Origins

Vasco da Gamalands inCalicuton May 20th 1498.In 1139 theKingdom of Portugalachieved independence fromLen, having doubled its area with theReconquistaunderAfonso Henriques.In 1297 kingDenis of Portugaltook personal interest in the development of exports, having organized the export of surplus production to European countries. On May 10, 1293 he instituted a maritime insurance fund for Portuguese traders living in theCounty of Flanders, which were to pay certain sums according to tonnage, accrued to them when necessary. Wine and dried fruits fromAlgarvewere sold in Flanders and England, salt fromSetbalandAveirowas a profitable export to northern Europe, and leather andkermes, a scarlet dye, were also exported. Portuguese imported armors and munitions, fine clothes and several manufactured products from Flanders and Italy.[1]In 1317 king Denis made an agreement withGenoesemerchant sailorManuel Pessanha(Pesagno), appointing him firstAdmiralwith trade privileges with his homeland in return for twenty war ships and crews, with the goal of defending the country against (Muslim) pirate raids, thus laying the basis for thePortuguese Navyand establishment of a Genoese merchant community in Portugal.[2]Forced to reduce their activities in the Black Sea, theRepublic of Genoahad turned to north African trade of wheat,olive oil(valued also as energy source) and a search for gold navigating also into the ports ofBruges(Flanders) and England. Genoese and Florentine communities established since then in Portugal, who profited from the enterprise and financial experience of these rivals of theRepublic of Venice.In the second half of the fourteenth century outbreaks ofbubonic plagueled to severe depopulation: the economy was extremely localized in a few towns, and migration from the country led to land being abandoned to agriculture and resulting in village unemployment rise. Only the sea offered alternatives, with most people settling in fishing and trading coastal areas.[3]Between 13251357Afonso IV of Portugalgranted public funding to raise a propercommercialfleet and ordered the first maritime explorations, with the help ofGenoese, under command of admiral Manuel Pessanha. In 1341 theCanary Islands, already known to Genoese, were officially discovered under the patronage of the Portuguese king, but in 1344 Castile disputed them, further propelling the Portuguesenavyefforts.[4]Atlantic exploration (14151488)

PrinceHenry the Navigator, generally credited as the driving force behind Portuguese maritime exploration.In 1415,Ceutawas occupied by the Portuguese aiming to control navigation of the African coast, moved by expandingChristianitywith the avail of thePopeand a desire of the unemployednobilityfor epic acts of war after the reconquista. Young princeHenry the Navigatorwas there and became aware of profit possibilities in the Saharan trade routes. Governor of the richOrder of Christsince 1420 and holding valuable monopolies on resources in Algarve, he invested in sponsoring voyages down the coast of Mauritania, gathering a group of merchants, shipowners, stakeholders and participants interested in the sea lanes. Later his brother PrincePedro, granted him a "Royal Flush" of all profits from trading within the areas discovered. Soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira (1420) and Azores (1427) were reached. There wheat and latersugarcanewere cultivated, like in Algarve, by the Genoese, becoming profitable activities. This helped them become more wealthy.Henry the Navigatortook the lead role in encouraging Portuguese maritime exploration until his death in 1460.[5]At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyondCape Bojadoron the African coast. Henry wished to know how far the Muslim territories in Africa extended, and whether it was possible to reach Asia by sea, both to reach the source of the lucrativespice tradeand perhaps to join forces with the long-lost Christian kingdom ofPrester Johnthat was rumoured to exist somewhere in the "Indies".[6][7]In 1419 two of Henry's captains,Joo Gonalves ZarcoandTristo Vaz Teixeirawere driven by a storm toMadeira, an uninhabited island off the coast of Africa which had probably been known to Europeans since the 14th century. In 1420 Zarco and Teixeira returned withBartolomeu Perestreloand began Portuguese settlement of the islands. A Portuguese attempt to captureGrand Canary, one of the nearbyCanary Islands, which had been partially settled by Spaniards in 1402 was unsuccessful and met with protestations from Castile.[8]Although the exact details are uncertain,cartographicevidence suggests theAzoreswere probably discovered in 1427 by Portuguese ships sailing under Henry's direction, and settled in 1432, suggesting that the Portuguese were able to navigate at least 745 miles (1,200km) from the Portuguese coast.[9]At around the same time as the unsuccessful attack on the Canary Islands, the Portuguese began to explore the North African coast. Sailors' feared what lay beyondCape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed. In 1434 one of Prince Henry's captains,Gil Eanes, passed this obstacle. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to probe further along the coast.[10]Westward exploration continued over the same period: Diogo Silves discovered the Azores island of Santa Maria in 1427 and in the following years Portuguese discovered and settled the rest of the Azores. Within two decades of exploration, Portuguese ships bypassed the Sahara.

