08 m3 s−1,espectively (Table 3). The average discharge (48.6 m3 s−1) and the Ta
ble
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2010
and
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Stat
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R2
R3
R4
R5
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al Engineering 70 (2014) 337–348 341
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E. Kiedrzynska et al. / Ecologic
utflow (1536.8 million m3 year−1) at station R3 was lower in rela-ion to station R2 (53.22 m3 s−1 and 1683 million m3 year−1) due toater retention in the Sulejów Reservoir. The comparison of the
verage discharges for the period of 1951–1990 and the dischargesecorded during the observation period reveals that the period from9 May 2010 to 19 May 2011 was in the group of very wet yearsTable 3).
Average concentrations of TP and SRP significantly (p < 0.05)ncreased from station R1 (195 �g TP dm−3 and 26 �g SRP dm−3)o R2 (232 �g TP dm−3 and 34 �g SRP dm−3), respectively (Table 3,able 4). Significantly (p = 0.000) lower average TP concentrationsere observed in the water outflow from the Sulejów Reservoir
R3) as compared to R2 by 55 �g TP dm−3, thus indicating themportance of the reservoir for the water purification (Table 4).s a result of the gradual inflow of large loads of pollutants from
he catchment, concentrations of phosphorus compounds gradu-lly increased. At the last station R6, average concentrations of TPnd SRP amounted to 218 �g dm−3 and 44 �g dm−3, and were sig-ificantly (p < 0.05) lower by 35 �g TP dm−3 and 10 �g SRP dm−3,espectively, compared to those for R5 (Table 4).
Average concentrations of nitrogen compounds decreased grad-ally from R1 to R3 (Table 3). The highest significant reduction ofitrogen concentration, as in the case of TP and SRP, was observed inhe outflow from the reservoir (R3). Concentrations of TN and NO3
−
ecreased there by 0.66 mg TN dm−3 and 0.66 mg NO3− dm−3,
espectively (Table 4). Subsequently, a gradual increase in theoncentrations was observed at 78.8 km of the river (R5) up to.09 mg TN dm−3 and 7.04 mg NO3
− dm−3. As in the case of phos-horus concentrations, average concentrations of TN and NO3
−
t station R6 were significantly lower compared to those for R5Tables 3 and 4).
Statistically significant increase in the concentrations of SRPp = 0.000) and NO3
− (p = 0.032) between the first monitoringtation – R1 and the last one – R6 (Table 4) indicates an input ofutrients from WWTPs located in the catchment area, which is pre-ented in the next subsection. At the same time, no statisticallyignificant differences in the concentrations of TP and TN at R1 and6 (Table 4) indicate that despite the large load of nutrients fromWTPs, the concentrations did not increase significantly, which
ndicates self-purification potential of the river.The TP load transported by the Pilica River gradually increased
ith the river outflow from 200.5 t in the upper part (R1) at01.2 km of the river to 530.4 t in the lower part (R6) near the estu-ry into the Vistula River (Fig. 2A). The transport of SRP load atifferent positions increased towards the estuary, but the valuesere much lower than TP load. Additionally, Fig. 2A shows that
he Sulejów Reservoir retained 80.4 t of TP load during the studyeriod, including 16.1 t of SRP. Similarly, an increase in the nitrogen
oads was observed in particular transects towards the Pilica Riverstuary Fig. 2B. The analysis showed that the Pilica River delivers5,322 t of TN into the Vistula River.
.2. Point sources of pollution
The results showed that the highest average concentrationsf TP 9.24 mg dm−3 (Fig. 3A) and TN 62.06 mg dm−3 (Fig. 3B)ere in the wastewater discharged from the smallest WWTPs
class I, <2000 p.e.). Nevertheless, the maximum concentrationseached 68.31 mg TP dm−3 and 295.42 mg TN dm−3, indicating theroblem with maintaining the good treatment parameters. Larger
WTPs have lower mean concentrations of TP and TN in theastewater (class II – 4.08 mg TP dm−3 and 33.67 mg TN dm−3,nd class IV – 1.97 mg TP dm−3 and 45.97 mg TN dm−3) (Fig. 3And B), which indicates more advanced wastewater treatment Ta
ble
4D
iffe
ren
cesi
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test
(sig
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R1
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.R3
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342 E. Kiedrzynska et al. / Ecological Engineering 70 (2014) 337–348
FP
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ig. 2. Transport of (A) TP and SRP, and (B) TN, NO3− , NO2
− , NH4+ load along the
ilica River continuum in the period between 19 May 2010 and 19 May 2011.
