Portugal: Political Organization of Colonial EmpireSpanish, Portuguese spent 700 years reclaiming land from Muslims

• State supported, state financed campaign• Well trained, well motivated, army and navy• State gets its tenth of conquests, soldiers get a share of

profits, too• Aristocrats obtain estates with feudal labor (Muslims)

King distributed land as estates to European landowners• Provinces overseen by Captain-Generals ruling almost as feudal

lords• Colonial court resides in Salvador

Pursued mercantilism, autocratic reform from top down• Brazil became the centerpiece of his reforms

• Vigorous, honest colonial administrators

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Portugal: Economic Structure of Colonial Empire► Direct trade without Muslim intermediaries

Bypass Italian trade monopolies with Ottomans Asian spice trade African gold, ivory, and slaves

► Model for Exploitation based on Canaries, Azores example Enslave natives, give land to Europeans Plantations set up for export of sugar Enslaved natives die off, import slaves, usually Africans

► Portuguese empire in Brazil dependent on sugar production Colonial Brazilian life revolved around sugar mill, or engenho Engenho combined agricultural and industrial enterprises Sugar planters became the landed nobility Brazil was the first European sugar plantation colony and a

model for others Imported African slaves

► For cane, sugar production after 1530 ► High death rate, low birth rate ► Constant demand for slaves ► Roughly, every ton of sugar cost one human life

Pursued mercantilism, autocratic reform from top down Brazil became the centerpiece of his reforms

► Monopolies created to exploit areas► Large importation of slaves began to increase production► Cotton, cocoa produced introduced

The Bourbon reforms in Spain's New World empire were paralleled by the Pombal reforms in Brazil. The Marquis of Pombal, Portugal's prime minister, wished to free Portugal from its negative balance of trade with England. As in Spain, Pombal expelled the Jesuits, who resisted his plans for reform. Monopolies were created in Brazil, leading to the opening of new regions.

Cotton and cacao plantations arose in the Amazon basin. In order to ensure a steady supply of slaves to Brazil, Pombal abolished slavery in Portugal. The colony continued to rely on African slaves as their primary labor source. Although Pombal's reforms did reduce Portugal's imbalance of trade with England, it could not revise Brazil's position within the world trade system as a supplier of raw materials.

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Portugal: Religious make-up of Colonial Empire► Missionary efforts of European Christians

Christians urged to spread the faith throughout the world ► Spanish and Portuguese missionaries introduced Catholicism

Mission schools and churches established Missionaries recorded languages, traditions Catholic Church attracted many converts Church taught Indians skills: farming, herding Church became protector of Indians

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Portugal: Social Structure of Colonial Empire•Restricted Church influence so he could use Indians as slaves•Encouraged immigration of Europeans, women to Brazil

Spanish social hierarchies were complicated by intermarriage between races. Marriages between Spaniards and Indians resulted in the creation of a group of mixed race, the mestizos, who were regarded as socially superior to the Indians and more acculturated to European patterns. Similar patterns of social hierarchy resulted from Europeans sexual exploitation of African slaves in Brazil. In all of Latin America, social status reflected racial origins. Whites were the elite, blacks or Indians were at the bottom, and peoples of mixed race were in between. Together, people of mixed racial origin were referred to as the castas. Castas found that the higher offices and economic positions were closed to them.

Despite social limitations, peoples of mixed race made up a large proportion of Latin American populations. Social mobility might result in changes in racial categorization, but being white was still the most obvious qualification for elite status. Even among whites, some distinctions were observed between those born in Europe, the Peninsulares, and those born in the Americas, Creoles. Peninsulares, about whose racial origins there could be no doubt, were regarded as truly elite. Creoles rapidly developed a sense of identity separate from the European white population. Regardless of racial origin, households remained patriarchal. Women did have rights in dowry, inheritance, and some access to commerce.