Thecaravelship introduced in the mid-15th century which aided Portuguese explorationHenry suffered a serious setback in 1437 after the failure of anexpeditionto captureTangier, having encouraged his brother, KingEdward, to mount an overland attack from Ceuta. The Portuguese army was defeated and only escaped destruction by surrendering PrinceFerdinand, the king's youngest brother.[11]After the defeat at Tangier, Henry retired toSagreson the southern tip of Portugal where he continued to direct Portuguese exploration until his death in 1460.In 1443Prince Pedro, Henry's brother, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war and trade in the lands south ofCape Bojador. Later this monopoly would be enforced by thePapal bullsDum Diversas(1452) andRomanus Pontifex(1455), granting Portugal the trade monopoly for the newly discovered countries,[12]laying the basis for the Portuguese empire.A major advance which accelerated this project was the introduction of thecaravelin the mid-15th century, a ship that could be sailed closer to the wind than any other in operation in Europe at the time.[13]Using this new maritime technology, Portuguese navigators reached ever more southerlylatitudes, advancing at an average rate of one degree a year.[14]SenegalandCape Verde Peninsulawere reached in 1445. The firstfeitoriatrade post overseas was established then under Henry directions, in 1445 on the island ofArguinoff the coast of Mauritania, to attract Muslim traders and monopolize the business in the routes traveled in North Africa, starting the chain of Portuguese feitorias along the coast. In 1446,lvaro Fernandespushed on almost as far as present-daySierra Leoneand theGulf of Guineawas reached in the 1460s.Exploration after Prince Henry

An illustration of thepadroDiogo Coerected at Cape St. Mary,Angola.As a result of the first meager returns of the African explorations, in 1469 kingAfonso Vgranted the monopoly of trade in part of theGulf of Guineato merchantFerno Gomes, for an annual payment of 200,000reals. Gomes was also required to explore 100 leagues (480km) of the coast each year for five years.[15]He employed explorersJoo de Santarm,Pedro Escobar, Lopo Gonalves,Ferno do P, andPedro de Sintra, and exceeded the requirement. Under his sponsorship, Portuguese explorers crossed theEquatorinto the Southern Hemisphere and found the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, includingSo Tom and Prncipe.[16]In 1471, Gomes' explorerers reachedElminaon the Gold Coast (present dayGhana), and discovered a thriving gold trade between the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders. Gomes established his own trading post there, which became known as A Mina ("The Mine"). Trade between Elmina and Portugal grew in the next decade.[17]In 1481, the recently crownedJoo IIdecided to buildSo Jorge da Minafort (Elmina Castle) and factory to protect this trade, which was then held again as a royal monopoly.In 1482,Diogo Codiscovered theCongo River. In 1486, Co continued toCape Cross, in present-dayNamibia, near theTropic of Capricorn.In 1488,Bartolomeu Diasrounded theCape of Good Hopeon the southern tip of Africa, disproving the view that had existed sincePtolemythat theIndian Oceanwas separate from the Atlantic. Also at this time,Pro da CovilhreachedIndiaviaEgyptandYemen, and visitedMadagascar. He recommended further exploration of the southern route.[18]As the Portuguese explored the coastlines of Africa, they left behind a series ofpadres, stone crosses enscribed with the Portuguese coat of arms marking their claims,[19]and built forts and trading posts. From these bases, the Portuguese engaged profitably in the slave and gold trades. Portugal enjoyed a virtual monopoly of theAtlantic slave tradefor over a century, exporting around 800 slaves annually. Most were brought to the Portuguese capitalLisbon, where it is estimated black Africans came to constitute 10 per cent of the population.[20]Tordesillas division of the world (1492)

The 1494Tordesilhas Treatymeridiandividing the world between Portugal and Castille/Spain (purple) and theMoluccasantimeridian(green), set at theTreaty of Zaragoza, 1529In 1492Christopher Columbus's discovery forSpainof theNew World, which he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the Spanish and Portuguese. These were eventually settled by theTreaty of Tordesillasin 1494 which divided the world outside of Europe in an exclusiveduopolybetween the Portuguese and the Spanish, along a north-south meridian 370leagues, or 970 miles (1,560km), west of the Cape Verde islands. However, as it was not possible at the time to correctly measurelongitude, the exact boundary was disputed by the two countries until 1777.[21]The completion of these negotiations with Spain is one of several reasons proposed by historians for why it took nine years for the Portuguese to follow up on Dias's voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, though it has also been speculated that other voyages were in fact taking place in secret during this time.[22][23]Whether or not this was the case, the long-standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route to Asia was finally achieved in a ground-breaking voyage commanded byVasco da Gama.Reaching India and Brazil (14971500)

The route followed in Vasco da Gama's first voyage (14971499)The squadron of Vasco da Gama left Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape and continued along the coast of East Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board who guided them across theIndian Ocean, reachingCalicutin westernIndiain May 1498.[24]The second voyage to India was dispatched in 1500 underPedro lvares Cabral. While following the same south-westerly route as Gama across the Atlantic Ocean, Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This was probably an accidental discovery, but it has been speculated that the Portuguese secretly knew of Brazil's existence and that it lay on their side of the Tordesillas line.[25]Cabral recommended to the Portuguese King that the land be settled, and two follow up voyages were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was found to be abundant inpau-brasil, orbrazilwood, from which it later inherited its name, but the failure to find gold or silver meant that for the time being Portuguese efforts were concentrated on India.[26]On 8 July 1497 the fleet, consisting of four ships and a crew of 170 men, leftLisbonThe travel led by Vasco da Gama to Calicut was the starting point for deployment of Portuguese in the African east coast and in the Indian Ocean.[27]The first contact occurred on 20 May 1498. After some conflict, he got an ambiguous letter for trade with theZamorinof Calicut, leaving there some men to establish a trading post. Since then explorations lost the private nature, taking place under the exclusive of the Portuguese Crown. Shortly after, was established in Lisbon theCasa da ndiato administer the royal monopoly of navigation and trade.Indian Ocean explorations (14971542)