echnologies. The maximum concentration for treatment class IIas 13.63 mg TP dm−3 and 65.14 mg TN dm−3, and for class IV –
.97 mg TP dm−3 and 139.41 mg TN dm−3.Analysis of 17 WWTPs in the Pilica River catchment showed
hat small and medium-sized WWTPs discharged relatively smalloads of TP (Fig. 4A) and TN (Fig. 4B). The biggest loads of nutrientsischarged from large WWTPs were on average 19.8 kg TP day−1
Fig. 4A) and 363.53 kg TN day−1 (Fig. 4B). However, the averageutflow of nutrients from the largest WWTP in the catchment (S17ith daily wastewater outflow of 14,541 m3, Table 2) amounts to
0.32 kg TP day−1 and 989.84 kg TN day−1.Based on the detailed data, the daily load for each WWTP and
hen the annual load were calculated. During the study year, theotal load outflow from 17 monitored WWTPs located in the Pilicaiver catchment amounted to 46.87 t TP and 741.09 t of the TN.
.3. Wastewater management in the catchment
Wastewater management in the Pilica River catchment, and theistribution and volume of the treated wastewater discharged fromarticular types of WWTPs are presented in Fig. 5 and Table 5. Inhe catchment, 88% of the total wastewater outflow is dischargedrom 50 municipal WWTPs. Domestic and industrial wastewateronstitutes 4% and 8% of the total wastewater outflow, respectively,nd was discharged from 46 and 47 WWTPs, respectively. The totalutflow of the treated wastewater in the Pilica River catchmentrom all 143 WWTPs amounted to 18,341,875 m3 year−1 (Table 5).
. Discussion
.1. Transportation of nutrients along the river continuum and
iver self-purificationAccording to the River Continuum Concept, various ecologi-al processes and patterns of river ecosystems are continuously
rpep
ig. 3. Average concentrations of (A) TP, SRP; (B) TN, NO3− , NO2
− , NH4+ in the waste-
ater discharged from WWTPs of various size classes in the Pilica River catchmentn the period between 19 May 2010 and 19 May 2011 (range – standard deviation).
hanging along a river (Vannote et al., 1980; Bowes et al., 2003).iogeochemical processes occurring in the entire catchment andydrological pulses affect the water quality along the river contin-um, because they trigger off the surface runoff and erosion, andhey influence the sedimentation and nutrient deposition (Junkt al., 1989; Altinakar et al., 2006; Magnuszewski et al., 2007;iedrzynska et al., 2008a).
Nitrogen and phosphorous are the two elements that control theroductivity of aquatic ecosystems to the largest extent, and their
oad into the river systems depends on a number of factors, includ-ng (apart from the hydrological factors affecting the transportynamics of those elements) point and diffuse land-based sourcesnd the processes occurring in a river, leading to transformation,etention and elimination of nutrients during their downstreamravel along the river continuum (Billen et al., 2007; Kiedrzynskat al., 2010; Urbaniak et al., 2012). Therefore, concentration ofitrogen and phosphorus at different parts of a river can varyignificantly in response to short-term changes in discharges andong-term changes in the land use and human population. Theseisturbances can lead to changes in the shifts of nutrient limitationatterns, leading to fundamental changes in the structure andunction of the ecosystem (Conley et al., 1993). However, only fewtudies have investigated these effects on a catchment scale along a
iver continuum, because of the resources required for regular sam-ling across a large geographical area over a period of years (Bowest al., 2003; Buszewski et al., 2005). Bowes et al. (2003) suggest aermanent increase of nutrients along the river continuum, which
E. Kiedrzynska et al. / Ecological Engineering 70 (2014) 337–348 343
Table 5Total wastewater outflow from domestic, industrial and municipal WWTPs in the differential subcatchment located between particular riverine monitoring stations (R1–R6)along the Pilica River continuum in 2010.