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Portugal: Interactions • African Slaves

• Africa had an overabundance of exportable labor• Europeans diverted slaves to Atlantic Coast• Slaves gradually introduced to Brazil, Caribbean• Slavery spread to coastlines of the Caribbean• Slaves used in plantation economies producing exportable cash

crops• Settlement of the Interior and Southern Plains

• Ranching becomes common to support mining and sugar plantations

• Church controlled missions protect Indians in communal livingCatholic Church and Royal Government were allies

• Church often functioned as a branch of the government• Established churches, schools in towns, frontier areas• Ran many of the social, intellectual activities of the

colonies• Catholic orders converted the Indians

• Settled the Indians in protected missions• Introduced farming, herding, industry to Indians

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Portugal: Artistic, Scientific, Inventions During the period of Colonial Empire

► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

► Church stimulates intellectual growth Needs artists, architects to build, beautify churches Printing presses tended to do mostly Church business First universities (Mexico City, Lima) organized, run by clergy

► Produced bureaucrats for empire, clergy for church► First universities in the Americas before Yale, Harvard

Sister Juana Ines de la Cruz► Mexican poet, musician, author, social thinker► Joined Church and became great theologian and social

thinker

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Portugal: Nature of the Colonial Empire► Portugal searched for fresh resources

Resource poor country blocked from expanding on land 13th to 15th century they ventured out onto Atlantic Established sugar plantations in Azores, Madiera

► Europeans replace Native Flora, fauna, cultural norms replace Indian Farmers, ranchers take over Indian lands Sheep, horses, cattle, crops replace Indians, varieties European culture seen as superior – it won, we should adopt it

► A Golden Age As interior was settled, gold was discovered A land rush and gold rush ensued which open up the interior

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Spanish: Political Structure of Colonial EmpireSpanish, Portuguese spent 700 years reclaiming land from Muslims

• State supported, state financed campaign• Well trained, well motivated, army and navy• State gets its tenth of conquests, soldiers get a share of

profits, too• Aristocrats obtain estates with feudal labor (Muslims)

Royal Administration arrives• Governorship, treasury office, royal courts, professional

magistrates• Capitals laid out in a grid pattern with royal palace,

cathedralAmericans began to resent distant control

• Local born Americans demand greater say in their own future• Urban riots, boycotts over foreign controls• Tax revolts• Slave revolts not uncommon• Revolts against mercantilist policies, controls

• Spanish: tobacco, liquor, taxes led to Comunero Revolt in 1781

• Tupac Amaru led Indian revolt in Peru in 1783• Lead up to the American Revolution: many Acts and then

actual rebellion

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Spanish: Economic Structure of Colonial Empire• Model for Exploitation based on Canaries, Azores example

• Enslave natives, give land to Europeans• Plantations set up for export of sugar• Enslaved natives die off, import slaves, usually Africans

• Different forms of labor, taxation created• Encomiendas used Indians as feudal like labor

• Old Indian models but now arbitrary, excessive• Ended 1540 as too threatening to royal power• Forced labor

• Mita in Peru• Cuatequil in Mexico

• Repartimiento replaces Encomienda system • Repartimiento redistributed natives for forced labor• Little different from encomienda • Except village decide whom to send as laborers• Natives moved around as migrant workers, laborers on

official duties17th century

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• Indians flee villages, work for landlords, in cities; done to avoid conscription

• Allowed Indians to choose work; began to work for wages• Silver more plentiful than gold

• The basis of Spanish New World wealth • Melted Aztec, Inca gold into ingots • Two major sites of silver mining

• Zacatecas (Mexico)• Potosi (Peru)

• Spanish Americas were largely an agrarian society• Coastal Plantations

• Produced cash crops for export: sugar, cocoa• Eventually required large imports of slave labor

• Large private estates (haciendas, estancias) set up• Were the basis of Spanish American production, aristocratic

wealth • Spanish transplanted Iberian model • Produced grains, grapes, cattle, horses, sheep

• Americas became self-sufficient for needs• Foods, textiles, tools produced locally• Luxuries imported• Raw materials, minerals exported

• Trade was mercantilist • Spanish government regulated trade• Trade routed through Spain: Cadiz, Seville• Only Spanish merchants could carry goods to Spain• All manufactures, imports had to come from Spain• Only Spaniards could sell products in Americas• Galleon convoys organized to protect, carry trade