The carrackSanta Catarina do Monte Sinaiand other Portuguese Navy' ships in the 16th century.The aim of Portugal in the Indian Ocean was to ensure the monopoly of thespice trade. Taking advantage of the rivalries that pitted Hindus and Muslims, the Portuguese established several forts and trading posts between 1500 and 1510. InEast Africa, smallIslamicstates along the coast ofMozambique,Kilwa,Brava,SofalaandMombasawere destroyed, or became either subjects or allies of Portugal.Pro da Covilhhad reachedEthiopia, traveling secretly overland, as early as 1490;[28]a diplomatic mission reached the ruler of that nation on October 19, 1520.In 1500 the second fleet to India who came to discover Brazil explored the East African coast, whereDiogo Diasdiscovered the island that he named St. Lawrence, later known asMadagascar. This fleet, commanded byPedro lvares Cabral, arrived atCalicutin September, where was signed the first trade agreement in India. For a short time a Portuguese factory was installed there, but was attacked by Muslims on December 16 and several Portuguese, including the scribePro Vaz de Caminha, died. After bombarding Calicut as a retaliation, Cabral went to rivalKochi.Profiting from the rivalry between the Maharaja of Kochi and theZamorinof Calicut, the Portuguese were well received and seen as allies, getting a permit to build afort (Fort Manuel)and a trading post that were the first European settlement in India. There in 1503 they built theSt. Francis Church.[29][30]In 1502 Vasco da Gama took the island of Kilwa on the coast of Tanzania, where in 1505 was built the first fort of Portuguese East Africa to protect ships from the East Indian trade.In 1505 kingManuel I of PortugalappointedFrancisco de AlmeidafirstViceroyofPortuguese Indiafor a three-year period, starting the Portuguese government in the east, headquartered at Kochi. That year the Portuguese conqueredKannurwhere they foundedSt. Angelo Fort.Loureno de Almeidaarrived inCeylon(modern Sri Lanka), where he discovered the source ofcinnamon. Finding it divided into seven rival kingdoms, he established a defense pact with thekingdom of Kotteand extended the control in coastal areas, where in 1517 was founded the fortress of Colombo.[31]In 1506 a Portuguese fleet under the command ofTristo da CunhaandAfonso de Albuquerque, conqueredSocotraat the entrance of theRed SeaandMuscatin 1507, having failed to conquerOrmuz, following a strategy intended to close the entrances to the Indian Ocean. That same year were built fortresses in the Island of Mozambique and Mombasa on the Kenyan coast.Madagascarwas partly explored byTristo da Cunhaand in the same yearMauritiuswas discovered.In 1509, the Portuguese won the seaBattle of Diuagainst the combined forces of theOttomanSultanBeyazid II,Sultan of Gujarat,Mamlk Sultan of Cairo, Samoothiri Raja ofKozhikode,Venetian Republic, andRagusan Republic(Dubrovnik). The Portuguese victory was critical for its strategy of control of the Indian Sea: Turks and Egyptians withdraw their navies from India, leaving the seas to the Portuguese, setting its trade dominance for almost a century, and greatly assisting the growth of the Portuguese Empire. It marked also the beginning of the European colonial dominance in the Asia. A secondBattle of Diuin 1538 finally ended Ottoman ambitions in India and confirmed Portuguese hegemony in the Indian Ocean.Under the government of Albuquerque,Goawas taken from theBijapur sultanatein 1510 with the help of HinduprivateerTimoji. Coveted for being the best port in the region, mainly for the commerce of Arabian horses for theDeccan sultanates, it allowed to move on from the initial guest stay in Cochin. Despite constant attacks, Goa became the seat of the Portuguese government, under the name ofEstado da India(State of India), with the conquest triggering compliance of neighbour kingdoms:Gujaratand Calicut sent embassies, offering alliances and grants to fortify. Albuquerque began that year in Goa the first Portuguesemintin India, taking the opportunity to announce the achievement.[32][33]Southeast Asia expeditions

Map c.1550 of Eastern Africa, Asia and Western OceaniaIn April 1511 Albuquerque sailed toMalaccain Malaysia,[34]the most important eastern point in the trade network, where Malay met Gujarati, Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, Bengali, Persian and Arabic traders, described byTom Piresas invaluable. The port of Malacca became then the strategic base for Portuguese trade expansion with China and Southeast Asia, under the Portuguese rule in India with its capital at Goa. To defend the city a strong fort was erected, called the "A Famosa", where one of its gate still remains today. Knowing of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Albuquerque sent immediatelyDuarte Fernandeson a diplomatic mission to thekingdom of Siam(modern Thailand), where he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations between both kingdoms.[35]In November that year, getting to know the location of the so-called "Spice Islands" in the Moluccas, he sent an expedition led byAntnio de Abreuto find them, arriving in early 1512. Abreu went by Ambon while deputy commanderFrancisco Serrocame forward toTernate, were a Portuguese fort was allowed. That same year, in Indonesia, the Portuguese tookMakassar, reachingTimorin 1514. Departing from Malacca,Jorge lvarescame to southernChinain 1513. This visit was followed the arrival inGuangzhou, where trade was established. Later a trade post atMacauwould be established.