Differential subcatchment Outflow of WW from WWTPs [m3 year−1] Total outflowof Pilica [mil-lion m3 year−1]
% of wastewaterin the river totaloutflow
Domestic Industrial Municipal Total outflowin differentialsubcatchments
R1 121,357 572,910 1,679,042 2,373,309 929.5 0.26R1–R2 160,562 9524 1,012,988 1,183,074 1683.0 0.07R2–R3 85,143 115,046 5,691,703 5,891,892 1536.8 0.38R3–R4 249,577 425,428 3,960,698 4,635,703 1629.8 0.28R4–R5 14,372 45,051 91,529 150,952 1941.5 0.01R5–R6 92,557 380,208 2,663,677 3,136,442 2216.0 0.14E–Estuary to the Vistula 400 7367 962,736 970,503
Total outflow [m3 year−1] 723,968 1,555,534 16,062,373 18,341,875% in the total wastewater outflow [%] 4 8 88Total number of WWTPs 46 47 50Average % of WW in the river outflow [%]
F − − +
fb
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ig. 4. The average daily outflow of (A) TP, SRP and (B) TN, NO3 , NO2 , NH4 loadrom WWTPs of various size classes in the Pilica River catchment in the periodetween 19 May 2010 and 19 May 2011 (range – standard deviation).
s consistent with the results of these study. The present studyupplements the previous research on the hydrological pattern andutrient transport in the Pilica River continuum and the Sulejów
eservoir. According to the study by Urbaniak et al. (2012) thereas 45% reduction of the suspended particulate matter (SPM),1% of SRP and 28% of TP concentrations between the inflow andutflow from the reservoir, which was caused by sedimentation of
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ineral and organic matter in the reservoir. Another study moni-ored phosphorus concentrations along the River Swale and showsonsiderable changes in the phosphorus dynamics along the riverontinuum (Bowes et al., 2003). Phosphorus in the lowland part ofhe river was transported predominantly in the particulate formnd the seasonality of phosphorus export increased down the riverontinuum. They observed that 85% of the TP exported from theiver Swale was generated within the lowland zone and the lowestates of phosphorus export usually occurred in the summer monthsBowes et al., 2003). In study period, we also observed a large meanoncentration of TP, SRP, TN and NO3
− in inflow to the reservoir andsmaller mean concentration in outflow, and higher concentrationf NO2
− and NH4+ in the outflow than inflow (Table 3). These
esults show the dynamic of the nitrogen cycle in the river contin-um and reservoir which appears in a number of oxidation states.ifferent nitrogen transformations may permanently occur in
iver floodplains and ecotones of the river bed and the littoral zonef reservoirs, and may involve several microbiological processes.hese results may indicate denitrification, which is a microbiallyacilitated process of nitrate (NO3
−) reduction that may produceolecular nitrogen (N2) through a series of intermediate gaseous
itrogen oxide products (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007). The processs performed primarily by heterotrophic bacteria such as Paracoc-us denitrificans and various pseudomonads (Mitsch and Gosselink,007). Another possible nitrogen transformation is mineralizationhat converts organically bound nitrogen to ammonium nitrogens the organic matter is being decomposed and degraded. Thisathway occurs under both anaerobic and aerobic conditionsnd is often referred to as ammonification. Once the ammoniumon (NH4+) is formed, it can be absorbed by plants through theiroot system in the ecotone zone of the river and littoral zone ofhe reservoir. Another possible transformation that occurs in anerobic environment is nitrification, where ammonium nitrogenan be oxidized in two steps by Nitrosomonas sp. and by Nitrobacterp. (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007). Nitrification can also occur inhe oxidized rhizosphere of littoral plants, where adequate oxygens often available to convert the ammonium nitrogen to nitrateitrogen.
It is necessary to introduce the sustainable basin managementn terms of point sources of pollution in catchment, and also
anagement of river floodplain wetlands and ecotones (Copper,994; Borin et al., 2005; Nairn and Mitsch, 2000), which affectshe quality of water based on the restoration of natural mecha-
isms determining the ecosystems and functioning of landscapes.n large lowland rivers, floodplain wetlands and riparian eco-ones play an important role in the water quality improvementy affecting the physical filtration of lotic water and biochemical
344 E. Kiedrzynska et al. / Ecological Engineering 70 (2014) 337–348
F unics
pTSat2embs1td
1msnprafil
ig. 5. Distribution and volume flow of wastewater from domestic, industrial and mtations (R1–R6) along the Pilica River continuum in 2010.