• Ports to Spain: Veracruz, Cartagena, Havana• Ports to Manila, China: Acapulco

• Textile Industry• Woolens developed from sheep ranching• Leather industry developed from cattle• Cotton produced locally by Indians also woven

The Spanish colonies did develop a small woolen textile industry that supplied colonial markets. Spanish commercial objectives were directed at exploitation of mineral wealth, specifically silver. All American trade with Spain passed through the Casa de Contratacion of Seville. Strict control of trade allowed Spanish merchants to keep prices high. To discourage piracy and competition from other European nations, Spanish trade with its colonies was shipped in a convoy system composed of galleons. Trade from

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Europe passed to fortified ports in the Caribbean and along the American mainland.

Although a seemingly endless supply of silver entered Spain, much of it was eventually exported to pay for military service, debts, and a negative balance of trade. Importation of American bullion contributed to sharp inflation in first Spain, then the rest of Europe. Spain's control of the silver trade permitted its monarchs to incur massive debts on the security of American bullion.

Spanish: Religious Structure of Colonial EmpireConquest involved violence, murder, theft

• Raised moral, philosophical questions• Many scholars justified it as (Sepulveda)

• Bring civilization, Christianity to backward• Conquest of inferior by a superior culture

Spanish missionaries introduced Catholicism • Mission schools and churches established • Missionaries recorded languages, traditions• Catholic Church attracted many converts• Church taught Indians skills: farming, herding• Church became protector of Indians

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Spanish: Social Structure of Colonial Empire• Decline of Indian Population by 1750

• Drops from 125 million to 5 million• Caribbean Indians disappeared• Mexico: from 22 to 2 million by 1580• Peru: from 10 to 1.5 million by 1590• Diseases: smallpox, influenza, measles

• Results• Whole areas abandoned• Indian traditions, social norms questioned • Economic structures collapse

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• 1550: Spanish King calls commission to investigate• Bartolome de las Casas spoke against Sepulveda• Defended Indians, their lives, conquest unjustified• Crown backs de las Casas but conquest too much wealth to

ignore• Crown orders worst abuses halted• Takes direct control of colonies, creates royal government

• African Slaves • Africa had an overabundance of exportable labor• Europeans diverted slaves to Atlantic Coast• Slaves gradually introduced to Brazil, Caribbean• Slavery spread to coastlines of the Caribbean• Slaves used in plantation economies producing exportable cash

crops• In Spanish and Portuguese settlements, mestizo societies emerged

• Peoples of varied ancestry lived together under European rule • Peninsulares were European born who dominated government,

society• Creoles were American born Europeans who ran economy, few

rights • Mestizo: Mixed descent of Spanish and Portuguese men, native

women • Many distinctions based on color, heritage• Society of Brazil more thoroughly mixed: mestizos,

mulattoes, zambos • Typical social and racial hierarchy in Iberian colonies

• Strict hierarchy• Whites (peninsulares and criollos) owned the land and held the

power • Mixed races (mestizos and zambos) performed much of the

manual labor • Africans and American natives were at the bottom

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Spain and Portugal were heavily urbanized, a characteristic these nations exported to the New World. Spanish and Portuguese colonists, though commoners at home, often attempted to remake themselves as a colonial elite with Indians as their serfs. Households were patriarchal, a trait carried over to the plantation economy of Latin America. The Spanish state depended on a professional bureaucracy and was closely tied to the Church. Plantation agriculture based on slave labor, already established on the Atlantic islands, was readily transported to the Americas.