Monument to the Portuguese DiscoveriesinBelm, Lisbon,Portugal.The Portuguese empire expanded into the Persian Gulf as Portugal contested control of the spice trade with theOttoman Empire. In 1515,Afonso de Albuquerqueconquered theHuwalastate ofHormuzat the head of the Persian Gulf, establishing it as a vassal state.Aden, however, resisted Albuquerque's expedition in that same year, and another attempt by Albuquerque's successorLopo Soares de Albergariain 1516, before capturingBahrainin 1521, when a force led byAntnio Correiadefeated theJabridKing,Muqrin ibn Zamil.[36]In a shifting series of alliances, the Portuguese dominated much of the southern Persian Gulf for the next hundred years. With the regular maritime route linking Lisbon to Goa since 1497, theisland of Mozambiquebecome a strategic port, and there was builtFort So Sebastioand an hospital. In the Azores, the Islands Armada protected the ships en route to Lisbon.In 1525, afterFerno de Magalhes's expedition (15191522), Spain under Charles V sent an expedition to colonize theMoluccas islands, claiming that they were in his zone of theTreaty of Tordesillas, since there was not a set limit to the east. Garca Jofre de Loasa expedition reached the Moluccas, docking atTidore. The conflict with the Portuguese already established in nearby Ternate was inevitable, starting nearly a decade of skirmishes. An agreement was reached only with theTreaty of Zaragoza (1529), atributting the Moluccas to Portugal and thePhilippinesto Spain.In 1530,John IIIorganized the colonization ofBrazilaround 15capitanias hereditrias("hereditary captainships"), that were given to anyone who wanted to administer and explore them, to overcome the need to defend the territory, since an expedition under the command ofGonalo Coelhoin 1503, found the French making incursions on the land. That same year, there was a new expedition fromMartim Afonso de Sousawith orders to patrol the whole Brazilian coast, banish the French, and create the first colonial towns:So Vicenteon the coast, andSo Pauloon the border of the altiplane. From the 15 original captainships, only two,Pernambucoand So Vicente, prospered. With permanent settlement came the establishment of thesugar caneindustry and its intensive labor demands which were met withNative Americanand later African slaves.In 1534 Gujarat was occupied by theMughalsand the SultanBahadur Shah of Gujaratwas forced to sign theTreaty of Bassein (1534)with the Portuguese, establishing an alliance to regain the country, giving in exchangeDaman,Diu,MumbaiandBassein.[37]In 1538 the fortress of Diu is again surrounded by Ottoman ships. Another siege failed in 1547 putting an end to the Ottoman ambitions, confirming the Portuguese hegemony.In 1542 Jesuit missionaryFrancis Xavierarrived in Goa at the service of kingJohn III of Portugal, in charge of anApostolic Nunciature. At the same time Francisco Zeimoto and other traders arrived inJapanfor the first time. AccordingFerno Mendes Pinto, who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived atTanegashima, where the locals were impressed byfirearms, that would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale.[38]In 1557 the Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle inMacauthrough an annual payment, creating a warehouse in the triangular trade between China, Japan and Europe. In 1570 the Portuguese bought a Japanese port where they founded the city ofNagasaki,[39]thus creating a trading center for many years was the port from Japan to the world.Portugal established trading ports at far-flung locations likeGoa,Ormuz,Malacca,Kochi, theMaluku Islands,Macau, andNagasaki. Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between different regions of Asia, such asIndia,Indonesia,China, andJapan.Jesuitmissionaries, such as the BasqueFrancis Xavier, followed the Portuguese to spreadRoman CatholicChristianityto Asia with mixed success.Map of Portuguese discoveries and explorations (14151543)

Portuguese discoveries and explorations: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguesespice traderoutes in theIndian Ocean(blue);territories claimedduringKing John IIIrule (c. 1536) (green)Portuguese nautical scienceSee also:Iberian ship development, 14001600,Iberian nautical sciences, 14001600andIberian cartography, 14001600The successive expeditions and experience of the pilots led to a fairly rapid evolution of Portuguese nautical science, creating an elite ofastronomers,navigators,mathematiciansandcartographers, among them stoodPedro Nuneswith studies on how to determine the latitudes by the stars andJoo de Castro.Ships

Portuguese "Armada" fleet in 1507, Lisuarte de AbreuUntil the 15th century, the Portuguese were limited to coastalcabotagenavigation usingbarquesandbarinels(ancient cargo vessels used in theMediterranean). These boats were small and fragile, with only one mast with a fixed quadrangularsailand did not have the capabilities to overcome the navigational difficulties associated with Southward oceanic exploration, as the strongwinds,shoalsand strongocean currentseasily overwhelmed their abilities. They are associated with the earliest discoveries, such as theMadeiraIslands, theAzores, theCanaries, and to the early exploration of the north west African coast as far south asArguimin the currentMauritania.The ship that truly launched the first phase of the Portuguese discoveries along the African coast was thecaravel, a development based on existing fishing boats. They were agile and easier to navigate, with a tonnage of 50 to 160 tons and 1 to 3 masts, with lateen