rocesses of uptake and accumulation of nutrients by vegetation.hey slowdown the water velocity affecting the sedimentation ofPM (Magnuszewski et al., 2005; Kiedrzynska et al., 2008a), as wells the retention and accumulation of phosphorus and nitrogen inhe plant biomass (Kiedrzynska et al., 2008b; Skłodowski et al.,014). Additionally, a naturally meandering channel with extensivecotone zones and large floodplain wetlands with autochthonicacrophyte vegetation and willows play a very important role,
ecause they create specific habitats for microorganisms respon-
ible for self-purification processes (Beursknes and Stolterder,995; Sumorok and Kiedrzynska, 2007) and reduce the concen-ration of nutrients and micropollutants in the water column andecrease their transport along the river continuum (Walling et al.,(drr
ipal WWTPs in the subcatchments located between particular riverine monitoring
996; Skłodowski et al., 2014; Urbaniak et al., 2014a,b). Further-ore, riparian vegetation is crucial for regulating (decreasing) the
tream temperature by evaporative cooling, which is essential forative aquatic species responsible for the process of water self-urification (Sinokrot and Stefan, 1993; Correll, 2005). A riveriparian system of the Alluvial Zone National Park in Austria servess a major sink for suspended sediments (250 mt ha−1 year−1),ne particulate organic matter (FPOM, 96 mt ha−1 year−1), particu-
ate organic carbon (POC, 2.9 mt ha−1 year−1), and nitrate-nitrogen
0.96 mt ha−1 year−1) (Tockner et al., 1999). Mitsch et al. (1979)emonstrated that an alluvial river swamp in southern Illinoisetained 3.6 g m−2 year−1 of phosphorus (P) with sediments duringiver flooding.
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Changes related to river channelization negatively affect theelf-purification processes, so in the case of large wastewaternflows from point sources, it is important that a riverbed has the
ost natural character along the entire river continuum, as well ascotone zones and floodplain wetlands.
.2. The Polish supply of nutrients into the Baltic Sea compared tother countries
Poland is one of the nine countries situated in the catchmentrea of the Baltic Sea, which greatly contributes to the pollution ofhe Baltic Sea. The Polish territory is almost entirely located in theatchment area of the Baltic Sea (99.7%), which includes the Vistulaiver (168,700 km2, 54% of the total Polish territory) and the Oderiver (106,100 km2, 33.9% of the total Polish territory) and severalmall rivers flowing directly into the sea (PCSO, 2010). The highestollutant loads to the Baltic Sea come from the Vistula River; theyeach 70% of the total loads and much lower from the Oder RiverBuszewski et al., 2005). A large concentration of industry, espe-ially in areas which are source sections of the Vistula, the Odernd the Pilica River, but also along their entire courses generatessignificant amount of the industrial and municipal and domesticastewater (Brügmann and Matschullat, 1997).
In 2011, the population of Poland was 38.538 million, including0.7% in urban areas and 39.3% in rural areas (PCSO, 2011). Theverage number of persons per 1 km2 amounts to 123 (ca. 1082 inities, and 51 in rural areas), which is the highest rate among theountries of the Baltic Sea catchment.
In 2012, wastewater treatment plants in Poland serviced only9% of the population (92% in urban areas and 33% in rural areas,here about 39% of the population lives). Only 500 towns (908
otal) and 643 rural communes (2479 total) were serviced by mod-rn WWTPs with the increased nutrients removal (PCSO, 2013).
As evidenced by the results for the Pilica River catchment, WWs treated insufficiently, because the limits concentration of TPnd TN were repeatedly exceeded. For example, the concentra-ion in the effluent flowing from small municipal WWTPs (<2000.e.) averaged 9.24 mg TP dm−3 (max. 68.31 mg TP dm−3), while therban Wastewater Treatment Directive norm (91/271/EEC) is up
o 5 TP mg dm−3, and the average concentration for medium-sizedWTPs (from 2000 to <10,000 p.e.) was 4.08 mg TP dm−3 (max.