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Spanish: InteractionsColumbus and Successors

• Early Successes • Arrive Bahamas, Hispaniola• Built fort of Santo Domingo• 1511: controlled Cuba, Puerto Rico• 1520: controlled Lesser Antilles

Catholic Church and Royal Government were allies• Church often functioned as a branch of the government

• Established churches, schools in towns, frontier areas• Ran many of the social, intellectual activities of the

colonies• Catholic orders converted the Indians

• Settled the Indians in protected missions• Introduced farming, herding, industry to Indians

Crisis of the 18th Century: Shifting Balance of Trade and Politics• Spanish model outmoded, Spanish hold on Americas not secure• Increasing wars, competition from Northern Europeans

• French seize Santo Domingo, some lesser Antilles, Mississippi Valley

• English seize Jamaica, Bahamas, some lesser Antilles, E. North America

• Dutch seize Aruba, other lesser Antilles• Failure of Spanish central administration to control colonies• Decline of Spanish industry, merchants, treasure fleets

Pacific Islands• Spain and the Pacific

• Pacific had been a Spanish possession until 19th century (Philippines, Micronesia)

• Spanish yearly shipments of silver from Mexico to China ended in 1812

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Spanish: Arts, Sciences, Technologies► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

► Church stimulates intellectual growth Needs artists, architects to build, beautify churches Printing presses tended to do mostly Church business First universities (Mexico City, Lima) organized, run by clergy

► Produced bureaucrats for empire, clergy for church► First universities in the Americas before Yale, Harvard

Sister Juana Ines de la Cruz► Mexican poet, musician, author, social thinker► Joined Church and became great theologian and social

thinker

16

Spanish: Nature Of the Colonial Empire• Europeans replace Native

• Flora, fauna, cultural norms replace Indian• Farmers, ranchers take over Indian lands• Sheep, horses, cattle, crops replace Indians, varieties• European culture seen as superior – it won, we should adopt it

17

Holland: Political Structure of the Colonial Empire• Colonial government different from Iberian colonies

• North American colonies controlled by private investors • Little royal financial support except protection, taxation• Royal authority/governors, but also institutions of self-

government• The Dutch had no patience for democratic institutions. The point of

the colony was to enrich its stockholders.

• Slavery was common during the Dutch era, as the DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY was one of the most prominent in the world's trade of slaves.

• Dutch national identity emerged during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, especially in the struggle for independence from Catholic Spain during the Eighty Year War (1568–1648). The Dutch people received independence from the House of Habsburg in the Treaty of Munster in 1648. The Netherlands was temporarily unified with Belgium after the Congress of Vienna. The Catholic Belgian elite sought its freedom from the Protestant Dutch, and Belgium became independent in 1839.

• y. Dutch national identity emerged from the struggle for political sovereignty and religious freedom from the Catholic Habsburgs (Philip II). The Dutch merchant class formed an alliance with the House of Orange; the merchants supplied the funds to wage war, while the House of Orange provided political stability and military protection. Politics became more dependent on consensus and negotiation than on authoritarian rule as power rested in the hands of provincial viceroys.

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Holland: Economic Structure of Colonial EmpireDutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East India) South Africa

• Settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth century

• By 1800 was a European settler colony with enslaved black African population

"Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies

empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian

Congo unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule

Joint-stock companies • Dutch East Indies, English East/West Indies Companies• Organized commerce on a new scale • Authorized to explore, conquer, colonize distant lands

English, French, Dutch create smaller empires on fringes• Caribbean holdings more profitable than North American

colonies• Caribbean islands and Southern American colonies

Export sugar, rice, tobacco, cotton, indigo rice Dominated by slaves, plantations; relied on importation

of Africans for labor

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Holland: Religious Structure of Colonial Empire

The Netherlands has for centuries provided a safe haven for ethnic minorities fleeing from discrimination and persecution, with each minority influencing Dutch culture in its own way. Many Jews from Spain and Portugal and Protestant merchants from the Spanish-ruled southern Netherlands sought refuge in the Dutch Republic in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

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Holland: Social Structure of Colonial Empire• North American societies

• Greater gender balance among settlers allowed marriage within own groups

• Cultural borrowing: plants, crops, deerskin clothes, words, ideas of nature

•

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Holland: Interactions• Relations with indigenous peoples in North America

• Settlers' farms interrupted the migrations of indigenous peoples

• Settlers seized lands, then justified with treaties • Natives retaliated with raids on farms and villages • Attacks on European communities brought reprisals from

settlers• France actually got along very well with native populations • Between 1500 & 1800, native population of North America

dropped 90%Crisis of the 18th Century: Shifting Balance of Trade and Politics

• Spanish model outmoded, Spanish hold on Americas not secure• Increasing wars, competition from Northern Europeans