triangular sails allowingluffing. The caravel benefited from a greater capacity totack. The limited capacity for cargo and crew were their main drawbacks, but have not hindered its success. Among the famous caravels are Berrio and Anunciao.With the start of long oceanicsailingalso large ships developed. "Nau" was the Portuguese archaic synonym for any large ship, primarilymerchant ships. Due to thepiracythat plagued the coasts, they began to be used in thenavyand were provided with canon windows, which led to the classification of "naus" according to the power of its artillery. They were also adapted to the increasing maritime trade: from 200 tons capacity in the 15th century to 500, they become impressive in the 16th century, having usually twodecks,sterncastles fore and aft, two to four masts with overlapping sails. In India travels in the sixteenth century there were also usedcarracks, large merchant ships with a high edge and three masts with square sails, that reached 2000 tons.Celestial navigation

EphemerisbyAbraham Zacutoin Almanach Perpetuum, 1496In the thirteenth centurycelestial navigationwas already known, guided by the sun position. For celestial navigation the Portuguese, like other Europeans, usedArabnavigation tools, like theastrolabeandquadrant, which they made easier and simpler. They also created thecross-staff, orcane of Jacob, for measuring at sea the height of the sun and other stars. TheSouthern Crossbecome a reference upon arrival at the Southern hemisphere byJoo de SantarmandPedro Escobarin 1471, starting the celestial navigation on this constellation. But the results varied throughout the year, which required corrections.To this the Portuguese used the astronomical tables (Ephemeris), precious tools for oceanic navigation, which have experienced a remarkable diffusion in the fifteenth century. These tables revolutionized navigation, allowing to calculatelatitude. The tables of the Almanach Perpetuum, by astronomerAbraham Zacuto, published in Leiria in 1496, were used along with its improved astrolabe, byVasco da GamaandPedro lvares Cabral.Sailing techniques

Map of the five majoroceanic gyresBesides coastal exploration, Portuguese also made trips off in the ocean to gathermeteorologicalandoceanographicinformation (in these were discovered the archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores, andSargasso Sea). The knowledge ofwindpatterns andcurrents thetrade windsand theoceanic gyresin the Atlantic, and the determination of latitude led to the discovery of the best ocean route back from Africa: crossing the Central Atlantic to the latitude of the Azores, using the permanent favorable winds and currents that spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere because ofatmospheric circulationand the effect ofCoriolis, facilitating the way to Lisbon and thus enabling the Portuguese venturing increasingly farther from shore, the maneuver that became known as "Volta do mar". In 1565, the application of this principle in the Pacific Ocean led the Spanish discovering theManila Galleontrade route.Cartography

Pre-mercator navigation chart of the Coast of Africa (1571), by Ferno Vaz Dourado (Torre do Tombo, Lisbon)It is thought thatJehuda Cresques, son of the Catalan cartographer Abraham Cresques have been one of the notablecartographersat the service of Prince Henry. However the oldest signed Portuguese sea chart is aPortolanmade byPedro Reinelin 1485 representing the Western Europe and parts of Africa, reflecting the explorations made byDiogo Co. Reinel was also author of the first nautical chart known with an indication oflatitudesin 1504 and the first representation of anWind rose.With his son, cartographerJorge ReinelandLopo Homem, they participated in the making of the atlas known as "Lopo Homem-Reins Atlas" or "Miller Atlas", in 1519. They were considered the best cartographers of their time, with Emperor Charles V wanting them to work for him. In 1517 KingManuel I of Portugalhanded Lopo Homem a charter gaving him the privilege to certify and amend allcompassneedles in vessels.In the third phase of the formerPortuguese nautical cartography, characterized by the abandonment of the influence ofPtolemy's representation of the East and more accuracy in the representation of lands and continents, stands outFerno Vaz Dourado(Goa ~ 1520 ~ 1580), giving him a reputation as one of the best cartographers of the time. Many of his charts are large scale.Chronology 1147Voyage of the Adventurers. Soon before thesiege of LisbonbyAfonso I of Portugal, a Muslim expedition left in search of legendary Islands offshore. They were not heard of again. 1336Possible first expedition to theCanary Islandswith additional expeditions in 1340 and 1341, though this is disputed.[40] 1412Prince Henry, the Navigator, orders the first expeditions to the African Coast and Canary Islands. 1415- Conquest of Ceuta (North Africa) 1419Joo Gonalves ZarcoandTristo Vaz TeixeiradiscoveredPorto Santo island, in the Madeira group. 1420The same sailors andBartolomeu Perestrelodiscovered the island ofMadeira, which at once began to be colonized. 1422Cape Nao, the limit of Moorish navigation is passed as the African Coast is mapped. 1427Diogo de Silvesdiscovered the Azores, which was colonized in 1431 byGonalo Velho Cabral. 1434Gil Eanessailed round Cape Bojador, thus destroying the legends of the Dark Sea. 1434the 32 point compass-card replaces the 12 points used until then. 1435Gil Eanes andAfonso Gonalves Baldaiadiscovered Garnet Bay (Angra dos Ruivos) and the latter reached the Gold River (Rio de Ouro). 