3.63 mg TP dm−3) (Fig. 3), while the standard is 2 mg TP dm−3.n large WWTPs, the situation is slightly better, because the
ean concentration was 1.97 mg TP dm−3 (max. 6.97 mg TP dm−3),hen according to the Directive, the standard wastewater ismg TP dm−3. Also nitrogen significantly exceeded the limit con-entrations: two times for class I (average concentration of2.06 mg TN dm−3, the TN norm according to the Directive is0 mg dm−3), two times for class II (mean 33.67 mg dm−3, the TNorm is 15 mg TN dm−3), and three times for class IV (mean con-entration of 45.97 mg TN dm−3, the norm is 15 mg TN dm−3). Suchigh concentrations and cumulative loads of nutrients (Fig. 2) dis-harged from the Pilica catchment and from the biggest Polishivers into the Baltic Sea, place Poland in the 1st place in the rank-ng of the Baltic countries (Table 6). The TP load of 0.026 t km−2
laced Poland in the 4th place in 2008 (HELCOM, 2011). In the casef TN loads into the Baltic Sea, the Polish contribution was over 22%144,499 t) in 2008 and also classify Poland as the largest supplierTable 6).
As a result of extensive modernization of the legislative andastewater sector in Poland, the amount of discharged loads
ecreased by 35% of TP and 25% of TN compared to the year of 2000.owever, the analysis showed that the average TP and TN load dis-harged from the Pilica catchment amounted to 0.057 t TP km−2nd 1.655 t TN km−2 (Table 6), respectively, and were significantly
ineering 70 (2014) 337–348 345
igher than the annual average loads for the Polish territory. Sucharge loads were due to the occurrence of very large floods andhe wet year with about two times higher average annual outflowTable 3), inducing the intensified transport of nutrients, whichere washed out from the catchment area. The climate scenar-
os presented in the BACC Author Team (2008) show that in thealtic basin floods will be more frequent. Climate scenarios warnhat summer runoff may decrease by 50%, whereas in winter it
ay increase by up to 70%. This will further increase the transportf nutrients load to the sea. According to Meier et al. (2012) thempact of climate change on the Baltic biogeochemistry might beignificant, adding stress to the Baltic ecosystem due to eutrophi-ation. Therefore, nutrient load reductions to meet current legaltandards will not be sufficient to improve the water quality at thend of the 21st century.
.3. Ecohydrology for reversing Baltic Sea eutrophication
In order to achieve a good ecological status of the Baltic Seay 2021 (BSAP, 2007), the reduction of nutrient loads from pointources should be combined with the efforts to reduce loadsrom the landscape. According to HELCOM (2011) the wastewaterreatment levels required by Recommendation 28E/5 are 70–80%eduction for nitrogen and 90% reduction for phosphorus for citiesbove 10,000 inhabitants. For cities between 2000 and 10,000nhabitants, the reduction targets are 80% for phosphorus and 30%or nitrogen. In the Polish case, this applies to the phosphorus loadeduction to the level of 8760 t TP year−1 and the reduction of nitro-en load to 62,400 t TN year−1 (HELCOM, 2011).
Ecohydrology provides scientific understanding of the hydrol-gy/biota interplay in the catchment, and a systemic frameworkn how to use ecosystem processes to Integrated Water Resourcesanagement (IWRM), complementary to applied hydrotechni-
al solutions and ecological engineering (Zalewski, 2000; Mitscht al., 2008; Wagner et al., 2009; Zalewski, 2011). Prevention ofutrophication by reduction of the input of nutrients into thealtic Sea will be possible by improving the carrying capacityf ecosystems (Zalewski, 2009a,b) and integration of sustainableastewater management and planning the land use in particular
iver catchments and in the direct Baltic catchment area. Pre-ention of eutrophication should incorporate a few-steps strategyased on ecohydrological principles. Recommended activities ares follows:
) Change of thinking – A change of thinking from technical toecohydrological is needed and understanding that the improve-ment of water quality in eutrophic water ecosystems is along-term process. Furthermore, a change in the mode ofaction from a narrow to a multi-faceted sector, which uses thelatest knowledge about functioning of the water ecosystemsand changeability of processes, analytical methods and high-performance digital technology (e.g. Kaczorowski et al., 2006;Bieniecki and Kiedrzynska, 2006) for large-scale imaging andvisualization of processes;
) WWTPs – The development and implementation of a new tech-nology of sewage treatment and disposal of sewage sludge, aswell as construction of modern WWTPs is needed. It is necessaryto implement a more efficient technology of using the biolog-ical processes for effective capture of nutrients, heavy metalsand degradation of micropollutants. It is essential to eliminateillegal point sources of pollution. Furthermore, the wastewa-
ter treatment should focus not only on nutrient removal butalso on nutrient recovery, e.g. phosphorus (P) as struvite. Thisis a promising method of P removal from liquid through pre-cipitation of magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate
346 E. Kiedrzynska et al. / Ecological Engineering 70 (2014) 337–348
Table 6TP and TN loads discharged into the Baltic Sea from the Baltic States (HELCOM, 2011), and TP and TN load outflow from the Pilica River catchment in the study period from19 May 2010 to 19 May 2011.