• Dutch seize Aruba, other lesser AntillesThe Dutch Empire comprised the overseas territories controlled by the Dutch Republic and later, the modern Netherlands from the 17th to the 20th century. The Dutch followed Portugal and Spain in establishing an overseas colonial empire, but based on military conquest of already-

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existing Portuguese and Spanish settlements, and not on discovery and colonization. For this, they were aided by their skills in shipping and trade and the surge of nationalism accompanying the struggle for independence from Spain. Alongside the British, the Dutch initially built up colonial possessions on the basis of indirect state capitalist corporate colonialism, via the Dutch East and West India Companies. Dutch exploratory voyages such as those led by Willem Barents, Henry Hudson and Abel Tasman revealed to Europeans vast new territories.

The rapid expansion of the Dutch merchant fleet enabled the establishment of a worldwide network of trade relations that created naval dominance and increasing wealth for the merchant class. Handicapped by a small population (670,000 inhabitants in 1622) and besieged by growing English and French might, the Dutch Republic began to decline. Paradoxically, at that time, the conspicuous consumption of the wealthy merchant class

Holland: Arts, Sciences, Technologies► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

23

Holland: Nature of the Colonial Empire • Holland & Sweden: New York, Pennsylvania-Delaware• Caribbean: owned sugar islands earning more than N. America

24

France: Political Structure of the Colonial Empire• Colonial government different from Iberian colonies

• North American colonies controlled by private investors • Little royal financial support except protection, taxation

25

• Royal authority/governors, but also institutions of self-government

Direct rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--French model • justified by "civilizing mission" • hard to find enough European personnel

France: Economic Structure of Colonial Empire

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The fur trade was very profitable • Native peoples trapped for and traded with Europeans• Hudson Bay Co. (England) and French dominate trade from

Canada New England, Mid Atlantic, Canadian Atlantic small farms

• Rich investors, aristocrats acquire best lands downriver, near coast

• New York, Southern colonies tended towards larger estates, plantations

• Cultivation of cash crops—grain, tobacco, rice, indigo, and later, cotton

Economic Structure: mostly trading and gaining natural resources such as fish and lumber; in Haiti a plantation system did develop with use of slave labor

27

France: Religious Structure of Colonial EmpireFrench and English missions less successful than Spanish

• North American populations not settled or captive • English colonists had little interest in converting indigenous

peoples • French missionaries worked actively, but met only modest

success• Jesuits, Franciscans successful with Iroquois, S. American

Indians

28

France: Social Structure of Colonial EmpireNorth American societies

• Greater gender balance among settlers allowed marriage within own groups

• Relationships of French traders and native women generated some métis

• English disdainful of interracial marriages, going “native” • Cultural borrowing: plants, crops, deerskin clothes, words,

ideas of natureReestablish European feudal, aristocratic society often including cattle

• Indentured labor flocked to North America in 17 th and 18 th centuries

• Many came to Americas as a way to work off passage • After contract over, stake own land claims in backwoods

(Irish, Scotts)African slaves replaced indentured servants in late 17th century

• Slaves not yet prominent in North America (lack of labor-intensive crops)

• New England merchants participated in slave trade, distillation of rum

Social Structure: not as defined as Spanish and Portuguese; mostly male settlers to conduct business; not a large French population living in colonies

29

France: InteractionsRelations with indigenous peoples in North America

• Settlers' farms interrupted the migrations of indigenous peoples

• Settlers seized lands, then justified with treaties • Natives retaliated with raids on farms and villages • Attacks on European communities brought reprisals from

settlers• France actually got along very well with native populations • Between 1500 & 1800, native population of North America

dropped 90%Impact of the fur trade

• Environmental impact • Conflicts among natives competing for resources• Many Indian wars especially as Iroquois came to dominate

Great LakesCrisis of the 18th Century: Shifting Balance of Trade and Politics

• Spanish model outmoded, Spanish hold on Americas not secure• Increasing wars, competition from Northern Europeans