1441Nuno Tristoreached Cape White. 1443Nuno Tristo penetrated the Arguim Gulf.Prince Pedrogranted Henry the Navigator the monopoly of navigation, war and trade in the lands south ofCape Bojador. 1444Dinis Diasreached Cape Green (Cabo Verde). 1445lvaro Fernandessailed beyond Cabo Verde and reached Cabo dos Mastros (Cape Red) 1446lvaro Fernandes reached the northern Part of Portuguese Guinea 1452Diogo de Teivediscovers the Islands ofFloresandCorvo. 1455Papal bullRomanus Pontifexconfirmed the Portuguese explorations and declares that all lands and waters south of Bojador and cape Non (Cape Chaunar) belong to the kings of Portugal. 1458LuisCadamostodiscovers the first Cape Verde Islands. 1458Three capes discovered and named along theGrain Coast:(Grand Cape Mount,Cape MesuradoandCape Palmas). 1460Death of Prince Henry, the Navigator. His systematic mapping of the Atlantic, reached8 Non the African Coast and40 Win the Atlantic (Sargasso Sea) in his lifetime. 1461Diogo Gomes andAntnio de Nolidiscovered more of theCape Verde Islands. 1461Diogo Afonso discovered the western islands of the Cabo Verde group. 1471Joo de SantarmandPedro Escobarcrossed theEquator. The southern hemisphere was discovered and the sailors began to be guided by a new constellation, theSouthern Cross. The discovery of the islands ofSo Tome and Principeis also attributed to these same sailors. 1472Joo Vaz Corte-Realand lvaro Martins Homem reached the Land of Cod, now calledNewfoundland.[citation needed] 1479Treaty of Alcovasestablishes Portuguese control of the Azores, Guinea, ElMina, Madeira and Cape Verde Islands and Castilian control of the Canary Islands. 1482Diogo Coreached the estuary of theZaire(Congo) and placed a landmark there. Explored 150km upriver to theIelala Falls. 1484Diogo Co reachedWalvis Bay, south ofNamibia. 1487Afonso de PaivaandPero da Covilhtraveled overland from Lisbon in search of the Kingdom ofPrester John. (Ethiopia) 1488Bartolomeu Dias, crowning 50 years of effort and methodical expeditions, rounded theCape of Good Hopeand entered theIndian Ocean. They had found the "Flat Mountain" of Ptolemy's Geography. 1489/92South Atlantic Voyages to map the winds 1490Columbus leaves for Spain after his father-in-law's death. 1492First exploration of theIndian Ocean. 1494TheTreaty of Tordesillasbetween Portugal and Spain divided the world into two parts, Spain claiming all non-Christian lands west of a north-south line 370 leagues west of the Azores, Portugal claiming all non-Christian lands east of that line. 1495Voyage ofJoo Fernandes, the Farmer, andPedro BarcelostoGreenland. During their voyage they discovered the land to which they gave the name ofLabrador(lavrador, farmer) 1494First boats fitted with cannon doors and topsails. 1498Vasco da Gamaled the first fleet around Africa to India, arriving inCalicut. 1498Duarte Pacheco Pereiraexplores the South Atlantic and the South American Coast North of theAmazon River. 1500Pedro lvares Cabraldiscovered Brazil on his way to India. 1500Gaspar Corte-Realmade his first voyage to Newfoundland, formerly known as Terras Corte-Real.[citation needed] 1500Diogo Diasdiscovered an island they named after St Lawrence after the saint on whose feast day they had first sighted the island later known asMadagascar 1502 Returning from India, Vasco da Gama discovers theAmirante Islands(Seychelles). 1502Miguel Corte-Realset out for New England in search of his brother, Gaspar.Joo da NovadiscoveredAscension Island.Ferno de Noronhadiscovered the island which still bears his name. 1503On his return from the East,Estvo da GamadiscoveredSaint Helena Island. 1505Gonalo lvaresin the fleet of the first viceroy sailed south in the Atlantic to were "water and even wine froze" discovering an island named after him, modernGough Island 1505Loureno de Almeidamade the first Portuguese voyage toCeylon(Sri Lanka) and established a settlement there.[41] 1506Tristo da Cunha discovered the island that bears his name. Portuguese sailors landed onMadagascar. 1509TheBay of Bengalcrossed byDiogo Lopes de Sequeira. On the crossing he also reachedMalacca. 1511Duarte Fernandesis the first European to visit theKingdom of Siam(Thailand), sent byAfonso de Albuquerqueafter the conquest of Malaca.[35] 1511-12 - Joo de Lisboa and Estevo de Fris discovered the "Cape of Santa Maria" (Punta Del Este) in theRiver Plate, exploring its estuary (in present-dayUruguayandArgentina), and traveled as far south as theGulf of San Matiasat 42S (penetrating 300km (186mi) "around the Gulf").Christopher de Haro, the financier of the expedition along with D. Nuno Manuel, bears witness of the news of the "White King" and "people of the mountains", theInca empire- and the "axe of silver" (rio do "machado de prata") obtained from theCharraIndians and offered to kingManuel I.[42][43] 1512Antnio de AbreudiscoveredTimorisland and reachedBanda Islands,Ambon IslandandSeram.Francisco Serroreached theMoluccas. 1512Pedro Mascarenhasdiscover the island ofDiego Garcia, he also encountered theMauritius, although he may not have been the first to do so; expeditions byDiogo DiasandAfonso de Albuquerquein 1507 may have encountered the islands. In 1528Diogo Rodriguesnamed the islands of Runion, Mauritius, and Rodrigues theMascarene Islands, after Mascarenhas. 1513The first European trading ship to touch the coasts of China, underJorge lvaresandRafael Perestrellolater in the same year. 1514-1531 Antnio Fernandes`s voyage and discoveries in 1514-1515,[44]Sancho de Tovarfrom 1515 onwards, and Vicente Pegado (1531), among others, in several expeditions and contacts, are the first Europeans ever to contemplate and to describe the ruins ofGreat Zimbabweand those regions (then referred to by the Portuguese asMonomotapa). 