TP load
t year−1 t year−1 t km−2 t km−2 kg person−1 kg person−1
2000 2008 2000 2008 2000 2008
Poland 12,559 8137 Denmark 0.060 0.070 Latvia 0.96 1.27Finland 4835 5213 Latvia 0.034 0.045 Estonia 0.74 1.05Sweden 4946 3641 Estonia 0.021 0.030 Finland 0.91 0.98Russia 6196 3553 Poland 0.040 0.026 Lithuania 0.57 0.49Latvia 2207 2928 Lithuania 0.030 0.026 Denmark 0.38 0.45Denmark 1865 2191 Finland 0.016 0.017 Sweden 0.54 0.40Lithuania 1950 1678 Germany 0.017 0.012 Russia 0.67 0.39Estonia 965 1370 Russia 0.020 0.011 Poland 0.33 0.21Germany 488 333 Sweden 0.011 0.008 Germany 0.16 0.11Total 36,011 29,044 Average 0.028 0.027 Average 0.59 0.60
Average load outflow from the Pilica River catchment 0.057 t TP km−2
TN load
t year−1 t year−1 t km−2 t km−2 kg person−1 kg person−1
2000 2008 2000 2008 2000 2008
Poland 191,752 144,499 Estonia 0.864 1.486 Russia 31.36 26.44Sweden 151,069 120,413 Russia 1.116 0.941 Lithuania 38.32 25.27Finland 101,368 100,566 Lithuania 1.105 0.728 Sweden 28.50 22.72Latvia 67,493 89,963 Denmark 0.904 0.660 Denmark 17.34 12.65Russia 72,125 60,802 Germany 0.650 0.483 Finland 11.14 11.05Estonia 26,874 46,230 Poland 0.615 0.463 Latvia 7.34 9.78Denmark 58,972 43,002 Sweden 0.501 0.400 Estonia 5.48 9.43Lithuania 49,818 32,845 Latvia 0.214 0.286 Germany 6.00 4.46Germany 18,602 13,823 Finland 0.230 0.229 Poland 5.03 3.79
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(MgNH4−·PO4·6H2O), commonly known as struvite (Nelson
et al., 2003). Struvite is a valuable slow-release fertilizer, thusthe recovered precipitate can be easily used for the removal ofnutrients from WWTPs and farms. Pilot- and full-scale wastetreatment systems that use struvite precipitation to remove Pfrom industrial wastewater (Unitika, 1994), municipal waste-water (Liberti et al., 1986; Ohlinger et al., 2000) are reported tobe in operation.
) Catchment – Increasing the vegetation mosaic of a catchmentand extension of ecotone buffer zones both in the upper, mid-dle and lower parts of a catchment, which act as biofilteringsystems that slow down the water runoff from a catchmentto river ecosystems and restrict the transfer of nutrient andpollutants through phytoremediation processes – phytoaccu-mulation, phytodegradation, phytostabilisation, rhizofiltration,rhizodegradation (Singh and Ward, 2004; Bhandari et al., 2007;Sumorok and Kiedrzynska, 2007). The creation of ecotone zonesbased on native species should be recommended, as diversifiedplant communities possess the highest potential for nutrientassimilation (Kiedrzynska and Zalewski, 2012; Kiedrzynski et al.,2014; Skłodowski et al., 2014). Furthermore, it is important todevelop actions and technologies to increase the water perme-ability in catchments and to reduce the outflow of contaminatedwater via rivers;
) Floodplains – A more proactive approach is needed to acttowards environmental river engineering and towards riverfloodplain rehabilitation and restoration, without destroyingtheir ecological and aesthetic functions. Vegetation of rivervalleys and floodplains should be used and managed as toenhance their potential for nutrient retention and accumulation
(Kiedrzynska et al., 2008b). For example, according Kiedrzynskaet al. (2008b) the annual phosphorus accumulation in biomasson the Pilica River floodplain is over 10 kg ha−1, which can stillbe improved by biomass sequential cropping. A key issue ofwhB2
0.631 Average 16.72 13.95he Pilica River catchment 1.655 t TN km−2
floodplain management is the incorporation of novel solutionsincluded in the Declaration on Sustainable Floodplain Manage-ment (Zalewski and Kiedrzynska, 2010).