• French seize Santo Domingo, some lesser Antilles, Mississippi Valley

French and Indian Wars• English, French contest for North America

• British government forced to pay for defense• Many burdens, deprivations fell on colonists

• Resulted in the loss of colonies by French

30

France: Arts, Sciences, Technologies► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

31

France: Nature of the Colonial Empire• Foundation of colonies on east coast, exploration of west coast

• France, England came seeking fur, fish, trade routes in early 17th century

• Settlements suffered isolation, food shortages• France: St. Lawrence Valley, Mississippi Valley, Great Lakes

Region• Caribbean: owned sugar islands earning more than N. America

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Established colonies in North America and the Caribbean: Canada, Haiti

Great Britain: Political Structure of the Colonial Empire• Colonial government different from Iberian colonies

• North American colonies controlled by private investors • Little royal financial support except protection, taxation• Royal authority/governors, but also institutions of self-

governmentEnglish needed colonists to pay for local defenses

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• Created a series of taxes, rules to raise funds• Colonists resented, resisted

• Colonists demand representation or no taxation• Colonists favored free trade, opposed mercantilism• English react by basically repealing English Bill of Rights

Americans began to resent distant control• Local born Americans demand greater say in their own future• Urban riots, boycotts over foreign controls• Tax revolts• Slave revolts not uncommon• Revolts against mercantilist policies, controls

• Spanish: tobacco, liquor, taxes led to Comunero Revolt in 1781

• Tupac Amaru led Indian revolt in Peru in 1783• Lead up to the American Revolution: many Acts and then

actual rebellion The British empire in India

• Company rule under the English East India Company • EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began

conquest of India in 1750s • Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay • Ruled with small British force, Indian troops called

sepoys • Sepoy Rebellion, 1857: attacks on British led to reprisals

• British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858 • British viceroy and high-level British civil service ruled

India • British appointed viceroy, ran all domestic, foreign policy • Indians held low-level bureaucratic positions

South Africa • British seized Cape Colony in early nineteenth century,

abolished slavery in 1833 Indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--British model

• worked best in African societies that were highly organized

• assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existedAustralia and New Zealand

• Both became settler colonies in the Pacific • 1770, Captain Cook reached Australia, reported it suitable for

settlement • 1788, one thousand settlers established colony of New

South Wales

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• Became a penal colony after loss of Georgia in American Revolution

• 1851, gold discovered; surge of European migration to Australia

35

Great Britain: Economic Structure of Colonial EmpireThe fur trade was very profitable

• Native peoples trapped for and traded with Europeans• Hudson Bay Co. (England) and French dominate trade from

Canada New England, Mid Atlantic, Canadian Atlantic small farms

• Rich investors, aristocrats acquire best lands downriver, near coast

• New York, Southern colonies tended towards larger estates, plantations

• Cultivation of cash crops—grain, tobacco, rice, indigo, and later, cotton

Economic restructuring of India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) • Introduction of commercial crops: tea, coffee, opium • Built railroads, telegraph lines, canals, harbors,

irrigation"Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies

• empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads • made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian

Congo • unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule

36

Great Britain: Religious Structure of Colonial EmpireFrench and English missions less successful than Spanish

• North American populations not settled or captive • English colonists had little interest in converting indigenous

peoples • French missionaries worked actively, but met only modest

success• Jesuits, Franciscans successful with Iroquois, S. American

Indians

37

Great Britain: Social Structure of Colonial EmpireNorth American societies

• Greater gender balance among settlers allowed marriage within own groups

• Relationships of French traders and native women generated some métis

• English disdainful of interracial marriages, going “native” • Cultural borrowing: plants, crops, deerskin clothes, words,

ideas of natureReestablish European feudal, aristocratic society often including cattle

• Indentured labor flocked to North America in 17th and 18th centuries

• Many came to Americas as a way to work off passage• After contract over, stake own land claims in backwoods

(Irish, Scotts)African slaves replaced indentured servants in late 17th century

• Slaves not yet prominent in North America (lack of labor-intensive crops)