1517Ferno Pires de AndradeandTom Pireswere chosen byManuel I of Portugalto sail to China to formally open relations between the Portuguese Empire and theMing Dynastyduring the reign of theZhengde Emperor. 1519-1521Ferno de Magalhes's expedition at the service of the KingCharles I of Spainand German "Holy Roman" Emperor, in search of a westward route to the "Spice Islands" (Maluku Islands) became the first known expedition to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean (then named "peaceful sea" by Magellan; the passage being made via the Strait of Magellan), and the first to cross the Pacific. Besides Magellan, also participated in the trip Diogo andDuarte Barbosa,Joo Serro, lvaro de Mesquita (Magellan`s nephew), the pilots Joo Rodrigues de Carvalho andEstvo Gomes,Henrique of Malacca, among others. Many of them cross almost all longitudes or all longitudes reaching the Philippines, Borneo and the Moluccas, because they had previously visited India, Mallacca, theIndonesian Archipelagoor the Moluccas (1511-1512), like Ferdinand Magellan in the7th Portuguese India Armadaunder the command ofFrancisco de Almeidaand on the expeditions ofDiogo Lopes de Sequeira, Afonso de Albuquerque and his other voyages, sailing eastward from Lisbon (as Magellan in 1505), and then later, in 1521, sailing westward from Seville, reaching that longitude and region once again and then proceeding still further west. 1525Aleixo Garciaexplored the Rio de la Plata in service to Spain as a member of the expedition ofJuan Daz de Solsin 1516. Sols had left Portugal towards Castile (Spain) in 1506 and would be financed by Christopher de Haro, who had served Manuel I of Portugal until 1516. Serving Charles I of Spain after 1516, Haro believed that Lisboa and Frois had discovered a major route in the Southern New World to west or astraitto Asia two years earlier. Later (when returning and after a shipwreck on the coast of Brazil), from Santa Catarina,Brazil, and leading an expedition of some European and 2,000Guaran Indians, Aleixo Garcia exploredParaguayandBoliviausing the trail network Peabiru. Aleixo Garcia was the first European to cross theChacoand even managed to penetrate the outer defenses of theInca Empireon the hills of theAndes(nearSucre), in present-day Bolivia. He was the first European to do so, accomplishing this eight years beforeFrancisco Pizarro. 1525Diogo da Rochaand his pilotGomes de SequeirareachedCelebesand were blown off course and driven three hundred leagues in a direction constantly towards the east and toIlhas de Gomes de Sequeira- most probably thePalau IslandorYap, (Caroline Islands) according to the geographical notes, distance traveled and physical description of the natives inDcadas da siaofJoo de Barros, or, according to the alleged existence of gold mentioned by the natives, other descriptions of the people and if they were to south and east in one or two voyages made by Gomes de Sequeira (According to the different interpretations of the Chronicles of Barros, Castanheda and Galvo), raises also the hypothesis ofCape York PeninsulainAustralia, maybe one of thePrince of Wales Islands. In Gastald`s map a group of islands namedInsul de gomes des querialie in about 8 degrees of south latitude and in the longitude of the Northern Territory of Australia. In the same map theApem insulseems to correspond with eitherAdi Islandor theAru Islands. TheIns des hobres blancos(Islands of the White Men) correspond, as far as locality is concerned, to the Arru (Aru) Islands. It would appear then that Gomes de Sequeira's Islands, which are the south-easternmost of those represented, must correspond with the Timor Laut group. In the same year, according to the voyages to theBandaIslands mencioned onDecadasand according to contemporaneous cartographers,Martim Afonso de Melo(Jusarte) and Garcia Henriques explored theTanimbar Islands(the archipelago labelled "aqui invernou Martim Afonso de Melo" and "Aqui in bernon Martin Afonso de melo" [Here wintered Martin Afonso de Melo]) and probably the Aru Islands (the two archipelagos and the navigator mentioned in the maps of Lzaro Lus, 1563, Bartolomeu Velho, c. 1560, Sebastio Lopes, c. 1565 and also in the 1594 map of the East Indies entitledInsulce Molucoeby the Dutch cartographer Petrus Plancius and in the map ofNova Guineaof 1600). 1526Discovery ofNew GuineabyJorge de Meneses 1528Diogo Rodriguesexplores theMascareneislands, that he names after his countrymanPedro Mascarenhas, he explored and named the islands ofRunion,Mauritius, andRodrigues[45] 1529Treaty of Saragossadivides the eastern hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, stipulating that the dividing line should lie 297.5 leagues or 17 east of the Moluccas. 1542Ferno Mendes Pinto, Diogo Zeimoto and Cristovo Borralho reachedJapan. 1542The coast ofCaliforniaexplored byJoo Rodrigues Cabrilhoon behalf of Spain. 1557Macaugiven to Portugal by theEmperor of Chinaas a reward for services rendered against thepirateswho infested theSouth China Sea. 1559 The NauSo Paulocommanded by Rui Melo da Cmara (was part of the Portuguese India Armada commanded by Jorge de Sousa) discoveredle Saint-Paulin the South Indian Ocean. The island was mapped, described and painted by members of the crew, among them the Father Manuel lvares and the chemist Henrique Dias (lvares and Dias calculated the correct latitude 38 South at the time of discovery). The Nau So Paulo, who also carried women and had sailed from Europe and had scale in Brazil, would be the protagonist of a dramatic and moving story of survival after sinking south of Sumatra. 