) Urban areas – Increasing the water and nutrients retentioncapacity of aquatic ecosystems in urban areas by building cas-cade systems of reservoirs preceded by a sequential biofilteringsystems. These reservoirs can enhance the sedimentation capac-ity, and the organic fraction of sediments can be used forbioenergy production (Wagner and Breil, 2013). Similar conceptwas also implemented in the Zala River basin (Hungary) where,by complementing the wastewater treatment plants with a sys-tem of additional, specially designed reservoirs and periodicallyflooded vegetated areas, the inflow of phosphorus into Lake Bal-aton was reduced by 80% (Zalewski, 2005). Another exampleis the use of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatmenthas been broadly discussed by Bastian and Hammer (1993) andNairn and Mitsch (2000).
The water quality crisis proves that the sustainable manage-ent of water and wastewater in different catchments should be
hanged from a narrow technical approach to a broader approach,hat will take the ecological and ecohydrological processes intoccount. These solutions represent greater potential to control pro-esses rather than being purely technical solutions and engineeringervices, and additionally, they are more environmentally friendly,nd require less financial investment.
The management of the Baltic Sea needs both specificationf instruments, and integration of science, administration andolicy sectors (Pihlajamäki and Tynkkynen, 2011). Sustainable
ay of action should be supported by cooperation of all stake-older groups and governance levels. The carrying capacity of thealtic Sea ecosystem has to be the common priority (Mee et al.,008).
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. Conclusions
The environmental threat to the Baltic Sea is one of the mostmportant environmental problems for nine Baltic countries. Largeoads of nutrients derived mainly from wastewater treatmentlants delivered via rivers to the sea, are responsible for pollu-ion, eutrophication, and consequently, the development of toxicyanobacterial blooms, hypoxia and the extinction of species.
Spatial analysis of nutrients loads in the river catchment is diffi-ult due to point and diffused nature of their sources. The complexystem of water and nutrients flow can be simplified by splitting thehole catchment into a cascade of differential subcatchments con-
rolled by monitoring stations, which enables the interpretation ofhanges in water properties along the river continuum and helps tonderstand the efficiency and mechanism of river self-purification.
This study proved that the Sulejów Reservoir are importantlace of self-purification, which improves the water quality in riverownstream but creates the problem of eutrophication in the reser-oir. Long-term water retention in the reservoir is favourable foredimentation and reduction of both TP and TN. The study alsohowed the gradual increase in the TP and TN concentration alonghe Pilica River continuum, which was caused by the inflow ofutrients, mainly from municipal WWTPs located along the riverontinuum. The analysis indicates that wastewater in WWTPs isreated insufficiently, because the concentrations of TP and TNere repeatedly exceeded. It is more difficult to maintain the cor-
ect treatment parameters of small WWTPs than in the case ofarge ones, which have more advanced technology to capture theutrients. Nonetheless, mainly large WWTPs are responsible forignificant pollution in the Pilica River and large loads of nutrientsischarged from the catchment into the Vistula River, and in conse-uence they are partly responsible for eutrophication of the Balticea. The Pilica River and the presence of multiple point sourcesf pollution in the catchment is very typical for many Polish rivers,nd therefore the results of this study are expected to be applicablen many similar catchments.
Sustainable management of point sources of pollution shoulde based on more frequent and comprehensive analysis of WWTPsffectiveness on the catchment scale, as it was attempted in thisrticle, and not on the scale of administrative division of the region.eduction of the nutrient concentrations in wastewater and reduc-ion of WWTPs failure should be one of the most important goals ofastewater management. WWTPs employ physical, chemical and
iological methods to improve the wastewater quality, but also aechnology with increased nutrients capture and nutrients recovern treatment plants in all Baltic drainage catchments is neces-ary. Combining a new form of wastewater purification technology,cological engineering, biotechnological and ecohydrological solu-ions, and phytoremediation in individual catchments gives hopef improving the quality of lotic waters and overcoming the over-ertilization the Baltic Sea.
cknowledgments
The research was funded by the Polish Ministry of Sciencend Higher Education (Project – NN305 365738. ‘Analysis of pointources pollution of nutrients, dioxins and dioxin-like compoundsn the Pilica River catchment and draw up of reclamation methods’.
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