• New England merchants participated in slave trade, distillation of rum

38

Great Britain: InteractionsRelations with indigenous peoples in North America

• Settlers' farms interrupted the migrations of indigenous peoples

• Settlers seized lands, then justified with treaties • Natives retaliated with raids on farms and villages • Attacks on European communities brought reprisals from

settlers• France actually got along very well with native populations • Between 1500 & 1800, native population of North America

dropped 90%Impact of the fur trade

• Environmental impact • Conflicts among natives competing for resources• Many Indian wars especially as Iroquois came to dominate

Great LakesAfrican Slaves

• Africa had an overabundance of exportable labor• Europeans diverted slaves to Atlantic Coast• Slaves gradually introduced to Brazil, Caribbean• Slavery spread to coastlines of the Caribbean• Slaves used in plantation economies producing exportable cash

cropsCrisis of the 18th Century: Shifting Balance of Trade and Politics

• Spanish model outmoded, Spanish hold on Americas not secure

39

• Increasing wars, competition from Northern Europeans• English seize Jamaica, Bahamas, some lesser Antilles, E.

North AmericaWar of Spanish Succession: First World War!

• Last Hapsburg king dies, sparks war• Empire willed to French king• English, Dutch refuse to accept agreement• French obtain Spain, colonies but lose much• English merchants to operate out of Seville• English to supply slaves to Spanish Americas (asciento)• English even get to send one ship a year to Americas to collect

silverIndia: Did not interfere with Indian culture, religion

• Established English-style schools for Indian elites • Outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, (sati)

Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia • "Great Game" refers to competition between Britain, Russia in

central Asia • By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers

of British India • Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never

colonized Afghanistan • Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991

Great Britain: Arts, Sciences, TechnologiesNew technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

Enlightenment ideas spread amongst colonists, local notables

40

Great Britain: Nature of the Colonial Empires• Foundation of colonies on east coast, exploration of west coast

• France, England came seeking fur, fish, trade routes in early 17th century

• Settlements suffered isolation, food shortages• England: Atlantic Seaboard, St. James Bay (Hudson’s Bay)• Caribbean: owned sugar islands earning more than N. America

41

Russia: Political Structure of the Colonial Empire

42

Russia: Economic Structure of Colonial Empire

43

Russia: Religious Structure of Colonial EmpireAutocracy, Orthodoxy, Conservatism

Official government policy to uphold conservatism

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Pre-destined Russia to oppose revolution, change everywhere

45

Russia: Social Structure of Colonial Empire

46

Russia: InteractionsCollapse of Napoleon left Russia as great power

Russia dominates Eastern Europe (saved both Prussia, Austria)

Russia increased presence in Central Europe, Northern Europe

Russia wants to push into Ottoman SE Europe, SW Asia Expands into Central Asia, Pacific

Rise of Pan-Slavic Nationalism Sought to control all Orthodox, Slavs Brought Russia into conflict with Ottoman Empire,

Austria in Balkans Also wanted access to Mediterranean Sea Hoped to seize control of Constantinople

War against the Ottoman Empire• Numerous wars to acquire Turkish lands in SE Europe,

Caucasus• Supported rise of Christian Balkan states under Russian

influence• Crimean War 1853 - 1856

France, Great Britain, Sardinia supported Ottomans Crushing defeat; forced tsars to modernize army, industry

Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905• Russian expansion into China, Korea met Japan• Japanese attack Russia without warning• Defeat two Russian fleets, armies• First defeat of a European by an Asian power• Japan emerges as a world military power

Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia • "Great Game" refers to competition between Britain, Russia in

central Asia • By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British

India • Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never colonized

Afghanistan • Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991

47

Russia: Arts, Sciences, Technologies► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

48

Russia: Nature of the Colonial Empires

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Spanish: Social Structure of Colonial Empire

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Economics: British – Spanish – French – Dutch -

51

52

Economics: Spain

53

Economics

54

Nature: Spanish and Portuguese

Nature

55

Nature

56

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Nature: Colonial Imperialism in Central and Southeast Asia

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