1560Gonalo da Silveira, Jesuit missionary, travalled up theZambezi River, on his expedition to the capital of theMonomotapawhich appears to have been theN'Pandekraal, close by theM'Zingesi River, a southern tributary of the Zambezi. He arrived there on 26 December 1560. 1586Antnio da Madalena, aCapuchin friar, was one of the firstWesternvisitors toAngkor(now Cambodja). 16021606Bento de Gis, aJesuitmissionary, was the first known European to travel overland from India to China, viaAfghanistanand thePamirs. 1606Pedro Fernandes de QueirsdiscoveredHenderson Island, theDucie Islandand the islands later called theNew Hebridesand now the nation ofVanuatu. Queirs landed on a large island which he took to be part of the southern continent, and named itLa Austrialia del Espiritu Santo(The Austrian Land of the Holy Spirit), for KingPhilip III(II), or Australia of the Holy Spirit (Australia do Esprito Santo) of thesoutherncontinent. 1626Estvo Cacella, Jesuit missionary, traveled through theHimalayasand was the first European to enterBhutan.[46] 1636-1638Pedro Teixeirawent fromBelm do Parup theAmazon Riverand reachedQuito, Ecuador, in an expedition of over a thousand men. So Teixeiras expedition became the first simultaneously to travel up and down the Amazon River. 1648-1651Antnio Raposo Tavareswith 200 whites fromSo Pauloand over a thousand Indians travelled for over 10,000 kilometres (6,200mi), in the biggest expedition ever made in the Americas, following the courses of the rivers, most notably theParaguay River, to theAndes, the Grande River, theMamor River, theMadeira Riverand theAmazon River. Only Tavares, 59 whites and some Indians reachedBelmat the mouth of the Amazon River.Notes1. Jump up^A. R. de Oliveira Marques, Vitor Andre,"Daily Life in Portugal in the Late Middle Ages", p.9, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1971,ISBN 0-299-05584-12. Jump up^Diffie, Bailey (1977),Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 14151580, p. 210, University of Minnesota Press.ISBN 0-8166-0782-63. Jump up^M. D. D. Newitt,"A history of Portuguese overseas expansion, 14001668", p.9, Routledge, 2005,ISBN 0-415-23979-64. Jump up^Butel, Paul,"The Atlantic", p. 36, Seas in history, Routledge, 1999ISBN 0-415-10690-75. Jump up^Diffie, p.566. Jump up^Rafiuddin Shirazi, Tazkiratul Mulk.7. Jump up^Anderson, p.508. Jump up^Diffie, p. 57589. Jump up^Diffie, p.6010. Jump up^Diffie, p.6811. Jump up^Anderson, p.4412. Jump up^Daus, Ronald (1983).Die Erfindung des Kolonialismus. Wuppertal/Germany: Peter Hammer Verlag. p.33.ISBN3-87294-202-6.13. Jump up^Boxer, p.2914. Jump up^Russell-Wood, p.915. Jump up^Thorn, Rob."Discoveries After Prince Henry". Retrieved 2006-12-24.16. Jump up^Semedo, J. de Matos."O Contrato de Ferno Gomes"(in Portugus). Retrieved 2006-12-24.17. Jump up^"Castelo de Elmina". Governo de Gana. Retrieved 2006-12-24.18. Jump up^Anderson, p.5919. Jump up^Newitt, p.4720. Jump up^Anderson, p.5521. Jump up^Diffie, p.17422. Jump up^Diffie, p.17623. Jump up^Boxer, p.3624. Jump up^Scammell, p.1325. Jump up^McAlister, p.7526. Jump up^McAlister, p.7627. Jump up^Scammell, G.V. (1997). The First Imperial Age, European Overseas Expansion c. 14001715. Routledge.ISBN 0-415-09085-7.28. Jump up^Bethencourt, Francisco. Curto, Diogo Ramada. (2007). Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400-1800. Cambridge University Press. p.142.29. Jump up^"St. Francis Church". Wonderful Kerala. Retrieved 2008-02-21.30. Jump up^Ayub, Akber (ed),Kerala: Maps & More,Fort Kochi, 2006 edition 2007 reprint, pp. 2024, Stark World Publishing, Bangalore,ISBN 81-902505-2-331. Jump up^"European Encroachment and Dominance:The Portuguese".Sri Lanka: A Country Study. Retrieved 2006-12-02.32. Jump up^Teotonio R. De Souza, "Goa Through the Ages: An economic history" p.220, Issue 6 of Goa University publication series,ISBN 81-7022-226-5,33. Jump up^Indo-Portuguese IssuesIndo-Portuguese Issues34. Jump up^Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300, 2nd Edition. London: MacMillan, p.23.ISBN 0-333-57689-6.35. ^Jump up to:abDonald Frederick Lach, Edwin J. Van Kley, "Asia in the making of Europe", p.520521, University of Chicago Press, 1994,ISBN 978-0-226-46731-336. Jump up^Juan Cole, Sacred Space and Holy War, IB Tauris, 2007 p3737. Jump up^Sarina Singh,India, Lonely Planet, 2003, 726 pp. ISBN 1-74059-421-5.38. Jump up^Arnold Pacey, "Technology in world civilization: a thousand-year history",ISBN 0-262-66072-539. Jump up^Yosabur Takekoshi, "The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan",ISBN 0-415-32379-7.40. Jump up^B. W. Diffie,Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415 -1580, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, p. 28.41. Jump up^This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Wood, James, ed. (1907). "article name needed".The Nuttall Encyclopdia. London and New York: Frederick Warne.42. Jump up^Newen Zeytung auss Presillg Landt43. Jump up^Bethell, Leslie (1984).The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume 1, Colonial Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.257.[1]44. Jump up^[2]Rhodesiana:The Pionneer Head45. Jump up^Jos Nicolau da Fonseca,Historical and Archaeological Sketch of the City of Goa, Bombay: Thacker, 1878, pp. 4748. Reprinted 1986, Asian Educational Services,ISBN 81-206-0207-2.46. Jump up^[3]FATHER ESTEVAO CACELLA'S REPORT ON BHUTAN IN 1627.